Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 4, Sayı: 25, Mart 2016, s. 239-246
İhsan GÖKCEN ERGUNOĞLU1
INFLUENCE OF SELJUK’S ARCHITECTURE TO THE
FORMATION OF ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION OF
BUILDINGS IN ANATOLIA AND THEIR CONNECTION WITH
THE CITY ENVIRONMENT
Abstract
The Turkish population coming from the Middle Asia, Azerbaijan and from Iran to
Anatolia and living secondary or migratory life created Seljuk-Turkish city culture
being completely close to the Anatolia on the foundation of buildings culture have
been passed down from Byzantine Empire. There is no doubt that the history and
source of this culture was the synthesis of cultural heritage of Byzantine in
Anatolia of life style of Turkish peoples that lived before and after Islam in the
territories of the Middle Asia, Azerbaijan and Iran. So that Seljuk’s period is
known as an early Turkish period of formation Anatolia-Turkish cities. In the
scientific article explained the creation of Seljuk’s in Anatolia and creation of
architectural heritage in rebuilding cities, their protection, including explained their
saving and utilization according to the present-days requests.
Keywords: Anatolia, Seljuk, Byzantine, town building, architecture, culture.
ANADOLU'DA BULUNAN BINALARIN MIMARI KOMPOZISIYONUN
OLUŞUMUNA VE ŞEHIR PLANLARINDA YERLEŞTIRILMESINE
SELÇUK MIMARISININ ETKISI
Özet
Orta Asya, Azerbaycan ve İran'dan Anadolu'ya gelen, yerleşik veya göçebe hayatı
yaşayan Türk halkları, Bizans hakimiyetinden miras kalan yaşam kültürü temeli
üzerinde tamamen Anadolu'ya ait Selçuklu-Türk şehir kültürü kurdular. Kuşkusuz,
bu kültürün tarihi ve kaynağı Türklerin İslam'dan önce ve sonra Orta Asya,
Azerbaycan ve İran bölgelerindeki yaşam tarzlarının, Anadolu'da Bizans kültür
mirası ile sentezine dayanıyordu. Bu açıdan Selçuklu dönemi, Anadolu-Türk
şehirlerinin şekillendiği erken Türk dönemi olarak da bilinir. Makalede,
Selçukluların Anadolu'ya yerleşmesi sırasında kurulan ve yenilenen şehirlerdeki
mimarlık mirasının oluşumu, korunması ve güncel ihtiyaçlara uygun fonksiyon
kazandırılarak yeniden kullanılabilmesi sorunları aydınlatılmıştır.
Candidate For a Doctoral Degree of the Department of “Projecting of Architecture and Town-Building”
of the Azerbaijan University of Architecture and Construction, [email protected]
1
Ihsan Gekhjen Ergun
240
Anahtar Kelimeler, Anadolu, Selçuklu, Bizans, şehircilik, mimarlık, kültür
INTRODUCTION
The Turkish population coming from the Middle Asia, Azerbaijan and from Iran to
Anatolia and living secondary or migratory life created Seljuk-Turkish city culture being
completely close to the Anatolia on the foundation of buildings culture have been passed down
from Byzantine Empire. There is no doubt that the history and source of this culture was the
synthesis of cultural heritage of Byzantine in Anatolia of life style of Turkish peoples that lived
before and after Islam in the territories of the Middle Asia, Azerbaijan and Iran. So that Seljuk’s
period is known as an early Turkish period of formation Anatolia-Turkish cities.
In another way, if we evaluate the Byzantine living culture in Anatolia viewpoint of
heritage we can say that the main factors forming the territorial structure of Byzantine cities
were like that the main factors of religion were churches, castles were the armed forces, markets
were the main factors of economy, and the markets were created far from the cities and castles
and we can come to such conclusion that the Byzantine cities were created on the base religious
and armed elements. The discovered things during the archaeological excavations proved that
episcopes centres also played special role in the defence and religious issues during the Seljuk’s
conquest of Byzantine cities [27, p. 145-205; 25, p. 499-528].
According to this I would like to note that the cities which occupied by the Seljuk in
Anatolia were planned before occupation. Thus, Anatolian Seljuks’s cities have developed on
the plans and infrastructures of Byzantine living areas. In the territories of the Middle Asia and
Iran Turkish-Islam areas Seljuk passed material-cultural values to Anatolia and sometimes
combined the Byzantine cultural motives, and sometimes compared the church-masjid functions
in a planned form and made them similar to the Turkish-Islam cultures.
When the Turkish’s came to Anatolia there existed churches, monasteries and markets
in the cities that were taken from Byzantine. However, in the territories of Anatolian Seljuks
Empire (1071-1299) created the cultural synthesis from the combination of Turkish-Arab-IranAnatolia-Byzantine cultures. And at the result, with the safe trade ways, stone bridges,
caravanserais, water pipes, masjids, madrasas, observatories, libraries, bathes, domes, and
palaces created the new form in territorial and cultural spheres of Anatolia. In the Seljuk’s
period built caravanserais on the intercity roads of Anatolia. But, in the Seljuk cities existed
shops have not reached to our times, and so that we have not exact information about them.
The Seljuk’s sultans usually ordered to build the shops near the palaces and it played
very important role in the development of economy. And other building were used as the hotels.
Viewpoint of this, the formation of central-shops in the cities made suitable condition for the
creation of entrepreneurship.
And the foundation of Turkish cities consisted from masjids, caravansaries, and some of
shops and bathes. But, the Byzantine cites with very ancient history, have changed with the
Turkish – Islam influence and especially, in the near areas to the cities, markets built masjids,
caravansaries, bathes and madrasas. In the centres of many cities of Anatolia, began to build
Juma Masjids (Ulu Masjids) discovered at those periods, also the churches that built on the base
of city centres of antique periods became to the Central Masjids, or Juma Masjids. Beside them,
in the Seljuk’s period, in Anatolia cities being different from the other Islamic cities of the
Middle Ages were built many Juma Masjids.
In the Seljuk’s period were regulated the territorial forms of cities that passed from
Byzantines.
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Influence of Seljuk’s Architecture to the Formation of Architectural Composition
of Buildings In Anatolia and Their Connection With the City Environment
1. Defence installations. In the Seljuk sources, in the period of Sultan Alladdin
Keygubad I (1220-1237s), with the creation of the central administrative mechanisms the
foreign trade has developed and were spread out of the castles and Konya, Kayseri, Sivas were
again surrounded with the castles again, and this information shows that the main parts of
territory of the cities of Anatolian Seljuks were situated inside of castles [16, p. 203-204]. In this
case, when we say the defence installations we mean the internal castles and city walls.
a) Internal castle, in the Seljuk’s period, in all the cities of Anatolia passed from the
ordugh traditions in the cities of the Middle Asia Turkish-Islam cities. There were built another
defence walls, covered the foreign defence castles in the cities, and were with the mean of
military installations and administration [7, p. 91-92]. Some of those castles were passed from
the Byzantine periods, then were regulated on the territories of castle-cities and some of them
renewed in the new cities according to the town-building systems of Seljuk.
Internal castles took main part of cities of Anatolian Seljuks. That castle systems
viewpoint of town building had four typology:
 With physical increasing Konya and Sivas cities created the new defence lines and
surrounded internal castles;
 Internal castles inside of castle-city territories in the Byzantine period began to
develop with the settling of Turks there and in the result jointed the new defence castles with the
oldest castles too;
 In the Alanya and Sinop seaports surrounded with the great castle and generally,
internal castles built as a separately defence castle in the corner of the city;
 Tokat and Amasya internal castles topographically divided into parts in the living
territories of mountainous cities.
 The castles in the Anatolian Seljuks and territorial forms of cities defencing with the
trenches, also palaces and luxury houses of the city leaders were the past Byzantine churches,
and castle masjids which were known as the Islamic religious buildings created from the winter
huts and from the buildings with the strategic importance viewpoint of military and economy [1,
p.5-38; 18, p.370 – 371]. From this information understands that military, politicaladministrative elements of internal castles in the Anatolian Seljuks cities were the
administrative centers of cities and the situations were according to the cities functionality and
formed for the territorial conditions.
b) Ahmadaks, in the Anatolian Seljuks cities the defence installations as castles and
trenches, as in the Seljuk cities were the palaces of cities leaders, living buildings of soldiers of
the castles, masjids with the religious structure were used as the prisons, military depots, water
and food storehouses were the strategic structures. Ahmadak sometimes were used as the hotels
of visitors, and sometimes used as the defence of city administrators from popular uprising or
foreign occupations [13, p. 186-187].
According to the resources we know that beside the Konya, Kayseri, Sivas, Malatya,
Aghshahar, Alanya and Sinop cities’ internal castles there exsted the Ahamadak castles too [8,
p. 174, 285]. But, at the present-day, we cannot say that in all the Seljuk’s cities existed
Ahamadak.
2. Administrative buildings. Anatolian Seljuks’s sultans according to the ulush system
(land partition of government) in the Middle Asia and Iran Turkish-Islam states’ traditions, the
lands of towns were divided into provinces among their children, relatives, and tsar who
considered the members of dynasties. Each tsar in their leading regions created their own
administrations and ordered to build great palaces and sultanates for statehood issues [11, p.20;
12, p.25-27]. In those periods, in the Seljuk’s period tsars of Konya, Kayseri, Sivas, Aksaray,
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Ihsan Gekhjen Ergun
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Tokat, Arzurum, Malatya, Niksar, Ereghli, Nigde, Elbistan, Amasya, Uluborlu, Ankara and
Erzincan cities ordered to build sultanate palaces, summer-winter huts, luxurious houses and
they situated in out of the cities [19, p.21-32].
So that palaces were divided into sultanate palaces, summer-winter huts and luxurious
houses.
Sultanate palaces. The situation of Anatolian Seljuks cities mainly came from the
traditions of Turkish palaces of the Middle Asia and could be valued as the signs of state power.
Very luxurious and prestige palaces situated in the leading territories of the city and inside of
castles [28, p. 215-232]. At those period in the capital city Konya was built Falak-abad sultanate
palace and existed till the Frank’s period and during the Rome-Byzantine periods were used as
the castles and situated in the centre of the city [2, p.47-73]. The same building system was
similar to the ordugh and khagan palace building tradition in the Turkish town-building culture
of the Middle Asia, which were built on the artificial rocks.
The most famous building sample, which was similar to the palace traditions of
Anatolian Seljuks is the Gubad-abad palace that situated near the capital city Konya. By the
order of Sultan Aladdin Keygubad, vizier-architect Saadaddin Kopek built it in the bank of
Bayshahar Lake during 1224-1226s. And it is known that to the honorary of Sultan Aladdin
Keygubad the same palace complex named as Gubad-abad [10, p.362-364].
During the archeological excavations, in the Gubad-abad palace complex were
discovered palaces, kiosks, luxury houses, bathes, water pipes and ports, they were in the
highest standards according to their periods and their technical elements also were found by the
researchers [4, p.345-350]. We know that Gubad-abad palace complex time by time became to
the city centers and then used as the military-strategic center. Gubad-abad complex, for the
reason of Seljuk living system and administration system was the living center in the form of
palace – city.
In other words, it is known that in the Seljuk periods, in the Middle Asia and Iran
Turkish-Islam cities in around or out of sultanate palaces were built many palaces and kiosks for
peoples living secondary or migratory life in Anatolia, for summer-winter huts, for their
traditionally hunting activity, for relaxing and enjoying life.
From the archeological sources and from the archeological-architectural findings we
know that in the Konya and Kayseri cities existed building for having relax and pastime in the
form of palaces and living buildings [5, p.22-40; 2, p.47-73]. Kosk-i Sebz (green kiosk) in
Konya, Keygubadiye palace that situates among the Mashhad desert and Kayseri are example to
those luxurious buildings. According to these facts, in the building traditions of the luxury
living buildings and Anatolian Seljuks palace had influenced by the living standards of
population who lived in the Middle Asia before Anatolia, by their summer-winter huts choses
and traditionally hunting activities.
Statehood. In outside of sultanate palaces in Konya, Kayseri, Sivas, Erzincan and
Harput cities built buildings with the madrasa structure and there held on juridical and
legislative issues, met the visitors from foreign countries, and sultanates listened to the peoples’
wishes and complaints [9, p. 114-115, 193]. Including, Ulucami and madrasas in the Seljuk
cities time by time activated for the statehood issues too [22, p. 323-327].
In the period of Sultan I Izzaddin Keygavus was built Konya administrative building,
named as Bab-i Sultan, and situated in internal castle of Konya and outside of Saltanat Palace.
As a rule, in the Anatolia territory the situation of a number of administrative buildings
belonging to the Seljuk cities used for the social services.
3. Workshops and bazaars. In Anatolian Seljuks’s periods the workshops and houses in
bazaars assumed very special importance in the development of economy and they met both in
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Influence of Seljuk’s Architecture to the Formation of Architectural Composition
of Buildings In Anatolia and Their Connection With the City Environment
the streets and in bazaars in wholesale as they exited in Seljuk’s and Islam’s cities. They divided
into cooks, blacksmiths, carpet-maker, boot and shoe operatives, knife-grinder, horse bazaars,
wheat bazaars and etc. But the sources give us clear information that each of these activities
assumed importance viewpoint of their functions and existed territories. In Seljuk periods, the
markets, which intended for daily needs situated in near territories to ulucamis and castles. The
horse and sheep bazaars took very large areas. The Seljuk’s sultans never fought for the
governance and it even imagined in the architectural samples too. In the masjids were not any
domes. In the existed masjids were just one sanctuary in the centre and in upper side like a
dome. Malatya Ulu Masjid, Kayseri Hunat (Huand Khatun) Masjid are the best samples of
architecture. In some monuments the domes on the sanctuaries were not in a circle form, but
they were in a plump forms. For example, Divrigi ulu masjid the sanctuary was in a plump
form. There were built on the base of domes of Seljuk’s period. There were many columns for
not having central dome inside of masjids. They gave special view to masjids in Seljuk’s
periods. As Divrigi ulu masjid, also Sivrihisar and Afyon ulu masjids the columns were made
from wood and were in very special beautiful view. For giving them a long life and saving them
for centuries the columns were made from cedar [15, p. 21-25].
First of all, we should talk about the Ulu masjid architectural sample. Traditionally,
Friday ritual prays of Islam (Juma namaz) were only in one city and in one masjid and there
were built just one large masjids under the names of ulu masjids, juma masjids, Juma jamis, and
Masjidi Gabir and were known as the central masjids of the cities. In Seljuk’s periods, such
masjid types were in the centre of cities and were the most beautiful and large masjids in the
city, so that they assumed architectural importance viewpoint of cityscape too. Masjids were
directed to Mecca. From the Sanctuary there were directed the way to the place for ritual prays
of Islam and the domes were on upper side of the same place. In other sides were three different
entrances, and they were separated not with the walls but were separated with the columns. The
first sample of the same ulu masjid were built in Anatolia, built by Sultan Maliktash and named
Diyarbakir Ulu Masjid, and became from church to masjid, also with the architectural additions
created more beautiful and larger. The last sample was Aydinoghlu Isa bey masjid and belonged
to Izmir Seljuk beys.
In the Seljuk’s architecture the forms of domes were developed as the minarets art and
in according forms and styles. For example, in Ottoman’s period minarets existed only in
masjids. The single minaret existed in the center of masjids, and backside- in the left and right
sides existed two minarets. In the Seljuk’s period minarets existed in madrasas too. Such
samples we can meet in front of monument, backside, in the right and left sides of monuments.
As it seems from the architectural monuments that exist even at the present-day, the glory door
in each minarets were not in the direction when Moslems turn to pray, (towards Mecca) and the
madrasas also were the same as masjids in Seljuk’s period and even as a beautiful architectural
monuments were very amazing. Each of architectural monuments, madrasas’ front side and taj
gapi art samples that belonged to Seljuk’s period were very special and beautiful. The Tokat and
Yaghibasan madrasas in Niksar were build from shingles, but in a short time, with the
architectural complex Govhar Nasiba in Kayseri the madrasa architectures have started to
perfect.
Other developed period of architecture in Seljuk’s period was the domes. In Seljuk’s
period have not formed any standard sepulchre architecture. The most famous architectural style
named domes. They were built both in separate form and in adjoining form too. The most
beautiful single domes’ samples are Kayseri Doner Gunbez, Three Domes in Erzurum, Mama
Khatun Turbe in Erzincan- Tercan, Amasiya Torumtay Turbe are the most famous samples. The
domes basically, were built in two-storeyed form.
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Ihsan Gekhjen Ergun
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Sepulchre sides were built in different forms during Seljuk’s period. Adjoining
sepulchres met very often in those periods. Erzurum Yakutiye and Gosha Minaret Madrasa,
Kayseri Govhar Nasiba, Kayseri Hunat, Sivas Keykavus Shafaev, Divrigi Ulu Masjid, Konya
Alaattin Masjidi Sultans Turbe are from those samples and reached to the present-day.
UluJami and Aladdin masjids were used as Friday (Juma) masjids and they were used in
whole the Middle Ages, in all Islam cities, and in Anatolian Seljuks’s cities and meant as the
main architectural compositions too [20, p. 35]. In Anatolia for meeting the Muslims need
firstly, the churches became to masjids [23, p.181-182]. For example, in Konya existed Platon
church belonging to the Byzantines, used for prays of Muslims and for their religious needs of
Turkish people, till the building of Aladdin masjid in 1155. The same situation were also in
Sinop, Antalya, and Alanya cities. According to the carried out archeological excavations on
ulujamis of Seljuk’s period we can say that their building assumed political importance for
Turkish of Anatolia and belonged to the end of 12th and to the middle of 13th centuries [26, p.94101]. Thus, with the coming of Seljuk’s to the power and with the increasing of Turkish peoples
in the territory started to build ulujamis in the central areas of the city.
5. Social and cultural buildings. In the period of Seljuk’s sultanates existed such
madrasas that thought law, medical, math, astronomy, philosophy and literature sciences to the
youths and existed health and educational institutions and they passed from the Middle Asia,
and Iran Turkish-Islam states and intended for the social and cultural services for population.
And such social and cultural institutions were reasons of growing and developing of social and
cultural life standards of peoples. Those cultural and educational institutions in a planned form
gave a new impulse to the development processes of social and cultural services of the city, and
passed from the Middle Asia, and Iran Turkish-Islam states, formed the Seljuk’s cities again.
After the Seljuk’s cities the same conditions can be seem in the cities of Osmanli’s too. During
the carried out observations seem that traditions of the Middle Asia, and Iran Turkish-Islam
states passed to Anatolian Seljuks’s territories and then to the Osmanli’s cities.
Madrasa. Seljuk’s sultans after occupation of Christian-Byzantine territories planned to
form the Islamic education with the Sunni philosophy in the cities, were under the control of
governance, and assumed very high importance viewpoint of ensuring the development of social
and cultural life of cities and peoples [21, p.432]. The same situation made to form the religious
policy, and highly influenced to the building of madrasas that gave Sunni Islamic education to
the peoples in Anatolia cities.
I also would like to note that appropriation of Turkish people of Anatolia as their
motherland began since 1176, after the Myryakefalon war. The main argument of our sayings is
the beginning of building of a number of cultural centers started exactly after 1176 years, and
one of the biggest buildings is Yaghibasan madrasa.
The 13rd century, considers as the golden period of Anatolian Seljuks’s architecture. All
those architectural monuments reached till the present-day and means the masterpiece and
symbols of their territories. The best and wonderful sample among them with the open view we
can show Erzurum gosha (double) minaret, Sivas gosha minaret, Sivas Goy Madrasa, Kayseri
Sahibiye and Govhar Nasiba Madrasa, Tokat Chuxur madrasa and etc. But the buildings with
the close view are Erzurum Yakutiye, Konya Inca Minaret and Karatay Madrasa, Kirshehir
Cacabey, Afyon Chay Madrasa and etc. samples.
The first madrasa belonging to the period of Anatolian Seljuks was Altun Aba Madrasa
built by Amri Shamsaddin Altun Aba in 1202, in the capital city Konya and thirty eight students
studied there free of charge [21, p.197]. In the Seljuk’s period were existed thirty political and
administrative centers in Konya, thirteen international trade centers and bazaar centers in Sivas
and Kayseri was the twelfth political and administrative center and there existed nine madrasas
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Influence of Seljuk’s Architecture to the Formation of Architectural Composition
of Buildings In Anatolia and Their Connection With the City Environment
and were existed a number of social and cultural institutions among the cities of Anatolian
Seljuks [13, p. 191-194]. Thus, in Konya, Kayseri and Sivas cities existed many madrasas as the
cities of Anatolia too [17, p.57-58]. Viewpoint of this Anatolian Seljuks’s cities assumed
importance for the situation of its cities and for the transport network system. And such suitable
condition gave impulse to the close connections between the cities and social-cultural
institutions of the cities too.
In other side, the Seljuk was a traditional heritage of the Middle Asia and Iran TurkishIslam states and so that there grew many doctors, educated peoples and they called as Darusihha
and Darulafiye and there were built many health schools and medical services centers and
activated as the madrasas and health centers. Seljuk’s health centers nomadically activated and
had continued for two centuries. They rendered medical services to the great Turkish peoples in
the territories of the Middle Asia and Iran. Those services led to the east-west and north-south
international trade relations among the territories Middle Asia, India-Iran-Europe, and GreeceSyria-Egypt. And in its turn in those territories the same services played very special role in the
protection those territories from the dangerous epidemics [22, p.64-67; 24, p.10-11].
Such madrasas that carried out health services to the peoples, situated in the border cities
of Akshehir and Kutahya, in the central areas of the cities and in the transport networks, in the
centers of Sivas, Aksaray, Tokat and Amasya, including in such economically developed cities
as Konya and Kayseri, in the centers of political administrations as Rum, Malatya, Kastamanu
and in unit administrative centers [13, p. 190-192].
Otherwise, those madrasas and health organizations situated in the cities of Anatolian
Seljuks and conveyed political – administrative importance and played special role in the
protection of the international trades in Konya and Kayseri and those madrasas in Sivas situated
inside of city walls.
Tekke (Monasteries for dervishes). In the Middle Asia and Iran Turkish-Islam culture
tekkes’ building intended for the believers and they called as dervishes, sheiks, and baba. And
such places were built during the first coming of Seljuk, in the outside territories and around the
cities of Anatolia. During the placing of Turkish peoples in outside territories of Anatolia (in the
period of Emir Sultan or Elvan Chelebi) then created religious centers in those areas, and
situated in outside of castles [16, p. 16-30]. They are Movlana Tekke (Konya), Ahi Evran
Zaviye (Kirshehir), Halifeti Gazi Zaviyesi (Amasya) as the cities’ development centers assumed
importance [13, p.195-196].
Finally we knew that those tekkez does not matter situated inside or in outside of castles
in the cities of Anatolian Seljuks sometimes later formed for the propagation of Islam religion in
the territory and existed as the religious centers.
Conclusion. Anatolian Seljuks cities, territorial subjects’ architectural experience coming
from the Middle Asia, Iran Turkish-Islam culture and living traditions were formed as the unit
territory on the heritage of Byzantine living culture. Those town building and architectural
elements became close to the city environment, were the main factors in the living and transport
networks of the cities of Anatolia in Seljuk’s period.
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