ABSTRACT
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG
COLLEGE STUDENTS ON CELEBRATION DAYS COMPARED TO TYPICAL DAYS
by Kathryn Alexandra Witmer
College students experience both positive and negative consequences in each drinking occasion.
In a longitudinal study, 62 college students reported on their alcohol consumption patterns and
experience of positive and negative consequences over the course of 7 weeks. Celebration day
alcohol consumption and consequences relates to typical day experiences. Blackout experiences
were most commonly reported during the baseline assessment. In addition, heavy and light
drinkers did not differ across consequences on celebrations days. College and universities might
use this information to tailor interventions and develop prevention strategies with respect to
celebration days. Implications are discussed.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG
COLLEGE STUDENTS ON CELEBRATION DAYS COMPARED TO TYPICAL DAYS
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Faculty of Miami University
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
Department of Kinesiology and Health
by
Kathryn Alexandra Witmer
Miami University
Oxford, OH
2014
Advisor _____________________________
Rose Marie Ward, PhD
Advisor ______________________________
Susan Cross Lipnickey, PhD, JD
Reader ______________________________
Kyle Timmerman, PhD
Table of Contents
Page
Number
1
Chapter One: Introduction
Outcomes of High-Risk Drinking
2
Celebration Drinking
4
Additional Contexts of Student Drinking
7
The Present Study
9
Chapter Two: Methods
10
Participants
10
Measures
10
Procedure
12
Chapter Three: Results
13
Chapter Four: Discussion
16
References
20
Tables
25
Appendix A: Consent Form
41
Appendix B: Demographics
43
Appendix C: Timeline Followback (TLFB)
45
Appendix D: Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ)
46
Appendix E: Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire (PDCQ)
48
Appendix F: Secondhand Effects of Alcohol Consumption
49
Appendix G: Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ)
50
Appendix H: Debrief Form
51
ii List of Tables
Page Number
25
Table 1:
Demographics.
Table 2:
Survey Procedure.
26
Table 3:
Correlations for the YAACQ Social-Interpersonal Consequences
27
Subscale.
Table 4:
Correlations for the YAACQ Impaired Control Subscale.
28
Table 5:
Correlations for the YAACQ Risk Behaviors Subscale.
29
Table 6:
Correlations for the YAACQ Blackout Drinking Subscale.
30
Table 7:
Correlations for the YAACQ Self Perception Subscale.
31
Table 8:
Correlations for the YAACQ Self-Care Subscale.
32
Table 9:
Correlations for the YAACQ Academic/Occupational Consequences
33
Subscale.
Table 10:
Correlations for the YAACQ Physical Dependence Subscale.
34
Table 11:
Correlations for the Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire.
35
Table 12:
Independent t-tests Comparing Light and Heavy Drinkers across the
36
YAACQ subscales.
Table 13:
Proportion of People who Consumed a Certain Type of Alcohol on a
Respective Date.
iii 38
Chapter One:
Positive and Negative Outcomes of Alcohol Consumption among College Students on
Celebration Days Compared to Typical Days
High-risk drinking on college campuses is one of the most serious national health
concerns currently facing young adults (Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, Seibring, Nelson, & Lee, 2002).
High-risk drinking is also referred to as binge drinking and is defined as the consumption of five
or four drinks for men or women, respectively, on one drinking occasion (Wechsler & Nelson,
2001). This risky behavior leads to several negative consequences. For example, students
frequently report having hangovers after drinking (Mallett, Bachrach, & Turrisi, 2008), and those
who drink excessively are more likely to have lower GPAs (Singleton & Wolfson, 2009) and be
involved in fights (Hingson, Heeren, Winter, & Wechsler, 2005). More seriously but less often
reported, students are at risk for hospitalization and even death when they consume high amounts
of alcohol (Knight, Wechsler, Kuo, Seibring, Weitzman, & Schuckit, 2002). In national samples,
approximately 80% of college students have reported drinking alcohol within the past year, with
more than one in five consuming alcohol to binge levels two or more times in a two-week period
(Wechsler et al., 2002).
Over the last few decades, the rate of alcohol consumption among college students has
remained relatively stable (Wechsler et al., 2002). Students typically drink the most on
Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays (Del Boca, Darkes, Greenbaum, & Goldman, 2004; Neal &
Fromme, 2007; Ward, Bonar, Taylor, Witmer, Brinkman, Cleveland, & Messman-Moore, 2013).
Although, research has shown that alcohol consumption is the highest on holidays and special
occasions; more students drink and get drunk on these celebratory occasions, consuming greater
quantities, drinking over longer periods of time, and experiencing negative consequences as a
result (Lewis, Neighbors, Lee, & Oster-Aaland, 2008). Despite these experiences with alcoholrelated negative consequences, college student drinking persists. Researchers attribute these
actions to the positive experiences students endure while they are under the influence, such as
enhanced sociability due to lowered inhibitions (Park, 2004). Little research has explored the
combination of students’ positive and negative experiences on holidays and other high-risk
celebratory occasions. Therefore, the current proposal is to examine college student drinking and
experiences with negative and positive consequences on celebration days and normal drinking
days.
1 The purpose of the current proposal is to examine the multiple factors that influence highrisk drinking among college students, including (a) positive and negative outcomes of alcohol
consumption; and (b) student drinking on celebration days (i.e., holidays, special occasions, and
school breaks). Examination of the interplay and underlying themes between these factors will
generate a greater understanding of high-risk drinking in terms of who is most at risk, and the
social and physical environments that contribute to the dangerous consequences associated with
this behavior. Such knowledge can then inform intervention and prevention efforts to minimize
student drinking and limit the amount of negative consequences they experience.
Outcomes of High-Risk Drinking
Negative Outcomes and Consequences. Compared to their counterparts, students who
engage in frequent binge drinking (i.e., binge drinking 3+ times in a 2-week period) experience a
greater amount of alcohol-related consequences (Del Boca et al., 2004; Presley & Pimentel,
2006). The most frequently reported consequence of drinking is a hangover. Other negative
alcohol-related consequences reported are nausea and vomiting, blackouts, arguing, memory
loss, and doing something that was later regretted (Park & Grant, 2005; Perkins, 2002; Presley &
Pimentel, 2006; Wechsler, Davenport, Dowdall, Moeykens, & Castillo, 1994). Another
commonly reported consequence is decreased academic performance, resulting from missed
classes and poor grades on projects and exams due to drinking; therefore, students who drink
more tend to have lower GPAs (Perkins, 2002; Presley & Pimentel, 2006; Singleton, 2007;
Singleton & Wolfson, 2009). Binge drinkers and frequent binge drinkers are more likely (3 times
and 8 times, respectively) than students who drink moderately (i.e., non-binge drinkers) to fall
behind in schoolwork (Perkins, 2002); nearly 70% of binge drinkers have missed a class due to
alcohol use, and more than half have fallen behind on schoolwork as a result of drinking
(NCASA, 2007). Furthermore, frequent binge drinkers are at the greatest risk for alcohol
dependency and other long-term health consequences, including death (Hingson et al., 2005;
Knight et al., 2002; Presley & Pimentel, 2006).
In conjunction with these individual consequences, college student binge drinking is also
influenced on the social level. Binge-drinking students are more likely to be involved with sexual
violence and engage in risky sexual behaviors (Abbey, 2002); both men and women are less
inclined to use protection while under the influence (Neal & Fromme, 2007; Perkins, 2002).
2 More than 20% of students who drink have engaged in unplanned sexual activity due to
intoxication (NCASA, 2007). Further, the likelihood of males sexually coercing females
increases as levels of intoxication rise (Abbey, 2002; Neal & Fromme, 2007), which has serious
implications in terms of sexual assault in that the majority of sexual assaults on college campuses
involve alcohol (NCASA, 2007). Females particularly are at an increased risk of being victims of
sexual violence due to the inhibiting effects of alcohol. That is, an individual’s ability to make
decisions, interpret messages, and decline unwanted sexual advances is lessened as intoxication
increases (Perkins, 2002).
Moreover, a majority of college students (approximately 77%) have experienced negative
consequences as a result of someone else’s drinking. Such consequences are known as the
secondhand effects of alcohol consumption (Wechsler et al., 2002). The most common
secondhand effects are being awakened during sleep, disrupted during study, having to take care
of a drunk-sick friend, and being humiliated or insulted by someone who had been drinking
(Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, & Lee, 2000). Additional secondhand effects experienced by students
include fights, sexual assaults, property damage, and noise disruptions (Wechsler, 2002;
Wechsler & Nelson, 2008). In addition to individual and social levels of influence, students
impact their communities when they participate in risky drinking behaviors.
On the community level, students who binge drink are more likely to engage in violence
like property damage, and verbal and physical altercations (Hingson et al., 2005; Perkins, 2002;
Wechsler et al., 1994). Additionally, approximately one-third of college students have driven
under the influence of alcohol (Perkins, 2002), and half of motor vehicle deaths are alcoholrelated with college students accounting for more than 30% of these deaths (Hingson et al.,
2005). Consequently, 80% of campus arrests are alcohol-related to some degree (NCASA, 2007).
In addition, the costs and burdens placed on universities and families as a result of students’
involvement in vandalism and assaults after drinking can further add to the secondhand effects of
overconsumption of alcohol (Perkins, 2002). Unfortunately, the negative health risks associated
with binge drinking do not have as much of an influence on future drinking behaviors than do the
positive experiences that occur simultaneously. Whereas previous research has predominantly
examined the dangers of high-risk drinking, a greater understanding of the perceived positive
consequences might lend more insight as to why students continue to drink to dangerous levels.
3 Positive Outcomes. Regardless of their experience with the aforementioned negative
consequences, students continue to engage in high-risk drinking behaviors, which research
suggests is likely due to the positive experiences they encounter while they are under the
influence (Lee, Patrick, Neighbors, Lewis, Tollison, & Larimer, 2010; Park, 2004). The
immediate positive effects of drinking may be a more salient influence on future drinking
behaviors, rather than the later onset of negative outcomes (Lee et al., 2010). Positive outcomes
of drinking include but are not limited to becoming more sociable and meeting new friends,
relieving stress, feeling sexier as a result of lowered inhibitions, and being better able to express
feelings (Park, 2004).
Students experience more positive than negative alcohol-related outcomes (Park, 2004;
Park & Grant, 2005). Specifically, more students report positive outcomes, like having fun and
drinking to relax, than they do negative social or personal outcomes (Lee et al., 2010).
Consequently, as the number of drinks consumed on a single occasion increases, so does the
number of both positive and negative outcomes (Park, 2004). Generally, positive outcomes have
a greater influence on future drinking behavior than do negative consequences in terms of the
overall drinking experience (Park, 2004). However, those who encounter negative social
consequences (e.g., fighting) have been more likely to report fewer positive outcomes and an
overall negative drinking experience (Lee et al., 2010).
Celebration Drinking
The majority of alcohol consumption among college students occurs on weekends (Del
Boca et al., 2004) with Friday and Saturday accounting for nearly 60% of weekly drinking
(Maggs, Williams, & Lee, 2011). Recent literature has evidenced increases in Thursday night
drinking as well (Ward, Cleveland, & Messman-Moore, 2013), with an additional 17% of
drinking occurring on this weekday (Maggs et al., 2011). However, alcohol consumption is
highest among students on holidays and special occasions (e.g., spring break, Halloween). More
students drink and get drunk on these days compared to typical days and weekends (Michigan
State University, 2002). In addition to consuming greater amounts of alcohol on celebration
days, students drink for longer periods of time. Students drink for roughly 1-2 hours longer on
celebration days than typical days (Michigan State University, 2002), resulting in higher-thanaverage Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC; Glindemann, Wiegand, & Geller, 2007). Moreover,
4 with each .01 increase in average BAC there is a significant rise in engaging in risky behaviors
(Neal & Fromme, 2007), and the most severe negative consequences (e.g., alcohol poisoning)
usually occur when students are drinking on holidays or for celebration purposes (Neighbors,
Oster-Aaland, Bergstrom, & Lewis, 2006). A majority of the research examining celebration
drinking has focused on the following special occasions, holidays, and/or school breaks: 21st
birthdays, spring break, Halloween, St. Patrick’s Day, and sporting events. As such, the
following sections are divided accordingly. In addition, the current proposal examines alcohol
consumption on a local occasion known as Green Beer Day, which is described in its section
below.
21st birthdays. Few studies have examined alcohol consumption on specific events like
the 21st birthday. However, among participants in the studies that have been conducted, a vast
majority (90%) of students reported drinking alcohol in celebration of their 21st birthdays
(Neighbors, Spieker, Oster-Aaland, Lewis, & Bergstrom, 2005), and they drank considerably
more during the week of their birthdays compared to typical weeks (Lewis et al., 2009). Of these
students, nearly three-quarters drank to binge levels on the occasion (Neighbors et al., 2005). In
addition, more than one in five students who drank on their 21st birthdays reached BAC levels of
.26 or higher, more than triple the legal driving limit of .08. Intoxication to these levels can result
in detrimental effects, including coma and death (Neighbors et al., 2005). Students experience a
number of negative outcomes on their 21st birthdays, most commonly hangovers, vomiting, and
blackouts (Lewis et al., 2009). Furthermore, students who typically were lighter drinkers
experienced more negative consequences as a result of drinking on the occasion (Lewis et al,
2009). Although some participants may report drinking to celebrate their 21st birthdays, it was
not expected that many students in the current study participated in this particular celebratory
occasion given the short time period of data collection.
Spring break. In terms of alcohol consumption, spring break has been recognized as a
high-risk context for many students (Del Boca et al., 2004; Greenbaum et al., 2005; Lee et al.,
2009; Michigan State University, 2002). Compared to other times of the academic year, student
alcohol consumption peaks during the week of spring break (Del Boca et al., 2004; Greenbaum
et al., 2005); students consume a greater number of drinks and over a longer period of time,
compared to a typical week (Michigan State University, 2002). Students who drank during the
week of spring break were more likely to experience negative outcomes as a result, and typically
5 lighter drinkers experienced more negative outcomes than their counterparts (Lee, Lewis, &
Neighbors, 2009).
Halloween and St. Patrick’s Day. Halloween and St. Patrick’s Day are two specific
holidays throughout the academic year that are associated with high-risk drinking among
students (Glindemann et al., 2007; Michigan State University, 2002). Due to the time of data
collection, the current study assessed student drinking for St. Patrick’s Day but not for
Halloween. However, the two holidays are often studied in conjunction with one another and
display similar drinking patterns among students (Glindemann et al., 2007; Michigan State
University, 2002). Of those who reported drinking on either of these holidays, approximately
57% got drunk, with slightly more students reporting they drank on Halloween (32%) than St.
Patrick’s Day (26.4%; Michigan State University, 2002). Although an overall greater amount of
students drank on Halloween, participants drank a greater average number of drinks on St.
Patrick’s Day. The average number of drinks consumed on both holidays outweighed the average
number for a typical weekday (Michigan State University, 2002).
Green Beer Day. Relatively few studies have explored college student drinking on
holidays or special occasions that are specific or unique to a single university, community, or
institution. The current proposal assessed drinking patterns on a local, unofficial holiday known
as Green Beer Day. Established by the student body several decades ago, Green Beer Day was
created in an attempt to regain their St. Patrick’s Day celebration, which fell during the week of
spring break. Celebrated annually on the Thursday before spring break, Green Beer Day has
grown and evolved over the years into an all-day (or longer) event in which students wake up
around 5 AM to begin drinking. Off-campus houses host “green eggs and kegs” and other
themed parties, and bars stay open all day and night serving green beer and offering a variety of
drink specials. Despite the fact that Green Beer Day is indeed a school day, many students
choose not to attend their regularly scheduled classes in order to continue drinking for the
duration of the day and night.
Glindemann et al. (2007) have suggested that regardless of the occasion, students drink
more when they are doing so for celebration purposes. As previously mentioned, students who
drink on celebration days but are not frequent or heavy drinkers may be at an increased risk for
experiencing negative alcohol-related outcomes due to their lower tolerance and relative
inexperience with excessive alcohol intake. Moreover, contextual situations at parties or bars
6 may further promote and encourage high-risk drinking (DuRant, McCoy, Champion, Parries,
Mitra, Martin, Newman, & Rhodes, 2008).
Additional Contexts of Student Drinking
When surveyed about their most recent involvement with binge drinking, students often
reported being in the context of either a party or another type of social event, most commonly an
off-campus bar or someone’s home (Clapp, Shillington, & Segars, 2000). In one study, 75% of
students who drank on their 21st birthdays went to a bar to celebrate (Neighbors et al., 2005). In
addition, students were more likely to drink heavily when they attended a house party where they
did not know the host (DuRant et al., 2008), and when their friends were present (Clapp et al.,
2000). Having friends present while drinking has been shown to have a reciprocal relationship
with alcohol consumption. That is, students who drink with their friends are more likely to
consume more alcohol (Clapp et al., 2000; DuRant et al., 2008), which increases their likelihood
of danger; however, friends also serve as a protective factor and are more likely to look out for
one another while under the influence (Clapp et al., 2000; Michigan State University, 2002).
Additionally, fraternity parties yield interesting findings in terms of alcohol consumption.
Whereas more students report attending non-Greek off-campus parties and bars, students who
attend fraternity parties are more likely to drink (DuRant et al., 2008; Harford, Wechsler, &
Seibring, 2002). Moreover, themed parties attract a greater number of attendees, involve more
alcohol, and are more likely to be broken up by the police than non-themed parties; students have
reported observing more fights at these parties than typical parties (Clapp, Ketchie, Reed,
Shillington, Lange, & Holmes, 2008).
The manner in which students drink and the environment in which they do it can
negatively serve as encouraging contextual situations and lead to more alcohol-related problems.
For instance, students who play drinking games at parties or social gatherings are more likely to
drink greater amounts of alcohol and experience negative outcomes on that occasion (Borsari,
Boyle, Hustad, Barnett, O’Leary, Tevyaw, & Kahler, 2007; Clapp et al., 2000). Drinking games
have been defined as games with established rules in which players are required to drink as a
consequence of their, or someone else’s, actions (Borasri et al., 2007). Nearly half of students
who drink alcohol play drinking games once or twice a month (Borsari, Bergen-Cico, & Carey,
2003). Those who frequently engage in heavy drinking are significantly more likely to
7 participate in drinking games. However students who reported drinking only a few times in the
past month were found twice as likely to play drinking games than those who drank even less
(Borsari et al., 2003). This implies that drinking games are likely to be played by a majority of
students who drink alcohol, regardless of the quantity and frequency in which they typically do
it. Additionally, one study found drinking games to be a more prevalent occurrence at specific
themed parties, particularly those with sexual themes (e.g., lingerie, pimp and ho, anything but
clothes; Clapp et al., 2008). Further, participation in drinking games and attendance at themed
parties both were associated with higher BAC levels (Clapp et al., 2008), which increases the
likelihood of behavioral risk-taking (Neal & Fromme, 2007).
Another contextual situation that has been shown to influence alcohol consumption is the
notion of “pregaming” (also referred to as prepartying or preloading), which is a common
practice among students that involves consuming alcohol before going to a party or bar, usually
where more drinking occurs (Pederson & LaBrie, 2007; Read, Merrill, & Bytschkow, 2010).
Students who pregame drink large amounts of alcohol (three or four drinks) in a short amount of
time (less than two hours; Pederson & LaBrie, 2007; Read at el., 2010) often with the purpose of
feeling the effects of alcohol prior to attending their destination (Clapp et al., 2008). Further,
pregaming behaviors result in overall greater amounts of alcohol consumed on the occasion, as
well as higher BAC levels and more negative consequences experienced (Borsari et al., 2007;
Pederson & LaBrie, 2007). Additionally, one study found that a majority (91%) of students who
pregamed also participated in drinking games, further exacerbating their risk for harm (Read et
al., 2010).
Notably, few studies have reported specific types of alcohol consumed by students on
particular drinking occasions. Clapp and colleagues (2008) briefly stated that students reported
liquor to be more often present at themed parties compared to typical parties, although they did
not measure students’ consumption of different alcohol types. Additionally, one qualitative study
indicated that students reported drinking liquor while pregaming, with some students claiming to
have consumed as many as 12 or 13 shots in less than one hour (Usdan, Martin, Mays,
Cremeens, Weitzel, & Bernhardt, 2008). The current proposal assessed types of alcohol students
consumed on each drinking occasion. These findings may assist in better understanding the
potential causes of some negative consequences (e.g., blackouts, alcohol poisoning) compared to
others.
8 Whether they are drinking to celebrate or it is just a typical drinking occasion, students
who engage in risky drinking behaviors are placed more at risk of experiencing negative
consequences as a result. Due to the widespread prevalence of high-risk drinking on college
campuses, a number of intervention and prevention strategies have been implemented in
universities to combat the issue, some with more success than others.
The Present Study
The negative effects of alcohol consumption among college students have been
researched widely. In addition, several studies have examined the positive outcomes students
experience while under the influence. However, a majority of these studies, negative and positive
outcomes alike, have focused on typical drinking occasions. Few studies have explored these
experiences on specific days of celebration despite the strong supporting evidence that alcohol
consumption on these days often is most dangerous for students. The current proposal addresses
spring break, St. Patrick’s Day, and a local occasion known as Green Beer day. Moreover, a
limited amount of research has examined the relationship between different types of alcohol
consumed and the subsequent experience with negative outcomes, particularly on specific events
and occasions where consumption of one or more types of alcohol may be more likely to occur.
The current proposal identified different types of alcohol consumed on each drinking occasion in
regard to outcomes the drinker experienced on those days.
As such, the following research question has been developed: Do students experience
more positive and negative alcohol-related outcomes as a result of drinking on celebration days
than on typical drinking occasions? Two main hypotheses were tested: (1) students will report
more positive and more negative outcomes on celebration days; and (2) typically lighter drinkers
will experience more negative outcomes on celebration days. In addition, due to the sparse
amount of studies that have measured specific alcohol types in relation to experienced outcomes,
a third hypothesis was added in this study: (3) describe the types of alcohol that students
consume on specific occasions and negative outcomes on that occasion as well.
9 Chapter Two:
Methods
Participants
Participants were recruited through undergraduate courses in the Department of
Kinesiology and Health. With permission from instructors, emails seeking voluntary participants
were sent to students in approximately seven courses. Those who were willing to participate
received extra credit in their respective courses and were sent an email with a description of the
study, a consent form (see Appendix A) and a link to the online surveys. Eighty-five students
began the study at the first time point. Participants with complete data across all three time points
included 62 students from Miami University. The mean age of participants was 21 years old and
the majority were female (69%), white (93%), and seniors (40%). More than half (53%) of
participants were not affiliated with a Greek organization. See table 1 for additional demographic
variables.
Measures
Demographic information was collected to include age, gender, year in school, grade
point average (GPA), academic major, residential status (e.g., off-campus house or apartment,
on-campus dorms), ethnicity, Greek affiliation, and athletic status. The complete assessment
used for demographics is available in Appendix B.
Timeline Followback (TLFB; Sobbell & Sobbell, 1992, 1994 as cited in Del Boca et al.,
2004). The adapted TLFB was used to measure baseline alcohol consumption from the month
prior to beginning the study. To utilize this measure, a calendar of the previous month was
created highlighting any holidays, special occasions, and school breaks; this assisted participants
in remembering specific days they drank. Participants filled in each day with how many drinks
they consumed, the amount of time they spent drinking, and the type(s) of alcohol they
consumed on each occasion. Measures for internal consistency have shown to be .92 for
moderate drinkers and .97 for heavy drinkers (Carney, Tennen Affleck, Del Boca, & Kranzler,
1998 as cited in Del Boca et al., 2004). The complete assessment used for the TLFB can be
found in Appendix C.
Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ; Read, Kahler, Strong,
& Colder, 2006). The YAACQ was used to measure negative consequences of alcohol
consumption within a specific time period (e.g., past month, past year). Initial use of the
10 YAACQ measured negative consequences experienced within the previous three months.
Throughout the course of the study period, the YAACQ was administered to measure negative
outcomes from the past three months (time 1), the previous two weeks (time 2), and the previous
week (time 3). This 48-item assessment contains eight subscales, one of which each of the 48
items falls into. The subscales include Social-Interpersonal Consequences,
Academic/Occupational Consequences, Risky Behavior, Impaired Control, Self-Care, SelfPerception, Blackout Drinking, and Physical Dependence. Responses are dichotomous (yes/no)
and scores are obtained both from the overall sum of all 48 items and from a sum of each item
within each subscale (Read et al., 2006). Specific items listed on the assessment include, “I have
passed out from drinking,” and, “I have gotten into physical fights because of drinking” (Read et
al., 2006). One study conducted by Read, Merrill, Kahler, & Strong (2007) indicated that average
YAACQ scores decreased across three time periods: T1 M = 10.25 (SD = 7.19), T2 M = 8.70
(SD = 7.31), and T3 M = 7.18 (SD = 7.48). Further, internal consistency scores across the three
time periods were .96, .97, and .98, respectively (Read et al., 2007). In the current study, internal
consistency scores across all three time points were .93, .96, and .94, respectively. Tables 3-10
include the means and standard deviations of each subscale at each time point. The complete
assessment used for the YAACQ can be found in Appendix D.
Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire (PDCQ; Corbin, Morean, & Benedict,
2008). The PDCQ was used to assess the positive outcomes of drinking. Initial use of the PDCQ
was used to assess students’ experiences with positive outcomes in the three months leading to
the beginning of the study (time 1). Thereafter, the PDCQ measured outcomes from the previous
two weeks (time 2), and the previous week (time 3). The assessment lists 14 positive drinking
consequences containing five response options that are grouped by the number of times the
participant has experienced them in the past three months (e.g., 0 times, 1-2 times, 3-5 times, 610 times, >10 times). Examples of positive consequences on the assessment include, “I told a
funny story or joke and made others laugh,” “I stood up for a friend or confronted someone who
was in the wrong,” and, “I felt especially confident that other people found me attractive”
(Corbin et al., 2008). Internal consistency measures have yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .88
(Corbin et al., 2008). Across all three time points in the current study, internal consistency scores
were .92, .94, and .92, respectively. Table 11 includes the means and standard deviations for the
11 PDCQ across all three time points. The complete assessment used for the PDCQ can be found in
Appendix E.
Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ; Collins, Parks, & Marlatt, 1985 as cited in
Mallett et al., 2008). The DDQ was used to measure daily alcohol consumption throughout the
course of the study period. Participants were asked to report how many drinks they consumed on
each day of the week. Further, they were asked to specify the type of alcohol they consumed and
the amount of time they spent drinking on the occasion. Celebration days were highlighted as
done with the TLFB and included Green Beer Day, spring break, and St. Patrick’s Day. Students
also were asked to label any days that they considered celebratory occasions other than those
already highlighted. The complete assessment used for the DDQ can be found in Appendix F.
Procedure
Approval from the university’s Institutional Review Board was obtained prior to
beginning data collection. Participants were emailed at three different time points over a 5-week
period with a link to online surveys containing demographic information and the aforementioned
measures. The survey for Time 1 was opened and sent to participants on the morning of Sunday,
February 26 at 8:00 AM and remained open for completion until Friday, March 2 at 11:59 PM.
The first survey contained demographics, the TLFB, YAACQ, PDCQ, and a secondhand effects
assessment (see Appendix G), and measured drinking behaviors from the previous 3 months
(with the exception of the TLFB, which assessed the amount and type of alcohol students
consumed each day of the previous month). The survey for Time 2 was opened and sent to
participants at 8:00 AM on Sunday, March 11 and remained open for completion until 11:59 PM
on Friday, March 16. The second survey included the DDQ, YAACQ, PDCQ, and secondhand
effects assessment, and measured drinking behaviors from the previous two weeks, including
Green Beer Day and spring break. The survey for Time 3 was opened and sent to participants on
Sunday, March 18 at 8:00 AM and remained open for completion until Friday, March 23 at
11:59 PM. The third survey included the DDQ, YAACQ, PDCQ, and secondhand assessments,
and measured drinking behaviors from the previous week, including St. Patrick’s Day.
Participants were sent reminder emails throughout the week until they began the survey. Table 2
outlines the detailed survey procedure. Participants were provided with a debrief form (see
Appendix H) on the final page of the surveys at each time period.
12 Chapter Three:
Results
The purpose of this study was to examine college students’ positive and negative
experiences with alcohol consumption on celebration days compared to typical days. Three
specific celebratory occasions were measured: Green Beer Day, spring break, and St. Patrick’s
Day. Previous literature has not examined the combination of positive and negative outcomes on
celebration days. Furthermore, most studies conducted with regards to alcohol consumption
among college students are cross-sectional. The current study’s longitudinal design allows for
more accurate recollection and covers a longer period of time. Three main hypotheses were
tested.
Hypothesis One: Students will report more positive and more negative outcomes on
celebration days compared to typical days.
Due to the variables referencing unequal number of days (e.g., baseline – reflecting on
the last month, versus Green Beer Day – reflecting on one day), correlations were run to test this
hypothesis. The goal of this statistic was to determine the amount of shared variability with
respect to each referenced time (e.g., baseline, Green Been Day, etc.). Results indicate that
students’ previous drinking behaviors tended to predict their future drinking behaviors. That is,
their negative drinking consequences were significantly correlated across time and across
occasions. In addition, most of the correlations were fairly strong. Therefore this hypothesis was
not supported. For example, those who reported negative Impaired Control Consequences at
baseline also reported Impaired Control Consequences across the two later time points (r = .58; r
= .58 respectively), as well as all three celebration occasions (GBD: r = .51; SB: r = .62; SPD: r
= .39). The same was found for other negative sub-scales of the YAACQ, including Blackout
Drinking, Self-Perception, and Self-Care. Blackout Drinking and Self-Care were the two most
reported categories of consequences across all three time points, all three celebratory occasions,
and between both groups of drinkers (light and heavy). Students’ positive drinking consequences
were also significantly correlated across time, and students reported experiencing more positive
consequences during the week of spring break (M = 24.48) than on Green Beer Day or St.
Patrick’s Day (M = 21.10 and M = 20.73, respectively). See tables 3-11 for full results.
13 Hypothesis Two: Typically lighter drinkers will experience more negative outcomes on
celebration days than heavier drinkers.
Participants in this study were separated into two drinking categories. Those who
consumed more than 14 standard drinks per week were considered a heavy drinker, and those
who consumed 14 or less standard drinks per week were considered a light drinker (Presley &
Pimentel, 2006). To test this hypothesis a series of independent t-tests were run. Due to low
sample sizes and statistical power issues, t-tests were chosen over MANOVA.
This hypothesis was partially supported. Consistently at baseline, lighter drinkers
experienced fewer consequences than heavier drinkers. Additionally consistent with the
hypothesis, there were fewer significant differences between groups on celebration days. More
specifically, differences at baseline were found on six out of eight categories of consequences
between light and heavy drinkers. These categories included Social-Interpersonal Consequences,
Impaired Control, Risky Behaviors, Blackout Drinking, Self-Care, and Physical Dependence. On
Green Beer Day differences were found on four out of eight categories of consequences between
light and heavy drinkers: Risky Behavior, Blackout Drinking, Academic/Occupational
Consequences, and Physical Dependence. During spring break, differences were found in three
of eight categories of consequences: Risky Behavior, Blackout Drinking, and Physical
Dependence. On St. Patrick’s Day differences were found on only two of the categories of
consequences: Risky Behavior and Academic/Occupational Consequences. Although lighter
drinkers did not experience more consequences than heavier drinkers at any given time, lighter
drinkers demonstrated drinking patterns more consistent with those of heavier drinkers during
times of celebration. Refer to table 12 for full results.
Hypothesis Three: Describe the types of alcohol consumed by students on different
occasions and the relationship with negative and positive consequences.
Descriptive statistics were run to determine what types of alcohol were consumed on
each day of the study. There were seven possible combinations of alcohol types: (1) beer, (2)
wine, (3) liquor, (4) beer and wine, (5) beer and liquor, (6) liquor and wine, and (7) all three
types. Overwhelmingly, participants reported consuming beer a majority of the time. However,
due to the small sample size of the study it was not possible to accurately determine how
consequences were affected by type of alcohol consumed, although the findings of types of
alcohol consumed on each day did yield some interesting results. For example, approximately
14 28% of participants reported drinking beer on Green Beer Day. The next highest day of beer
drinking was about 18%, all celebration days included. This is an approximate 60% increase in
beer drinking on Green Beer Day compared to every other day in the study. Moreover, Green
Beer Day saw the highest percentage of students drinking combinations of alcohol, specifically
beer and liquor combined, at about 15%. In addition, more liquor was consumed during the week
of spring break than on any other day throughout the study, with one exception of Saturday,
February 18, for reasons unknown. See table 13 for the frequencies of all types of alcohol
consumed across each day of the study.
15 Chapter Four:
Discussion
College student alcohol consumption continues to be at problematic levels. The results of
this study could provide information to guide prevention and intervention efforts. Specifically,
this project informs university efforts to alter celebration alcohol consumption. Consistent with
previous research (Del Boca et al., 2004; Neal & Fromme, 2006; Ward et al., 2013), this study
found that students consume the most alcohol on Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays. In addition,
the results of this study suggest that students’ previous drinking patterns tend to predict their
future drinking patterns, but also that there are some differences between students’ experiences
with positive and negative consequences on celebration days compared to typical drinking
occasions.
Overall, students’ previous drinking behaviors tend to predict their future drinking
behaviors, and they tend to experience the same types of consequences across time. Typically
lighter drinkers experience fewer consequences than heavier drinkers; however, there are fewer
differences between these groups on celebration days. Specifically, lighter drinkers experience
consequences at similar levels to heavier drinkers on celebration days. At baseline, there were
differences between light and heavy drinkers in six of the eight categories of negative
consequences. On Green Beer Day differences were found between groups in four of the eight
categories of consequences. During spring break differences were found between groups in three
of the eight categories of negative consequences. This is consistent with previous research that
has found alcohol consumption to peak during the week of spring break (Del Boca et al., 2004;
Greenbaum et al., 2005). On St. Patrick’s Day differences between groups were found in only
two of the eight categories; this finding is consistent with previous research on celebratory
drinking that has found St. Patrick’s Day to be a high-risk drinking event (Glindemann et al.,
2007; MSU, 2002).
As evidenced by high correlations, students consistently experience the same
consequences across time, regardless of the occasion. If one experiences a blackout on a regular
drinking occasion, he or she is likely to experience a blackout on a celebratory occasion.
Notably, students reported experiencing more blackouts at baseline than compared to Green Beer
Day. However, baseline covered three months of consequences whereas Green Beer Day
assessed for only one day of consequences. Moreover, those who experience positive
16 consequences on regular occasions are likely to have positive experiences on celebratory
occasions as well. Future studies could expand upon these findings by capturing consequences
for a specific typical drinking day to compare directly to a specific celebration day, collecting
data across the same number of typical days and celebration days.
Furthermore, students overwhelmingly reported drinking beer more than either wine or
liquor, or any combination of the three. This was especially true on Green Beer Day, more so
than any other day, all celebration days included. Green Beer Day also reflected the greatest
amount of students drinking a combination of alcohol types, specifically beer and liquor
together. In addition, more liquor was consumed over spring break than almost any other day.
This finding was consistent with previous literature that has shown alcohol consumption among
students to peak during the week of spring break (Del Boca et. al, 2004; Greenbaum et al., 2005);
however pinpointing the type of alcohol consumed on specific events is a novel finding. Due to
the small sample size in this study it could not be determined whether negative consequences
were influenced by the types of alcohol consumed. Future studies with larger sample sizes could
provide a more accurate explanation of this.
Previous literature has demonstrated that students continue to drink alcohol at dangerous
levels despite their experiences with negative consequences, perhaps due to their positive
experiences while drinking (Lee et al., 2010; Park, 2004). The findings of this study support
previous research in such regard, specifically during the week of spring break. Students reported
experiencing more positive consequences during the week of spring break than on any other
celebration day; as previously mentioned, they also drank the most liquor during this week than
any other time throughout the study, and lighter drinkers displayed similar patterns to heavy
drinkers in terms of their negative consequences experienced during this week. Although direct
comparisons could not be made between type of alcohol consumed and consequences
experienced, the patterns demonstrated a relationship between type and amount of alcohol
consumed and consequences experienced, both positive and negative.
Perhaps the greatest limitation in this study was the small sample size. A larger sample
size could have allowed for a different statistical analysis, as well as an accurate interpretation of
the influence of types of alcohol consumed on consequences experienced. However, the
longitudinal design of the study was a major strength and something missing from the majority
of studies on student alcohol consumption. Data in this study was collected to cover a total of 49
17 days, yielding over 700 variables for assessment. In addition to small sample size, another
limitation was comparing experiences on one celebratory occasion to experiences over an
extended period of time; this design made direct comparisons difficult. Future studies might
collect data for negative consequences on a daily basis in order to directly compare a specific
celebration day to other specific days (e.g., Green Beer Day is on a Thursday—compare
consequences to other Thursdays that are not Green Beer Day). A third limitation of this study
was that it used self-report data. Although self-report data is the norm in alcohol research and has
consistently shown to be accurate (White, Kraus, Flom, Kestenbaum, Mitchell, Shah, &
Swartzwelder, 2005), it could have been even more accurate if data were collected on the day
immediately following the celebratory occasion, rather than a few days or weeks later. However
the measures of drinking consequences in this study are both valid and reliable, and it is likely
that students actually underestimate the amount of alcohol they consume when they self-report.
College students experience both positive and negative consequences when they drink
alcohol. The consequences they experience on typical drinking days are similar to those they
experience on celebration days. Additional research is needed to determine if they experience
more consequences while celebrating than on typical days. Light and heavy drinkers also tend to
have fewer differences across drinking consequences on celebration days. Recent research
indicates that 50% of college students reported experiencing a blackout (White & Hingson,
2013). Blacking out was the most commonly reported consequence in this study, specifically at
baseline. In addition to Blackout Drinking, Self-Care consequences were of the most commonly
reported throughout the entirety of the study. Self-Care response options from the YAACQ
include, “Because of my drinking, I have not eaten properly,” “I have been less physically active
because of my drinking,” and “Because of my drinking, I have not slept properly.” It seems that
their alcohol consumption consistently interfered with their ability to maintain good self-care.
Colleges and universities might use this information to inform future intervention and
prevention efforts for student alcohol consumption. These could be focused around the influence
of drinking on overall health and self-care, specifically at the university where this study was
conducted because the culture of the student body is that of maintaining physical fitness,
attractiveness and appearance, and overall good health. Using social norms campaigns to
promote healthy behaviors and educate about the negative effects of alcohol on overall health
18 could potentially be an effective strategy for decreasing risky drinking behaviors and lessening
the negative outcomes of students’ alcohol consumption.
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24 Table 1.
Demographics of the Participants.
Time 1
N = 85
21
Time 2
N = 68
21
Time 3
N = 62
21
Male
Female
31.8%
68.2%
29.4%
70.6%
30.6%
69.4%
White/Caucasian
Asian/Asian American
Black, African American, or
Haitian
Hispanic or Latino
94.1%
3.5%
94.1%
2.9%
93.5%
3.2%
1.2%
1.5%
1.6%
1.2%
1.5%
1.6%
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
16.5%
11.8%
24.7%
44.7%
19.1%
13.2%
23.5%
41.2%
17.7%
12.9%
25.8%
40.3%
Current member
Intend to pledge
Not a member
42.4%
3.5%
54.1%
42.6%
2.9%
54.4%
43.5%
3.2%
53.2%
Mean age
Gender
Race/ethnicity
Year
Greek affiliation
25 Table 2.
Survey Procedure.
Open
Closed
Scales
Assessment
period
Time 1
Sunday February 26
8:00am
Friday March 2
11:59pm
Demographics
TLFB*
YAACQ
PDCQ
Secondhand effects
Previous 3 months
*Previous month
Time 2
Sunday March 11
8:00am
Friday March 16
11:59pm
Time 3
Sunday March 18
8:00am
Friday March 23
11:59pm
DDQ
YAACQ
PDCQ
Secondhand effects
DDQ
YAACQ
PDCQ
Secondhand effects
Previous 2 weeks
Previous week
Notes: TLFB = Timeline Followback; YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences
Questionnaire; PDCQ = Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire.
26 Table 3.
Correlations for the YAACQ Social-Interpersonal Consequences Subscale.
Mean (SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. SOC_1
1.58 (1.55)
.59**
.46**
.38**
.56**
.31*
2. SOC_2
0.96 (1.39)
-
.68**
.49**
.81**
.57**
3. SOC_3
0.59 (1.10)
-
.32*
.69**
.62**
4. SOC_GBD
0.47 (0.82)
-
.59**
.02
5. SOC_SB
0.79 (1.31)
-
.49**
6. SOC_SPD
0.30 (0.61)
-
Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; SOC = SocialInterpersonal Consequences; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous
two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring
Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; * correlation is significant at the .005 level (2tailed); ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
27 Table 4.
Correlations for the YAACQ Impaired Control Subscale.
Mean (SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. CONTR_1
1.61 (1.53)
.58**
.58**
.51**
.62**
.39**
2. CONTR_2
1.18 (1.59)
-
.73**
.75**
.82**
.44**
3. CONTR_3
0.90 (1.33)
-
.71**
.66**
.75**
4. CONTR_GBD
0.74 (1.19)
-
.65**
.41**
5. CONTR_SB
0.90 (1.44)
-
.46**
6. CONTR_SPD
0.48 (0.96)
-
Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; CONTR =
Impaired Control; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two
weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break;
SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
28 Table 5.
Correlations for the YAACQ Risky Behaviors Subscale.
Mean
(SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. RISK_1
1.13 (1.36)
.50**
.26*
.48**
.52**
.17
2. RISK_2
0.75 (1.38)
-
.59**
.81**
.86**
.65**
3. RISK_3
0.41 (0.73)
-
.35**
.46**
.66**
4. RISK_GBD
0.47 (0.98)
-
.78**
.42**
5. RISK_SB
0.63 (1.14)
-
.48**
6. RISK_SPD
0.24 (0.56)
-
Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; RISK =
Risky Behaviors; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two
weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break;
SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; * correlation is significant at the .005 level (2-tailed);
** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
29 Table 6.
Correlations for the YAACQ Blackout Drinking Subscale.
Mean (SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. BLKOUT_1
2.61 (2.32)
.66**
.51**
.58**
.55**
.32**
2. BLKOUT_2
1.68 (2.18)
-
.61**
.68**
.91**
.37**
3. BLKOUT_3
0.97 (1.55)
-
.56**
.67**
.75**
4. BLKOUT_GBD
1.01 (1.61)
-
.62**
.30*
5. BLKOUT_SB
1.32 (2.13)
-
.42**
6. BLKOUT_SPD
0.59 (1.30)
Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; BLKOUT =
Blackout Drinking; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two
weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break;
SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; * correlation is significant at the .005 level (2-tailed); **
correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
30 Table 7.
Correlations for the YAACQ Self Perception Subscale.
Mean (SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. SELF_P1
0.79 (1.21)
.56**
.65**
.39**
.51**
.33**
2. SELF_P2
0.63 (1.09)
-
.61**
.57**
.75**
.41**
3. SELF_P3
0.49 (0.99)
-
.49**
.62**
.69**
4. SELF_P_GBD
0.28 (0.78)
-
.78**
.44**
5. SELF_P_SB
0.38 (0.98)
-
.39**
6. SELF_P_SPD
0.17 (0.66)
-
Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; SELF_P =
Self-Perception; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two
weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break;
SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
31 Table 8.
Correlations for the YAACQ Self-Care Subscale.
Mean (SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. SELF_C1
1.72 (2.07)
.74**
.61**
.55**
.66**
.57**
2. SELF_C2
1.69 (2.32)
-
.74**
.73**
.86**
.57**
3. SELF_C3
1.38 (2.06)
-
.69**
.74**
.78**
4. SELF_C_GBD
1.40 (2.06)
-
.73**
.44**
5. SELF_C_SB
1.38 (2.27)
-
.54**
6. SELF_C_SPD
1.00 (1.75)
-
Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; SELF_C =
Self-Care; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3
= time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD =
Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
32 Table 9.
Correlations for the YAACQ Academic/Occupational Consequences Subscale.
Mean (SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. AC_OCC1
0.56 (0.98)
.36**
.40**
.56**
.28*
.18
2. AC_OCC2
0.44 (0.93)
-
.53**
.55**
.09
.41**
3. AC_OCC3
0.43 (0.89)
-
.56**
.30*
.25*
4. AC_OCC_GBD
0.82 (1.26)
-
.22
.18
5. AC_OCC_SB
0.07 (0.31)
-
.13
6. AC_OCC_SPD
0.07 (0.27)
Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; AC_OCC
= Academic/Occupational Consequences; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 =
time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day;
SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; * correlation is significant at the
.005 level (2-tailed); ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
33 Table 10.
Correlations for the YAACQ Physical Dependence Subscale.
Mean (SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. PHYS_DEP1
0.35 (0.59)
.68**
.43**
.45**
.69**
.18
2. PHYS_DEP2
0.44 (0.90)
-
.41**
.49**
.87**
.09
3. PHYS_DEP3
0.19 (0.43)
-
.61**
.55**
.57**
4. PHYS_DEP_GBD
0.41 (0.69)
-
.62**
.35**
5. PHYS_DEP_SB
0.44 (0.92)
-
.19
6. PHYS_DEP_SPD
0.23 (0.46)
Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; PHYS_DEP =
Physical Dependence; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two
weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD
= Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
34 Table 11.
Correlations for the Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire.
Subscale
Mean (SD)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. PDCQ_1
31.24 (10.79)
.62**
.58**
.53**
.54**
.59**
2. PDCQ_2
26.97 (10.89)
-
.57**
.68**
.91**
.58**
3. PDCQ_3
22.76 (8.48)
-
.74**
.73**
.94**
4. PDCQ_GBD
21.10 (8.72)
-
.66**
.71**
5. PDCQ_SB
24.08 (11.42)
-
.73**
6. PDCQ_SPD
20.73 (8.06)
-
Notes: PDCQ = Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire; 1 = time 1
(previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous
week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day;
** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).
35 Table 12.
Independent t-tests Comparing Light and Heavy Drinkers across the YAACQ subscales.
Baseline
SOC
CONTR
RISK
BLKOUT
SELF_P
SELF_C
AC_OCC
PHYS_DEP
Green Beer Day
SOC
CONTR
RISK
BLKOUT
SELF_P
SELF_C
AC_OCC
PHYS_DEP
Spring Break
SOC
CONTR
RISK2
BLKOUT
SELF_P
SELF_C
AC_OCC
PHYS_DEP
St. Patrick’s Day
SOC
Light Drinker
M (SD)
1.35 (1.57)
1.43 (1.54)
0.87 (1.33)
1.87 (2.18)
0.65 (1.18)
1.54 (2.15)
0.43 (0.89)
0.28 (0.62)
Heavy Drinker
M (SD)
2.33 (1.45)
2.60 (1.55)
2.47 (1.06)
4.47 (1.92)
1.27 (1.39)
2.87 (2.42)
0.93 (1.10)
0.73 (0.59)
Light Drinker
M (SD)
0.42 (0.75)
0.60 (1.16)
0.33 (0.83)
0.51 (1.06)
0.22 (0.64)
1.22 (2.01)
0.56 (1.14)
0.22 (0.52)
Heavy Drinker
M (SD)
0.73 (1.03)
1.27 (1.39)
0.87 (1.13)
2.60 (2.26)
0.33 (0.82)
2.00 (2.00)
1.73 (1.44)
1.07 (0.88)
Light Drinker
M (SD)
0.69 (1.22)
0.73 (1.32)
0.47 (0.99)
1.09 (2.05)
0.27 (0.84)
1.44 (2.44)
0.07 (0.33)
0.36 (0.77)
Heavy Drinker
M (SD)
1.27 (1.62)
1.53 (1.88)
1.27 (1.44)
2.40 (2.50)
0.73 (1.28)
1.60 (2.29)
0.13 (0.35)
0.93 (1.33)
Light Drinker
M (SD)
0.22 (0.51)
Heavy Drinker
M (SD)
0.47 (0.74)
36 t test
Cohen’s d
t(59) = -2.15, p = .04
t(59) = -2.54, p = .01
t(59) = -4.23, p < .001
t(59) = -4.12, p < .001
t(59) = -1.68, p = .10
t(59) = -2.01, p = .05
t(59) = -1.78, p = .08
t(59) = -2.47, p = .02
0.65
0.76
1.33
1.26
0.48
0.58
0.49
0.74
t test
Cohen’s d
t(58) = -1.26, p = .21
t(58) = -1.84, p = .07
t(58) = -1.97, p = .05
t(58) = -4.85, p < .001
t(58) = -0.54, p = .59
t(58) = -1.26, p = .21
t(58) = -3.24, p = .002
t(58) = -4.52, p < .001
0.34
0.52
0.54
1.18
0.15
0.39
0.90
1.17
t test
Cohen’s d
t(58) = -1.46, p = .15
t(58) = -1.81, p = .07
t(58) = -2.40, p = .02
t(58) = -2.02, p = .05
t(58) = -1.62, p = .10
t(58) = -0.22, p = .83
t(58) = -0.66, p = .51
t(58) = -2.06, p = .04
0.40
0.49
0.65
0.57
0.42
0.07
0.17
0.52
t test
Cohen’s d
t(59) = -1.45, p = .15
0.39
CONTR
0.33 (0.89)
0.80 (0.94)
t(59) = -1.75, p = .08
RISK
0.14 (0.46)
0.53 (0.74)
t(60) = -2.38, p = .02
BLKOUT
0.51 (1.30)
0.86 (1.35)
t(60) = -0.91, p = .36
SELF_P
0.15 (0.63)
0.06 (0.26)
t(59) = 0.51, p = .61
SELF_C
0.89 (1.80)
1.33 (1.67)
t(59) = -0.83, p = .40
AC_OCC
0.04 (0.20)
0.20 (0.41)
t(60) = -1.98, p = .05
PHYS_DEP
0.19 (0.44)
0.40 (0.50)
t(60) = -1.51, p = .13
Notes. YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; SOC = Social-
0.45
0.63
0.26
0.13
0.25
0.51
0.45
Interpersonal Consequences; CONTR = Impaired Control; RISK = Risk Behaviors; BLKOUT =
Blackout Drinking; SELF_P = Self Perception; SELF_C = Self Care; AC_OCC =
Academic/Occupational Consequences; PHYS_DEP = Physical Dependence; Light Drinker
defined as consuming fewer than 14 standard drinks per week; Heavy Drinker defined as
consuming 14 or more standard drinks per week.
37 Table 13.
Proportion of People who Consumed a Certain Type of Alcohol on a Respective Date.
Beer &
Wine
0
Beer &
Liquor
0
Liquor
& Wine
0
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.4%
(n = 2)
3.5%
(n = 3)
8.2%
(n = 7)
9.4%
(n = 8)
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
9.4%
(n = 8)
12.9%
(n = 11)
14.1%
(n = 12)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
Date
Beer
Wine
Liquor
Jan 29
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
3.5%
(n = 3)
1.2%
(n = 1)
18.8%
(n = 16)
20.0%
(n = 17)
17.6%
(n = 15)
3.5%
(n = 3)
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
2.4%
(n = 2)
8.2%
(n = 7)
7.1%
(n = 6)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
3.5%
(n = 3)
8.2%
(n = 7)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
7.1%
(n = 6)
0
2.4%
(n = 2)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
7.1%
(n = 6)
10.6%
(n = 9)
15.3%
(n = 13)
Jan 30
Jan 31
Feb 1
Feb 2
Feb 3
Feb 4
Feb 5
Feb 6
Feb 7
Feb 12
4.7%
(n = 4)
1.2%
(n = 1)
14.1%
(n = 12)
18.8%
(n = 16)
12.9%
(n = 11)
0
Feb 13
0
Feb 14
3.5%
(n = 3)
4.7%
(n = 4)
15.3%
(n = 13)
18.8%
(n = 16)
14.1%
(n = 12)
Feb 8
Feb 9
Feb 10
Feb 11
Feb 15
Feb 16
Feb 17
Feb 18
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
38 1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
5.9%
(n = 5)
14.1%
(n = 12)
12.9%
(n = 11)
0
All
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
2.4%
(n = 2)
3.5%
(n = 3)
0
0
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
3.5%
(n = 3)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
2.4%
(n = 2)
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5.9%
(n = 5)
14.1%
(n = 12)
10.6%
(n = 9)
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
3.5%
(n = 3)
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
Feb 19
Feb 20
Feb 21
Feb 22
Feb 23
Feb 24
Feb 25
Feb 26
Feb 27
Feb 28
Feb 29
Mar 1
Mar 2
Mar 3
Mar 4
Mar 5
Mar 6
Mar 7
Mar 8
Mar 9
Mar 10
Mar 11
Mar 12
3.5%
(n = 3)
0
2.4%
(n = 2)
4.7%
(n = 4)
14.1%
(n = 12)
15.3%
(n = 13)
12.9%
(n = 11)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
8.2%
(n = 7)
28.2%
(n = 24)
12.9%
(n = 11)
14.1%
(n = 12)
10.6%
(n = 9)
10.6%
(n = 9)
14.1%
(n = 12)
9.4%
(n = 8)
10.6%
(n = 9)
17.6%
(n = 15)
7.1%
(n = 6)
3.5%
(n = 3)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
0
5.9%
(n = 5)
10.6%
(n = 9)
9.4%
(n = 8)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
5.9%
(n = 5)
10.6%
(n = 9)
11.8%
(n = 10)
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
4.7%
(n = 4)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
3.5%
(n = 3)
1.2%
(n = 1)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
2.4%
(n = 2)
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
4.7%
(n = 4)
14.1%
(n = 12)
11.8%
(n = 10)
14.1%
(n = 12)
12.9%
(n = 11)
11.8%
(n = 10)
11.8%
(n = 10)
9.4%
(n = 8)
4.7%
(n = 4)
3.5%
(n = 3)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
15.3%
(n = 13)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
3.5%
(n = 3)
0
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
5.9%
(n = 5)
9.4%
(n = 8)
8.2%
(n = 7)
9.4%
(n = 8)
9.4%
(n = 8)
9.4%
(n = 8)
5.9%
(n = 5)
4.7%
(n = 4)
0
0
2.4%
(n = 2)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
39 0
0
0
0
0
0
Mar 13
Mar 14
Mar 15
Mar 16
Mar 17
4.7%
(n = 4)
7.1%
(n = 6)
14.1%
(n = 12)
12.9%
(n = 11)
17.6%
(n = 15)
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
3.5%
(n = 3)
1.2%
(n = 1)
3.5%
(n = 3)
9.4%
(n = 8)
7.1%
(n = 6)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
40 3.5%
(n = 3)
0
0
0
0
0
5.9%
(n = 5)
8.2%
(n = 7)
12.9%
(n = 11)
1.2%
(n = 1)
0
1.2%
(n = 1)
2.4%
(n = 2)
5.9%
(n = 5)
0
Appendix A: Consent Form
Dear Participant,
You have been asked to take part in the research project described below. If you have any questions, please
feel free to contact Kathryn Witmer, the person mainly responsible for the study.
Description of the research: The purpose of the study is to gather information from students about alcohol
consumption and associated outcomes. You will be asked questions concerning your drinking patterns, and your
experiences with alcohol-related consequences. Please be aware that you may be asked to admit to illegal activity
like underage drinking, however you will not be penalized in any way for admitting to this. Although every effort
will be done to ensure confidentiality of your responses, all Internet-based communication is subject to the remote
likelihood of tampering from an outside source. IP addresses will not be investigated and data will be removed from
the server. If you are participating in this study to receive extra credit in a course, your instructor will not have
access to the results of individual subject surveys.
1.
YOU MUST BE AT LEAST 18 YEARS OLD to be in this research project.
2.
Research procedures: If you decide to take part in this study, your participation will involve filling out a
survey pertaining to your alcohol consumption and your experiences with related consequences. Some questions
will ask about your behaviors, specifically alcohol use history.
3.
Time required for participation: The survey will take approximately 20-30 minutes to complete.
4.
Potential risks: The possible risks or discomforts of the study are minimal, although you may feel some
embarrassment answering some of the questions about private matters. Participants might find that some of the
questions that are related to behaviors while intoxicated might make them feel uncomfortable. In addition, some
of the questions ask you to admit to potentially incriminating behavior. Resources are provided at the
conclusion of this consent form. While extremely unlikely, someone might try to identify you based on your
demographic answers and link your identity to your survey responses. Data confidentially is of the utmost
importance for this data collection. We are taking a number of steps to protect your responses.
5.
Potential benefits: Although there are no direct benefits of the study, your answers may increase your
awareness of your alcohol consumption patterns. Your answers will serve as a basis for understanding college
student drinking in the literature. You may also be awarded extra credit at the discretion of your instructor based
on the proportion of study completeness. Your contact information and responses will not be linked, and your
instructor will not have access to the results of individual subject surveys.
6.
Confidentiality: Your part in the study is confidential. That means your answers to all questions are private.
No one else can find out what your answers are. Scientific reports will be based on group data and will not
identify you or any individual as being in this project.
7.
Voluntary participation: You do not have to participate and you can refuse to answer any question. You
can stop participating at any time by closing the survey. If you wish to withdraw from the study completely,
none of your data will be used. Please contact Kathryn Witmer at [email protected] if you would like to
officially withdraw.
8.
Compensation for injury: Participation in this study is not expected to be harmful or injurious to you.
However, if this study causes you any injury, you should write to Kathryn Witmer at [email protected].
No compensation for injury as a result of this study will be provided.
9.
Contact information: If you have questions about the study you can contact the investigator, Kathryn Witmer
at [email protected].
If you have any questions or concerns about your rights as a subject, you may contact Miami University’s Office for
the Advancement of Research and Scholarship, (513) 529-3600 or [email protected].
41 You are at least 18 years old. You have read the consent form and your questions have been answered to your
satisfaction. Your filling out the survey implies your consent to participate in this study.
If these questions are upsetting and you want to talk, please use the phone numbers below:
Miami University Student Counseling Service 529-4634
Psychology Clinic Psychology Building 529-2423
Community Counseling and Crisis Center 523-4146
Thank you,
Kathryn Witmer
Principal Investigator
Faculty Advisors:
Dr. Rose Marie Ward, [email protected]
Dr. Susan Cross Lipnickey, [email protected]
42 Appendix B: Demographics
1. Year in School
a. Freshman
b. Sophomore
c. Junior
d. Senior
e. 5th year
f. Graduate student
g. Non-matriculated
2. Academic major (fill in)
3. Current GPA (fill in)
4. Age in Years (fill in)
5. Race/ethnicity
a. Asian or Asian American
b. Black, African American, or Haitian
c. American Indian or Alaskan Native
d. Hispanic or Latino (Latina)
e. Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
f. White (Caucasian)
g. Other (fill in)
6. Gender
a. Male
b. Female
7. Varsity sports
a. Yes
b. No
8. Greek affiliation
a. Yes, current member
b. Yes, I intend to pledge
c. No, not a member and do not intend to pledge
43 9. Marital status
a. Married
b. Not married, but living with partner
c. Not married
d. Separated
e. Divorced
f. Widowed
g. Don’t know
10. Current residence
a. On-campus dorm
b. On-campus apartment
c. Off-campus house
d. Off-campus apartment
e. With parents
f. Other (fill in)
11. Family history of alcoholism
a. Yes
b. No
12. Spring break destination
a. Beach/tropical
b. Mountains
c. Home with parents
d. Mission trip
e. Abroad
f. Stay in Oxford
g. Other (fill in)
44 Appendix C: Timeline Followback (TLFB)
Directions: For each day on the calendar, please indicate how many drinks you consumed, the type of
alcohol you consumed (i.e., beer, liquor, wine, or a combination) and the amount of time (in hours) you
spent drinking on each occasion in the past month. One drink is defined as 12 ounces of beer, 1.5 ounces
(one shot) of liquor, or 5 ounces of wine.
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Jan. 29
# _______
Type_____
Time______
30
# _______
Type_____
Time______
31
# _______
Type_____
Time______
Feb. 1
# _______
Type_____
Time______
2
# _______
Type_____
Time______
3
# _______
Type_____
Time______
4
# _______
Type_____
Time______
5
6
7
8
9
# _______
Type_____
Time______
# _______
Type_____
Time______
# _______
Type_____
Time______
# _______
Type_____
Time______
# _______
Type_____
Time______
10
# _______
Type_____
Time______
11
# _______
Type_____
Time______
12
# _______
Type_____
Time______
13
# _______
Type_____
Time______
Valentine’s
15
# _______
Type_____
Time______
16
# _______
Type_____
Time______
17
# _______
Type_____
Time______
18
# _______
Type_____
Time______
19
# _______
Type_____
Time______
President’s
22
# _______
Type_____
Time______
23
# _______
Type_____
Time______
24
# _______
Type_____
Time______
25
# _______
Type_____
Time______
Day 20
# _______
Type_____
Time______
14
# _______
Type_____
Time______
Day
21
# _______
Type_____
Time______
45 Appendix D: Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ)
Directions: The following is a list of things that sometimes happen to people during, or after they have
been drinking alcohol. Select either YES or NO to indicate whether that item describes something that has
happened to you in the past three months/two weeks/week.
In the past three months/two weeks/week…
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
While drinking, I have said or done embarrassing things.
The quality of my work or my schoolwork has suffered because of my drinking.
I have felt badly about myself because of my drinking.
I have driven a car when I knew I had too much to drink to drive safely.
I have had a hangover (headache, sick stomach) the morning after I had been
drinking.
I have passed out from drinking.
I have taken foolish risks when I have been drinking.
I have felt very sick to my stomach or thrown up after drinking.
I have gotten into trouble at work or school because of drinking.
I often drank more than I originally had planned.
My drinking has created problems between myself and my
boyfriend/girlfriend/spouse, parents, or other near relatives.
I have been unhappy because of my drinking.
I have gotten into physical fights because of drinking.
I have spent too much time drinking.
I have not gone to work or have missed classes at school because of drinking, a
hangover, or other illness caused by drinking.
I have felt like I needed a drink after I’d gotten up (that is, before breakfast).
I have become very rude, obnoxious or insulting after drinking.
I have felt guilty about my drinking.
I have damaged property, or done something disruptive such as setting off a false
fire alarm, or other things like that after I had been drinking.
Because of my drinking, I have not eaten properly.
I have been less physically active because of drinking.
I have had “the shakes” after stopping or cutting down on drinking (e.g., hand
shakes so that coffee cup rattles in the saucer or have trouble lighting a cigarette).
My boyfriend/girlfriend/spouse/parents have complained to me about my drinking.
I have woken up in an unexpected place after heavy drinking.
46 NO
No
No
No
No
YES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
I have found that I need larger amounts of alcohol to feel any effect, or that I could
no longer get high or drunk on the amount that used to get me high or drunk.
As a result of drinking, I neglected to protect myself or my partner from a sexually
transmitted disease (STD) or an unwanted pregnancy.
I have neglected my obligations to family, work, or school because of drinking.
I often have ended up drinking on nights when I had planned not to drink.
When drinking, I have done impulsive things that I regretted later.
I often have found it difficult to limit how much I drink.
My drinking has gotten me into sexual situations I later regretted.
I’ve not been able to remember large stretches of time while drinking heavily.
While drinking, I have said harsh or cruel things to someone.
Because of my drinking, I have not slept properly.
My physical appearance has been harmed by my drinking.
I have said things while drinking that I later regretted.
I have awakened the day after drinking and found that I could not remember a part
of the evening before.
I have been overweight because of my drinking.
I haven’t been as sharp mentally because of my drinking.
I have received a lower grade on an exam or paper than I ordinarily could have
because of my drinking.
I have tried to quit drinking because I thought I was drinking too much.
I have felt anxious, agitated, or restless after stopping or cutting down on drinking.
I have not had as much time to pursue activities or recreation because of drinking.
I have injured someone else while drinking or intoxicated.
I often have thought about needing to cut down or stop drinking.
I have had less energy or felt tired because of my drinking.
I have had a blackout after drinking heavily (i.e., could not remember hours at a
time).
Drinking has made me feel depressed or sad.
47 NO
YES
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Appendix E: Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire (PDCQ)
Directions: Please indicate the number of times you have experienced each of the following consequences
of drinking in the past three months/two weeks/week. Please do not report experiencing consequences
simply because you believe that they ordinarily occur when you drink. Think about actual drinking
occasions and report the consequences experienced on these occasions.
0
1.
2.
3.
I approached a person that I probably wouldn’t have spoken to otherwise.
I told a funny story or joke that made others laugh.
4.
5.
I felt like I had enough energy to stay out all night partying or dancing.
6.
7.
I stood up for a friend or confronted someone who was in the wrong.
8.
I found a creative solution to a problem I might otherwise have had difficulty solving.
9.
I felt especially confident that other people found me attractive.
10.
The intensity of a sexual experience was enhanced.
11.
I acted out a sexual fantasy that I might ordinarily be embarrassed to reveal or attempt.
12.
On a particularly stressful day, I noticed a release of tension from my muscles and nerves.
13.
Something that would have ordinarily made me upset or emotional didn’t really get me down.
14.
Things that I had been worrying about all day no longer seemed important.
I revealed a personal feeling or emotion that I might had previously kept secret.
In a situation in which I would have usually stayed quiet, I found it easy to make conversation.
I found myself in a frightening situation and I felt surprisingly fearless.
48 1-2
3-5
6-10
>10
Appendix F: Secondhand Effects of Alcohol Consumption
Participants will be asked the following questions about the secondhand effects of their peers’ drinking
behaviors. The same assessment will be used at all three time points, accounting for three different periods
of time:
Baseline Assessment: previous three months
Second Assessment: previous two weeks
Final Assessment: previous week
49 Appendix G: Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ)
Directions: For each day on the calendar, please indicate how many drinks you consumed, the type of
alcohol you consumed (i.e., beer, liquor, wine, or a combination), and the amount of time (in hours) you
spent drinking. One drink is defined as 12 ounces of beer, 1.5 ounces (one shot) of liquor, or 5 ounces of
wine.
Sun 2/26/12
Mon 2/27/12
Tues 2/28/12
Weds 2/29/12
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Sun 3/4/12
Mon 3/5/12
Tues 3/6/12
Weds 3/7/12
Thurs 3/1/12
Thurs 3/8/12
Fri 3/2/12
Fri 3/9/12
Sat 3/3/12
Sat 3/10/12
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Sun 3/11/12
Mon 3/12/12
Tues 3/13/12
Weds 3/14/12
Thurs 3/15/12
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
# _______
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Type_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Time_____
Holiday – Green Beer Day (3/1) and St. Patrick’s Day (3/17)
Spring Break – 3/2 – 3/10
50 Fri 3/16/12
Sat 3/17/12
Appendix H: Debrief Form
Debrief
Research Description:
Thank you for helping with this study. The purpose of the study is to gather information from students about
patterns of alcohol use and the associated outcomes. You were asked questions concerning your drinking
consumption, and your experiences with both negative and positive outcomes. It is hopeful that through the answers
gathered from you and others like you, the issues surrounding student alcohol consumption can be further
understood.
Alcohol use among college students is a serious health concern on college campuses, especially heavy episodic
alcohol consumption (Hustad et al., 2010). Approximately 40% of all college students engage in heavy episodic
drinking, which is defined as consuming 5 for more drinks for men and 4+ for women in one drinking episode
(Hustad et al., 2010). This type of behavior is related to a number of negative consequences, including academic
difficulties, property damage, risky sexual activity, blackouts, alcohol poisoning, and death (Hingson et al., 2002;
Jackson, Sher & Park, 2005; Wechsler & Isaac, 1992). However, students continue to drink to dangerous levels
regardless of their experiences with these negative consequences; this is perhaps due to the more immediate nature
of positive effects of alcohol consumption that students encounter while drinking (Park, 2004; Park & Grant, 2005).
Understanding the relationship between the negative and positive experiences students have on particular drinking
occasions, specifically celebration days, can help us build intervention programs that decrease the likelihood of these
negative outcomes.
Your participation in this study is greatly appreciated.
If these questions were upsetting and you want to talk, please use the phone numbers below:
Miami University Student Counseling Service 529-4634
Psychology Clinic Psychology Building 529-2423
Community Counseling and Crisis Center 523-4146
If you would like more information concerning the theories used, please read:
Hingson, R., Heeren, T., Winter, M., & Wechsler, H. (2005). Magnitude of alcohol-related mortality and morbidity
among U.S. college students ages 18-24: Changes from 1998 to 2001. Annual Review Of Public Health,
26(1), 259-279.
Hustad, J.T.P., Barnett, N.P, Borsari, B., & Jackson, K.M. (2010). Web-based alcohol prevention for incoming
college students: a randomized controlled trial. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 183-189.
Mallett, K., Bachrach, R., & Turrisi, R. (2008). Are all negative consequences truly negative? Assessing variations
among college students' perceptions of alcohol related consequences. Addictive Behaviors, 33(10), 13751381.
Michigan State University (2002). College students and celebration drinking. Available at: http://ippsr.msu.edu.
Park, C. L. (2004). Positive and negative consequences of alcohol consumption in college students. Addictive
Behaviors, 29(2), 311.
If you have questions/comments, or if you are interested in getting information about the results, please email
Kathryn Witmer at [email protected].
Faculty Advisors:
Dr. Rose Marie Ward, [email protected]
Dr. Susan Cross Lipnickey, [email protected]
Please print this for your records.
51