Genesis of Carbonate Lakes on Perennial Siliciclastic Floodplains
A thesis presented to
the faculty of
the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University
In partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Science
Jessie J. Truchan
June 2009
2
This thesis titled
Genesis of Carbonate Lakes on Perennial Siliciclastic Floodplains
by
JESSIE J. TRUCHAN
has been approved for
the Department of Geological Sciences
and the College of Arts and Sciences by
Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch
Associate Professor of Geological Sciences
Benjamin M. Ogles
Dean, College of Arts and Sciences
3
ABSTRACT
TRUCHAN, JESSIE J., M.S., June 2009, Geological Sciences
Genesis of Carbonate Lakes on Perennial Siliciclastic Floodplains (112 pp.)
Director of Thesis: Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch
Carbonate lake deposits interbedded with coal seams exist in perennial fluvial
floodplain deposits during the Phanerozoic. Such lakes require that a protected water
body must contemporaneously exist with a minimum of siliciclastic input. Meandering
and braided river systems do not have areas shielded from siliciclastic bedload during
floods, so that lacustrine carbonate or peat accumulation over time in these systems is
interrupted. However, anastomosing river systems have flood basin areas surrounded by
relatively high levees that protect those basins, allowing them to receive mostly
suspended and dissolved load during most floods. This protection from siliciclastic input
favors enhancement of carbonate precipitation. The water table must remain high to
preserve peat for coal formation. This hydraulic control on carbonate and coal
sedimentation in a fluvial system is dependent on flooding and groundwater
characteristics. The other important control on carbonate and coal sedimentation is
provenance. Carbonate accumulation in continental settings is dependent on the influx of
ions from the weathered drainage area; sedimentary material, whether bedload,
suspended load, or dissolved load, must come from the basinal source area. Bedrock with
calcium-rich rocks can contribute sufficient quantities of dissolved to suspended load to
allow for bio-mediated precipitation in protected carbonate ponds and lakes in association
with plants.
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In order to test this hypothesis that indeed carbonate sedimentation on perennial
siliciclastic floodplains can primarily occur in anastomosing river environments, a
database of over 200 examples mostly of perennial anastomosing and meandering river
systems was compiled. Information regarding the fluvial parameters and facies
characteristics of each Phanerozoic river deposit, the tectonics of its region, as well as the
provenance was used to recognize carbonate sedimentation patterns through time and
space. Difficulties in collecting data on single fluvial systems versus data averaged across
successions containing multiple fluvial systems reduced the size of the dataset. Overall,
56 anastomosing river deposits were found to have carbonate floodplain lakes and a
carbonate provenance. This means that 46% of all definitively anastomosing river
deposits accumulated flood basin carbonates and 100% of these river deposits had a
carbonate provenance. 66 anastomosing river systems (54%) did not have carbonates in
their provenance nor in their flood basins, and no anastomosing systems had a carbonate
provenance without carbonate deposits on their floodplains. No meandering river
systems (8) had carbonate deposits, despite the fact that four of the meandering entries
had carbonates in their source area. This research contributes sedimentologic criteria
helpful to coal exploration and the refinement of fluvial depositional system models.
Approved: _____________________________________________________________
Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch
Associate Professor of Geological Sciences
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my genuine gratitude and sincere thanks to Dr. Elizabeth
Gierlowski-Kordesch, my advisor, for her support, guidance, and especially for her
laughter. She really helped me out and I feel like a better person from knowing her. I am
grateful to Dr. Joseph Shields, Karen Mammone, and Dr. Michael Root for their
inspiration and teachings. I am truly grateful to my committee members, Dr. Gregory
Nadon and Dr. David L. Kidder for their questions and direction. I also wish to thank the
Department of Geological Sciences,ExxonMobil for financial support, my friends, my
sister Jolene Truchan, William Holland, my grandparents and especially my parents,
Wayne and Brenda Truchan, for always being there for me.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 8 List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 1: River Systems and floodplains ........................................................................ 10 Meandering Rivers: Definition and Facies Model ........................................................ 14 Anastomosing Rivers: Definition and Facies Model .................................................... 20 Floodplains.................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 2: Carbonate Lakes/Floodplain Lakes ................................................................. 28 Previous Models ........................................................................................................... 28 Isolation..................................................................................................................... 28 Groundwater Springs ................................................................................................ 29 Dry Climate ............................................................................................................... 32 Metamorphic Provenance ......................................................................................... 32 Carbonate Lake Formation on Siliciclastic Floodplains ............................................... 33 Provenance .................................................................................................................... 36 Carbonates Interbedded with Coal ................................................................................ 37 Chapter 3: Database .......................................................................................................... 38 Hypothesis .................................................................................................................... 38 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 38 7
Results ........................................................................................................................... 43 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 47 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 50 Future Work and Significance ...................................................................................... 52 References ......................................................................................................................... 53 Appendix A: Database of Ancient River Systems ............................................................ 67 Appendix B: Anastomosing Entries from Appendix A .................................................... 81 Appendix C: Meandering Entries from Appendix A ........................................................ 87 Appendix D: Entries with No CHANNEL Width/Thickness Ratios ................................ 88 Appendix E: References for Appendix D ......................................................................... 90 Appendix F: References for Appendix A, B, and C ......................................................... 93 Appendix G: Quaternary References for Table 2 in Chapter 3 ...................................... 111 8
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. List of Abbreviations used in the Database ........................................................ 39 Table 2. List of Quaternary River Systems with Anastomosing Reaches ......................... 42 Table 3: Results ................................................................................................................. 46 Table 4. River Systems ...................................................................................................... 67 Table 5. Anastomosing Entries ......................................................................................... 81 Table 6. Meandering Entries from Appendix A ................................................................ 87 Table 7. Entries with No Width/Thickness Ratios............................................................. 88 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1. A block diagram from Walker and Cant (1984) describing important
morphologic features of a meandering river system. ........................................................ 14 Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic column and formation mechanism of a lateral
accretion deposit on the inside of a meander bend (Bernard et al., 1962; modified after
Allen, 1963; modified after Visher, 1965). ...................................................................... 16 Figure 3. A diagram of how oxbow lakes form and the stratigraphic columns associated
with the two types, chute cut-off and neck cut-off (Walker and Cant, 1984)................... 19 Figure 4. Block diagram from Smith and Smith (1980) showing geometries and textural
properties of an anastomosing river. ................................................................................. 21 Figure 5. An anastomosed fluvial facies block diagram from Nadon (1994). ................. 23 Figure 6. Groundwater influx theory for the genesis of floodplain limestones from
Bowen and Bloch (2002). ................................................................................................. 31 10
CHAPTER 1: RIVER SYSTEMS AND FLOODPLAINS
In a marine setting, carbonate deposition commonly occurs in clear water because
carbonate ions are abundant and siliciclastic input is limited. Precipitation of calcite or
aragonite is controlled by temperature, degree of agitation, organic activity, and the
amount of light received at the Earth’s surface (Prothero and Schwab, 2004). Although
precipitation of carbonates via inorganic processes can occur in normal-salinity seawater
and saline and freshwater lacustrine environments, carbonate deposition occurs more
commonly via organic processes (Pedley et al., 1996; Arp et al., 2001; Ordóñez et al.,
2005; Boggs, 2006; Rasbury et al., 2006). In nonmarine settings, the factors that affect
the accumulation of carbonate deposits are slightly different (Gierlowski-Kordesch,
1998) than those that affect carbonate deposition in marine areas (Smith, 1994; Bailey,
1998; Léonide et al., 2007). Freshwaters derive their highly variable chemistry directly
from their watershed in contrast to the well-defined chemistry of marine waters, and
calcium ions are only present if they are drained from a watershed with calcium-rich
rocks, such as carbonates and marbles. Once calcium-rich waters reach a continental
basin, precipitation occurs in areas protected from siliciclastic input (no agitation
needed). Such protected areas can be determined by considering the hydrodynamic
properties of continental depositional environments.
Continental lakes formed in association with fluvial systems are commonly found
around alluvial fans associated with groundwater discharge, on floodplains, and within
abandoned channels as part of surface water flux (Nickel, 1985; Cohen, 2003; Archer,
2005). Lake deposits on perennial fluvial floodplains are commonly interbedded with
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coal seams (Ostrom, 1970; Rust and Legun, 1983; Melvin, 1987; Shuster and Steidtmann,
1987; Warwick and Stanton, 1988; Johnson and Pierce, 1990, Mangano et al., 1994,
Zaleha et al., 2001, Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004). The hydrodynamics of three major
fluvial styles (braided, meandering, and anastomosing/anabranching) will be examined,
including the variable granulometry ranges associated with each system and the
identification of potential areas for lake deposition. Straight river systems (Rust, 1978)
are rare and transitional and will not be examined in this paper.
Braided river systems transport coarse sediments and have variable discharge
(Bridge and Lunt, 2006). The floodplains of braided river systems are not normally
flooded and vegetation patterns are controlled by the frequency of flooding events
(Bridge and Lunt, 2006). The floodplains are not well organized and too permeable to
form lakes (Nanson and Croke, 1992). Sedimentologically, braided river usually form
wide sheet-like channel deposits with very high width/thickness ratios (Gibling, 2006).
Coarse-grained material displays trough cross-stratification usually associated with
migrating dunes (Smith et al., 2005).
Meandering river systems have sediments that range from coarse- to fine-grained
with approximately 10% of the sediments being finer than sand-sized particles (Miall,
1996). Typically, one active channel exists along with scattered bars and islands (Miall,
1996). In meandering river systems, the floodplains are incised by channel migration and
the sediments have limited cohesion (Miall, 1996; Nanson and Croke, 1992). The facies
model of a meandering river system includes epsilon cross-bedding within channel
sandstones confirming that lateral accretion is the main mechanism of traction-load
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deposition in a meandering river system (Miall, 1996). The ubiquitous flooding patterns
of meandering river systems differentially destroy vegetation (Bendix and Hupp, 2000).
Dunagan and Driese (1999) suggest plants protect areas and enhance carbonate
precipitation but frequent flooding inhibits the sustainability of vegetation in the
floodplain (Hupp, 2000), clearly making “protected” carbonate precipitation and
preservation difficult.
Anastomosing and humid anabranching river systems are described as lowgradient systems with a predominantly suspended load that is composed of two or more
interconnected channels that enclose flood basins (Makaske, 2001). Anastomosis results
where a system has a large amount of water and a modest sediment load that needs to be
moved across an interior basin that is nearly flat-lying (Gibling et al., 1998). This
movement results in avulsions that form new channels contemporaneously (Makaske,
2001). These river deposits have lenticular sandstone channels, which are partitioned by
mudstones, all characterized by short periods of accelerated vertical aggradation (Nadon,
1994). Characteristic ribbon sandstones surrounded by fine-grained floodplain sediments
distinguish these deposits from other river systems (Nadon, 1994).
With anastomosing river systems, the flood basins are large and stable and
protected by high levees (Miall, 1996; Makaske, 2001). The flood basins create an
environment conducive to the accumulation of coals and limestones (Flores, 1981; Flores
and Hanley, 1984; Gibling et al., 1998; Makaske, 2001; Makaske et al., 2002; İnci, 2002)
because they are protected from siliciclastic input by only receiving dissolved and
13
suspended load during flooding events. Bedload deposition only occurs in the flood basin
areas during the breaching of levees and the formation of crevasse splays.
In this paper, the state of knowledge concerning perennial anastomosing and
meandering rivers is evaluated to establish the exact processes involved in carbonate
deposition on siliciclastic floodplains. Braided river systems are not a focus because
sediment accumulation does not occur outside the channels during most flooding events.
It is important to understand the working river style that was employed during deposition
for insight on spatial configuration of depositional areas and their potential grain size
distribution (North et al., 2007). Examples from ancient deposits as well as modern
deposits are examined and information regarding over 200 different examples of
anastomosing and meandering rivers is included. Two dominant questions to be
addressed here are: (1) where will carbonate lakes form and (2) do they more commonly
form in association with anastomosing or meandering rivers?
Firstly, a description of all of the pertinent background information to this study is
given in Chapters 1 and 2. Secondly, Chapter 3 contains a methodology section, which
explains the processes involved in the creation of a database containing over 200
examples of perennial anastomosing and meandering river systems. Results follow and
finally the patterns of carbonate lake deposition on perennial siliciclastic floodplains will
be evaluated in the discussion and conclusion sections.
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Meandering Rivers: Definition and Facies Model
Using the depositional models of Sundborg (1956), Harms et al. (1963),
McGowen and Garner (1970), and Jackson (1976), Walker and Cant (1984) derived the
first sedimentologic model for meandering river systems. A block diagram is presented
in Figure 1.
Figure 1. A block diagram from Walker and Cant (1984) describing important
morphologic features of a meandering river system.
Figure 1 highlights the main features and processes occurring in a perennial
meandering river system. Coarse- to fine-grained sediments with roughly 10% of these
sediments being finer than sand-sized particles are carried from upstream channel banks
downstream on a sinuous path (Miall, 1996). Sinuosity in the system is the result of low
15
velocities, gentle slopes, and lateral migration of the system as it travels across a large
floodplain area. The channels are usually narrow and isolated, but due to lateral
migration of the channel, the width/depth ratios of meandering systems are usually larger
than any other river system. Meandering channels do no get very deep, but their deposits
can be very wide leading to channel width/thickness ratios commonly greater than 60
(Miall, 1996; Gibling, 2006). Channels can be up to 38 m thick and less than 15 km
wide, with most less than 3 km wide. The accepted range used in this paper is from 60250 (Gibling, 2006).
The process of lateral migration is the dominant force that governs a meandering
river system by differentially distributing the erosive powers of the river in only one
channel (Prothero and Schwab, 2004). The channel is concomitantly eroding on its inner
bank while sediments are deposited on the outer portion of the channel (Prothero and
Schwab, 2004). These areas are defined as cut banks and point bars, respectively.
Because of the meandering flow of the river during channel migration, cut banks erode
material in the channel wall where the channel bends or alters direction. In addition, flow
then gets diverted away from the eroded bank and obliquely passes across to the other
side of the river, forming a helical overturn pattern (Miall, 1992). This forces sediments
from the cut bank to flow up the point bars areas on the sides of the channels that slope
convex-upwards (Galloway, 1985).
The point bars areas accumulate the eroded sediment from the cut banks and these
deposits are called a lateral accretion deposit or a point bar deposit (See Figure 2). They
are characterized by an overall fining-upwards succession with the sorting of sediments
16
controlled by grain size, decreasing depth, and varying velocities through time
(Galloway, 1985). The coarse-grained material at the base of the point bar succession is
typically made up of a lag deposit comprised of collapsed channel bank material, plant
matter that is water-saturated, and calcrete pebbles and cobbles (Miall, 1992). Epsilon
cross-beds are associated with these coarser-grained sediments because they are situated
transverse to the channel and move laterally to flow.
The medium-sized sediments in the middle part of the fining-upwards succession
of point bar deposits move at higher velocities than the coarse material and medium-tolarge trough cross-stratification forms (Galloway, 1985). The finer traction-load
sediments that are deposited on top of this display climbing-ripple cross-lamination as
well as tabular and planar stratification (Galloway, 1985). The finest-grained sediments
that cap the succession are from suspension settle-out and vertical accretion that occurs
after channel migration has halted and flooding takes over (Miall, 1992).
Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic column and formation mechanism of a lateral
accretion deposit on the inside of a meander bend (Bernard et al., 1962; modified after
Allen, 1963; modified after Visher, 1965).
17
Crevasse splays develop when the water levels in the river channel become high
enough that the levees of the river channel are breached. This breach alters the flow of
traction-load sediments in the river and they flow out in a lobate fashion perpendicular to
the channel wall, dispersing river sediments. This process occurs in meandering river
systems during flooding events. The crevasse splays that are found in meandering river
systems are usually not as well developed as those found in association with
anastomosing river systems. These deposits are commonly ripple cross-laminated and
rarely, parallel lamination is found if the splay is deposited under conditions of high
water velocities (Walker and Cant, 1984). These deposits are silty and have been
described as resembling a turbidite (Walker and Cant, 1984). These deposits may not be
preserved well because during a subsequent flooding event, the floodwaters engulf the
entire floodplain and easily erode and re-transport these deposits. In addition, the
channels of meandering river systems are not stable and as lateral migration occurs, these
deposits can be erased. Due to this limited preservation potential, the parameters of
crevasse splays associated with meandering river systems are not fully described in
published literature.
The floodplains of meandering river systems have sediments that are not strongly
cemented and can be incised by channel migration (Nanson and Croke, 1992; Miall,
1996). Flooding patterns of meandering river systems differentially destroy vegetation
(Bendix and Hupp, 2000). Dunagan and Driese (1999) suggest plants protect areas and
enhance carbonate precipitation but frequent flooding inhibits the sustainability of
vegetation in the floodplain (Hupp, 2000). ). In fact, large vegetated areas can slow down
18
the velocity of floodwaters, but by doing this, they induce mostly siliciclastic
sedimentation instead (Rodriguez-Iturbe and Porporato, 2004), clearly making carbonate
precipitation and preservation difficult in association with meandering river systems.
The only lakes to form in association with meandering rivers are oxbow lakes.
These lacustrine deposits are formed when meander channel loops are abandoned in
either a gradual (chute cut-off) or sudden (neck cut-off) manner (see Figure 3). When
gradual abandonment occurs, the river fills in an area where the channel used to flow and
this allows the flow of the river to be directed away from the main channel. As this new
area is in-filled, the main channel becomes isolated and an oxbow lake forms (Walker
and Cant, 1984). The sediments found in ancient deposits of chute cut-off oxbow lakes
are comprised of a fining-upwards sequence that is made up of coarse-grained, ripple
cross-laminated sediment at the base. Finer-grained material is found above this and very
fine-grained materials, such as silts and muds, overlie them.
An oxbow lake forms fairly rapidly where two meanders flow very close to one
another and a breach in the walls of the channel connect the two meanders, thus isolating
the area where the old meander swept out (Walker and Cant, 1984) (See Figure 3). The
area where the meander was cut off is plugged rapidly and the fining-upwards sequence
of a neck cut-off oxbow lake is similar to that of a chute cut-off oxbow lake. The main
difference between oxbow lake deposits created by chute cut-off and neck cut-off is the
amount of fine-grained sediments. Since neck cut-off is much more abrupt, the gradual
infilling of coarse- and medium-grained material will not take place. This leaves only a
thin deposit of coarser-grained material at the base of the succession. As a flooding event
19
occurs, mostly suspended sediments are transported into the neck cut-off oxbow lake and
a greater portion of its fining-upwards succession is dominated by fine-grained, floodderived sediments (Walker and Cant, 1984). As flooding events become more frequent
and violent, higher rates of sedimentation occur depositing coarse- and fine-grained
sediments in these lakes (Wren et al., 2008) that essentially inhibit the potential for
carbonate precipitation in these temporarily isolated areas.
Figure 3. A diagram of how oxbow lakes form and the stratigraphic columns associated
with the two types, chute cut-off and neck cut-off (Walker and Cant, 1984).
20
Since lake deposits associated with meandering river systems are not protected
from the surrounding floodplain, carbonate deposition is unlikely to occur in this setting.
Even if isolation and protection occur in an oxbow lake, the period of time needed for
carbonate precipitation to occur is longer than the short-lived protection that is available.
Overbank flooding events occur frequently in meandering systems and oxbow lakes will
eventually be in-filled with siliciclastic sediment from floodwaters (Wren et al., 2008).
Isolation and protection of the oxbow lake cannot occur for a long enough period of time
to allow the precipitation and preservation of thick carbonates. Anastomosing river
systems are examined next to determine if they enhance carbonate deposition on a
perennial siliciclastic floodplain.
Anastomosing Rivers: Definition and Facies Model
Smith and Smith (1980) used facies models to elaborately describe how
anastomosing deposits look in the ancient record and defined the gradient of these rivers
as between 0.09 and 0.012 m/km. The width/depth ratios they inferred range from 13 to
140. The models that Smith and Smith (1980) developed are displayed in Figure 4. It
was suggested that vegetation and cohesive, fine-grained sediments could form stable
banks that would limit channel migration thus establishing an anastomosed pattern
(Smith, 1976; Rust, 1981). However, anastomosing rivers from sheet flooding occur in
arid climates as well (Gibling et al., 1998).
21
Presently, an accepted definition of anastomosing rivers comes from Makaske
(2001), who stated that anastomosing rivers are composed of two or more interconnected
channels that enclose flood basins. They are described as low-gradient systems with a
predominantly suspended load. Anastomosing deposits have a high preservation potential
in the rock record and they are economically important due to links to coal seam
formation. Anastomosing rivers occur in montane, foreland, and intracratonic basins and
in coastal environments (Makaske, 2001).
Figure 4. Block diagram from Smith and Smith (1980) showing geometries and textural
properties of an anastomosing river.
The multiple active channels in an anastomosing river system can have low to
high sinuosity and these channels are usually stable in position unlike channels found
associated with meandering and braided rivers (Miall, 1992). Even though lateral
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accretion does occur in anastomosing river deposits, lateral scour is limited in
comparison to vertical aggradation and remains an insignificant mechanism in the
depositional system (Nadon, 1994). The point bar deposits found in ancient
anastomosing river systems are formed by slow migration and the deposits are not as
extensive as those found in meandering river systems (Smith and Smith, 1980). Channel
deposits of anastomosing river systems are commonly 1-3 m thick and can be up to 1 km
wide (Makaske, 2001). The channel width/thickness ratios that are given by Makaske
(2001) range from 5-100 with most examples limited to the range from 5-50. Commonly,
the ratio is less than 10, which is much lower than those in meandering river systems.
Anastomosis results when a system has a large amount of water with a modest
sediment load that needs to be moved across an interior basin that is nearly flat lying
(Gibling et al., 1998). This movement results in avulsions that form new channels
contemporaneously in varying fashions (Makaske, 2001; Smith et al., 1989). Avulsion is
a common process that occurs in nature, but its mechanism is poorly understood. A
recent definition of avulsion states that the diversion of flow from an existing channel
onto the floodplain will eventually result in a new channel belt (Makaske, 2001). As a
result of avulsion, anastomosing channels form when a bypass forms but the old bypass
channel remains active or by the diversion of an avulsive flow that allows two
contemporaneous channels to remain active on the floodplain (Makaske, 2001).
Geometrically, the sandstone bodies that are associated with anastomosing river
deposits are either ribbon or tabular (Makaske, 2001) (See Figure 5). The ribbon
sandstones are interpreted as channel-fill and their bases are sharp, scoured, and concave,
23
while the top of the ribbons are gradational or sharp and flat. They can be up to a couple
of meters thick and are ten to a hundred meters wide (Makaske, 2001). The lithology
fines upwards or is homogeneous internally and is made up of coarse- to fine-grained
sand (Makaske, 2001).
Tabular bodies are interpreted as crevasse splays or levee deposits and the bases
are flat and non-erosive with sharp or gradational contacts. They are commonly less than
1 m thick but they can be hundreds to thousands meters wide. Vertically, they can fine
upwards, coarsen upwards, coarsen then fine upwards, or have no variations vertically
(Makaske, 2001). Sedimentary structures in these bodies include climbing ripple crosslamination and parallel lamination. Small-scale trough cross-bedding and wave ripple
cross-lamination are rarely present (Nadon, 1994). The tabular bodies are usually found
attached as wing structures attached to the sides of the ribbon sand bodies.
Figure 5. An anastomosed fluvial facies block diagram from Nadon (1994).
24
Sand sheets that are connected to the channel deposits may represent crevasse
splays and channel mouth bars which range from 0.5 to 2 m thick (Makaske, 2001).
These deposits are very commonly associated with anastomosing river systems and are
much wider than those in meandering river systems. One of the distinguishing features
of anastomosing river systems is the quantity of crevasse splays. These deposits are
easily eroded in meandering river systems, but since anastomosing rivers form from low
velocity systems with very gentle slopes, these deposits can develop and spread across
the floodplain without getting eroded by subsequent flooding events. Their preservation
is based on lateral mobility of the river channel, the density of the channel, and floodplain
aggradation rate (Makaske, 2001). The stable channels of anastomosing rivers limit
erosion laterally and also enhance preservation of these deposits (Makaske, 2001). Two
other types of deposits, lacustrine and peat/coal, are also found in association with
anastomosing rivers (Makaske, 2001), but they are usually absent in arid ephemeral
conditions.
Lakes that form in association with anastomosing river systems are found in flood
basin areas between channels. They are protected and isolated due to the convexupwards nature of these areas. During overbank flooding events, they only receive
suspended and dissolved load (Filgueira-Rivera et al., 2007). These areas are large and
stable because they are protected by high levees (Miall, 1996; Makaske, 2001; FilgueiraRivera et al., 2007) and create a potential environment for the deposition of coals and
limestones (Flores, 1981; Flores and Hanley, 1984; Weedman, 1989, 1994; Makaske,
2001; Makaske et al., 2002; İnci, 2002). Carbonate lake deposition is possible in
25
anastomosing river flood basins unlike in oxbow lakes formed on unstable floodplains of
meandering river systems.
Anabranching river systems are defined as, “a low-energy multiple-channel
system(s) with resistant banks in which stable or slowly migrating anabranches are
separated by irregular islands of approximately floodplain height that are large with
respect to the width of the channels” (North et al., 2007). These types of anastomosing
rivers are characteristic of more arid climates and thus drain ephemerally (North et al.,
2007). Some examples of ephemeral deposits include those found in the Seilao Member
of the Purilactis Formation in northern Chile (Hartley, 1993), the Esplugafreda Formation
in northern Spain (Dreyer, 1993), and the Caspe Formation in Spain (Friend et al., 1979).
Each of these deposits formed during sheet flooding events that were the direct result of
large amounts of episodic precipitation and the brevity of their existence limited their
ability to form stable carbonate lakes. Since they are not perennial river systems,
anabranching rivers are not included in this research study.
Floodplains
The characteristics of floodplains must be examined to understand the mechanism
controlling carbonate lake deposition. By definition, floodplains are flat-lying areas
forming adjacent to fluvial channels; floodplain sediments are transported by the river
and are deposited during flooding events, exhibiting horizontal bedding (Nanson and
Croke, 1992). Even though they are adjacent to channel deposits, floodplain sediments
are separated by relatively high banks and levee deposits. Levees are important features
26
that control flooding events and dictate where avulsions events will occur (FilgueiraRivera et al., 2007) and greatly influence the evolution of a river system.
Floodplains reflect the important interactions involving the work the river does
and the ability of the underlying strata to resist erosion (Nanson and Croke, 1992:
Abbado et al., 2005). According to Nanson and Croke (1992), three different
classifications of floodplains exist: (1) high-energy non-cohesive, (2) medium-energy
non-cohesive, and (3) low-energy cohesive. Many sub-classifications exist in relation to
these main categories, but overall the growth and development of a floodplain is reliant
on lateral point-bar accretion, overbank vertical accretion, braid channel accretion, and to
a lesser degree, oblique accretion, cut-bank accretion, and abandoned channel accretion
(Nanson and Croke, 1992; Stevaux and Souza, 2004).
In anastomosing systems, low-energy cohesive floodplains form on a low gradient
via processes associated with overbank deposition (Nanson and Croke, 1992).
Interchannel islands surrounded by channel levees, flood basins, and to a lesser extent
crevasse splays, form from fine-grained suspended load material in the river system.
Organic-rich and organic-poor floodplains can develop depending on the climate and
region of the river basin (Nanson and Croke, 1992). Organic-rich floodplains have six
sedimentary facies, including (1) channel, (2) levee, (3) crevasse splay, (4) peat bog, (5)
back swamp, and (6) lacustrine while the facies associated with organic-poor
anastomosing floodplains contain (1) channel, (2) levee, (3) crevasse splay, and (4) back
swamp deposits that are described as “arid” because they have little to no organics
associated with them. On organic-rich floodplains, channels usually have a low sinuosity
27
and are lined on their perimeter with levees that surround interchannel islands and
encircle interior swamps and lakes (Nanson and Croke, 1992). These floodplains are
well vegetated and are made up of fine sands, silts, clays and organics. In organic-poor
anastomosing floodplains, channels can be tree-lined but vegetation is limited and
similarly sized material is transported.
The elevations of a channel along with the channel depths are controlled by the
accommodation space available on a floodplain (Wright and Marriot, 1993). Since
floodplain deposits cannot build up higher than bankfull level, their existence is heavily
reliant on autocyclic and allocyclic controls such as local base-level, flooding events, and
crevasse splay deposits. The type of river mainly affects the preservation and
stabilization of the floodplain. With anastomosing river systems, stable channels and
limited lateral migration allow the floodplains to be stable over time and allow floodplain
lakes to form, and are thus potential areas for carbonate deposition.
28
CHAPTER 2: CARBONATE LAKES/FLOODPLAIN LAKES
The formation and preservation of carbonate lake deposits on perennial
siliciclastic fluvial floodplains have been explained in various ways. The previous
theories on carbonate lake formation are first presented along with a discussion about
their feasibility. Then, this is followed by a discussion on the sedimentologic and
hydrodynamic parameters that actually control carbonate lake formation and
concomitantly peat/coal on perennial siliciclastic floodplains.
Previous Models
Models for the deposition of carbonate lake sediments in fluvial and lacustrine
basins depend on climatic, hydrologic, or structural parameters. Major published theories
on the origins for continental carbonates that have been extensively cited in the literature
include a decrease in siliciclastic supply due to isolation of a whole basin or through
faulting, groundwater springs, a dry climate, and metamorphic provenance. Each
explanation, which makes assumptions not appropriate for continental systems, can be
shown to be untenable or impossible. A consistent sedimentologic model is needed to
explain all such carbonate accumulation in perennial river systems.
Isolation
Isolation of areas leading to a decrease in siliciclastic supply is one of the leading
theories advanced to explain the accumulation of lacustrine carbonates, but usually no
concrete reason is given for this isolation mechanism that clearly must protect large areas
29
of a continental basin (Cecil, 1990; Franczyk et al., 1991; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992;
Talbot and Allen, 1996). Many carbonate lake deposits are extensive (hundreds to
thousands of meters wide) and thick (tens of meters), receiving their entire sediment load
from the erosion of the rocks of the watershed by groundwater and surface drainage. For
isolation to work, not only would the siliciclastic supply have to be limited, but this
would mean that the supply of water to the drainage basin would be minimal. This
cannot occur realistically as large quantities of Ca-rich waters are needed to build these
thick carbonate deposits. In contrast, marine waters commonly precipitate large
quantities carbonate in isolation from siliciclastic input. Lakes are not mini-oceans
(Bohacs et al., 2000); carbonate precipitation parameters are governed by the watershed
geology in continental areas.
In addition, faulting has been invoked instead to produce isolation through
localized depressions for carbonate precipitation on a floodplain (Stollhofen, 1998).
This is not a reasonable carbonate precipitation model because it would be unlikely to
exclude siliciclastics from such low-lying areas. Isolation mechanisms clearly need to be
hydrodynamically correct and realistic.
Groundwater Springs
Groundwater contribution into a continental basin is controlled by the structure of
the basinal surroundings (Rosen, 1994). Calcium ions can be delivered to a lake system
from groundwater discharge in the form of seeps or springs (Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998;
2009; Winter, 2004). Spring deposits occur on the perimeter of alluvial fans (Nickel,
30
1985), along the margins of rifts and rift lakes (Renaut et al., 1986, 2002; Steinen et al.,
1987; De Wet et al., 2002) or along the floor of extensional basins associated with faults
and lineaments (Hay et al. 1986; Calvo et al., 1995; Quade et al., 1995; Evans and
Welzenbach, 1998; Colman et al., 2002; Rech et al., 2002; Calvo et al., 2003). Carbonate
deposits in these circumstances do not cover large areas of the basin; they are localized
on a scale of hundreds to thousands of meters in areal extent.
Springs deposits have been attributed to widespread carbonate deposition across
large tracts of distal foreland basin areas (Bowen and Bloch, 2002; Dunagan and Turner,
2004; Elliot et al. 2007) under semi-arid to arid conditions. Bowen and Bloch (2002)
suggest that floodplain limestones form as a result of shallow groundwater interaction
with muddy floodplain sediments and soils with low permeability under evaporitic
conditions, especially in association with subsurface coarse-grained deposits (Figure 6).
Evaporation is identified as the mechanism for forcing groundwater to overcome gravity
and flow upward from subsurface coarse-grained materials through low permeable mud.
There are hydrodynamic and sedimentologic difficulties with this model.
Groundwater does not flow readily through muds, and coarse-grained sediments
are not common features on a distal floodplain, except in association with crevasse splays
(Aslan et al., 2005). Groundwater in distal fluvial environments generally flows toward
the ocean at base level, parallel to surface flow. There is no possibility for a large
gradient in the hydraulic head to allow groundwater to flow upward against gravity in a
perennial river system in distal basin setting (Ingebritsen et al., 2006). In addition,
climate does not control movement of groundwater in spring activity; aquifer hydrology
31
does (Watson and Burnett, 1995). Evaporative pumping of groundwater over thousands
to millions of years through soils accumulates carbonate known as calcrete in the Khorizon of soils (Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Relatively short-lived floodplain lakes could not
accumulate similar carbonate thicknesses from a solely evaporative process. And finally,
the presence of faults or lineaments is minimal within the distal areas of foreland basins
far from the fold-thrust belt as tectonic stresses are minimal (DeCelles et al., 1996).
Thus, groundwater cannot produce thick accumulations of carbonate across a distal
foreland basin area, especially within fluvial deposits on floodplains.
Figure 6. Groundwater influx theory for the genesis of floodplain limestones from
Bowen and Bloch (2002).
Contributions by groundwater to river channels, not floodplains, are very
dependent on the aquifer hydrology and the tectonic situation. Travertine dams, tufa, and
other types of spring deposits form in river channels where faults and subsurface aquifer
configuration produce springs (Branner, 1911; Ordóñez and García del Cura, 1983;
32
Andrews et al., 1993; Pedley et al., 1996; Pentecost, 2005), normally in the hinterlands of
tectonic basins.
Dry Climate
A dry climate is also invoked as a mechanism to precipitate thick continental
carbonates, based on the idea that carbonates mostly form under evaporitic conditions
(Cecil, 1990; Drummond et al., 1996; Zaleha, 2006). However, continental carbonates
form in all climates today (Platt and Wright, 1992; Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998, 2009),
from Antarctica to the tropical lakes of Africa (e.g., Fairchild et al., 1994; Wharton, 1994;
Casanova, 1994). The chemistry of continental waters is heavily reliant on the geology of
the watershed and large quantities of carbonates can only accumulate if the catchment
area is rich in carbonate-bearing strata whatever the climate (Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998,
2009).
Metamorphic Provenance
A reduced siliciclastic supply to a continental basin, allowing the precipitation of
carbonates, has been attributed to the presence of an extensive metamorphic provenance.
With decreased erosion and a suppression of clastic supply from resistant metamorphic
rocks, carbonate precipitation in lakes and on river floodplains could occur basin wide
(Carroll et al., 2006). However, there are not enough calcium and carbonate ions released
from most kinds of metamorphic rocks to allow for thick accumulations of carbonates
(Winter, 2001). This idea is more applicable to a marine setting where ocean waters are
already saturated with respect to calcite. For lakes to accumulate thick carbonate deposits,
33
an extensive marble provenance area would be needed to contribute the necessary
carbonate components for extensive precipitation.
Carbonate Lake Formation on Siliciclastic Floodplains
The origin of lake deposits in general is connected to tectonics, climate, and
source area (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Platt and Wright, 1991; Bohacs et al., 2000;
2003). Overall, three main factors regulate how continental carbonate lake deposits form:
sediment input, hydrologic processes, and temperature variations (Tucker and Wright,
1990; Platt and Wright, 1991).
Lake sediments and lake water chemistry tend to mimic the lithology and
geochemistry of the depositional and hydrographic basin in which they formed (Hinderer
and Einsele, 2001). Thus, carbonate lakes should be found to exist in areas that have
carbonate source rocks and conditions conducive to carbonate deposition and
precipitation. If the source area of a drainage basin has widespread carbonates, thick
accumulations of carbonates have been found to form (Jones and Bowser, 1978;
Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998; Jiang et al., 2007). Basins with source areas containing less
than 30% carbonates will not likely form carbonate deposits in lakes downstream
(Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2009).
Hydrology, the second most important factor controlling carbonate sedimentation,
is governed in part by tectonics. Many anastomosing rivers form in foreland and rift
basins and in these tectonic settings; various drainage patterns and variable
accommodation space lead to different amounts of sediment accumulation (Bohacs et al.,
34
2000, 2003). Rainfall, surface inflow, and groundwater springs all contribute to the
water input of the drainage basin (Winter, 2004), while the topography and geologic
structure of the underlying bedrock determine the general direction of flow of
groundwater and surface water (Rosen, 1994) and erosion. If carbonates are being
transported in a drainage system in surface flow, they can be carried as bedload as clastic
carbonates, as suspended load, or as dissolved load ions. Since anastomosing rivers
most commonly transport suspended and dissolved load into flood basins during flooding
events, carbonates should be easily transported in this fluvial style.
The third contributor affecting carbonate accumulation is temperature fluctuations
that occur from weather and climate. Climate controls the amount of precipitation added
to a system and the amount of evaporation, but seasonal temperature fluctuations can also
affect the activities and diversity of the biota on the floodplain and thus affect how much
erosion and sedimentation can occur (Platt and Wright, 1991). Temperature also
controls the dissolution and precipitation of carbonate and preservation of carbonate
sediments is very dependent on temperature and pH conditions (Dean, 1981).
Fluvial environments are the third most important lake-forming realm preceded
only by glaciation and tectonic processes. According to Cohen (2003), lakes formed by
fluvial processes make up 8% of the world’s total lake area, but only 0.3% of the total
volume of all the lakes in the world. When lakes are formed in association with fluvial
systems, they are commonly found around alluvial fans, on floodplains, and as
abandoned channels (Cohen, 2003; Archer, 2005).
35
Floodplain lakes can contain coal and carbonate deposits and give clues on
paleoclimate (Halfar et al., 1998; İnci, 2002). Usually floodplain lakes are only as deep
as the channels that form them, but most tend to be shallower (Wright and Marriott,
1993; Cohen, 2003). Depth, oxygen content, chemistry (reliant on provenance and
hydrology), and basal morphology of a lacustrine system affect sedimentation parameters
in addition to climatic and tectonic controls (Bohacs et al., 2003), However, the factors
that control river systems, both allocyclic and autocyclic controls, also greatly influence
the type of floodplain carbonate deposit.
Carbonates that are found on floodplains can be lacustrine, palustrine, and
calcrete (Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The height of the water table and the length of subaerial
exposure control carbonate precipitation patterns in palustrine and lacustrine
paleoenvironments (Platt and Wright, 1992), especially on a floodplain (Wright, 1999).
Deposits of palustrine and lacustrine limestone range from several centimeters to
decimeters thick and are made up of micrites containing mollusk and charophyte remains
as well as ostracodes (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Petzold, 1989; Gierlowski-Kordesch et
al., 1991; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Subaerial exposure features, such as circumgranular
cracks and brecciation, alternate with subaqueous features, such as lamination and
subaqueous bioturbation traces. Calcrete deposits are the result of pedogenic processes
involving evaporitic pumping of Ca-rich groundwaters, allowing for the accumulation of
carbonate as the K-horizon of a soil in an arid to semi-arid climate (Knox, 1977; Wright,
1999; Alonso-Zarza, 2003; Pentecost, 2005). Calcretes form over a time period spanning
several thousand to several million years (Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Pedogenic carbonates are
36
less likely to form in the flood basins of perennial anastomosing deposits because of
seasonally high water tables, especially where contemporaneous coal deposits also form
(Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1991; Freytet and Verrecchia, 2002; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The
long exposure and little to no sedimentation needed for the formation of calcretes
differentiates calcretes from palustrine and lacustrine carbonate deposition (Wright,
1999).
Provenance
A source of carbonate ions is needed to allow carbonate precipitation to occur
(Leggitt et al., 2007) in continental basins. Simply removing or limiting siliciclastic input
(e.g., Franczyk et al., 1991; Horton et al., 2002; Carroll et al., 2006; Zaleha, 2006) is not
sufficient to allow carbonate deposits to form meter(s) thick deposits in continental basins
(Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998, 2009). The geologic composition of the catchment area for
a lake or river system controls the type and amount of ions that are dissolved and carried
in a solution as well as carried as bedload or suspended load.
Not all catchment areas have carbonate or other Ca-rich rocks in them, so
carbonate deposits do not form in every floodplain situation. Areas that have a high
proportion of carbonate rocks produce enough Ca, Mg, or CO3 ions to produce a
carbonate deposit, in some cases overwhelming siliciclastic input (Gierlowski-Kordesch,
1998). Overall, many factors can affect the formation of a carbonate lake deposit but the
most significant control is provenance because a dominantly carbonate source area must
be present in the provenance of a river system to form thick carbonate lake deposits.
37
Carbonates Interbedded with Coal
Organic matter can be preserved to form coal when an increase of accommodation
space is accompanied by an increased production rate of peat with a concomitant
decrease in siliciclastic influx (Bohacs and Suter, 1997). Channel migration, channel
avulsion, overbank flooding, crevasse splay progradation, and rarely volcanism may
affect peat accumulation in river systems (İnci, 2002). Coal can also form at lake
margins and in deserts because of variations in water table, plant productivity, and
siliciclastic input (Diessel, 1992; Bohacs and Suter, 1997). Where coal forms on an
anastomosing floodplain, it can be interbedded with carbonate deposits (e.g. Flores and
Hanley, 1984; Valero Garcés et al., 1994, 1997). This hydrodynamic scenario occurs in
flood basins of anastomosing river systems where protection from a siliciclastic milieu,
even while the water table remains high in a perennial system, allows for the
accumulation of large quantities of peat (Gradzinski et al., 2003). Vertical aggradation
then guarantees preservation and compaction for coal formation. Coals associated with
carbonates are abundant in the rock record in river and lake paleoenvironments since the
Devonian (Heward, 1978; Rust and Legun, 1983; Gierlowski-Kordesch et al., 1991;
Valero Garcés et al, 1994, 1997; Fielding and Webb, 1996; Keighley and Pickerill, 1996;
McLoughlin and Drinnan, 1997; Dunagan and Driese, 1999; Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004;
Allen and Fielding, 2007). Their association with siliciclastic fluvial channels and
carbonates may signify that the coal may have accumulated on the floodplain of an
ancient anastomosing river system.
38
CHAPTER 3: DATABASE
Hypothesis
In order to test the hypothesis that carbonate lakes form preferentially on
anastomosed river floodplains, not on meandering river floodplains, a literature search for
river deposits of anastomosed, meandering, and some braided types in conjunction with
carbonate floodplain deposits was performed. Additional information such as provenance
and other hydrodynamic features were also collected into a database.
Methodology
A database of over 200 river system deposits from the Phanerozoic was created
from articles describing perennial meandering, braided, and anastomosing fluvial
deposits over the last 30 years. Braided river systems were not thoroughly researched
since carbonate lakes did not seem to be directly associated with this river type. Though
far from complete (not all studies provided sufficient sedimentologic detail), the dataset
is large enough to detect patterns of carbonate accumulation associated with fluvial
styles. Fluvial depositional systems from all seven continents ranging from the Devonian
to the mid-Holocene were analyzed with modern examples listed separately since they
are not yet as complete as ancient examples. Indirect measurements were derived from
diagrams and maps from each article, and further information concerning tectonics,
provenance, abundance of crevasse splays, carbonate lake deposits, occurrence of coal,
and the presence of upright tree trunks were obtained from the original articles or from
other sources. The database was compiled in a Microsoft Excel file with the following
39
categories: Formation, Age, Location, Basin, Tectonics, Provenance, Thickness of
Channels, Width of Channels, Width/Thickness Ratio for Channels, Carbonates,
Crevasse Splays, Upright Tree Trunks, Presence of Coal, River Type, Interpretations and
Comments, and References. Abbreviations used in the abridged database are found in
Table 1.
Table 1. List of Abbreviations used in the Database
Term
Abbreviation used in Database
Formation
Fm.
Anastomosing
A
Member
Mb.
Meandering
M
Average
Avg.
Braided
B
Carbonates in Provenance
Carb. In
Prov.
Group
Gp.
Shale
Sh.
Sandstone
Ss.
An objective measure of river type was needed for the comparison of river
systems. The classification of fluvial systems based on channel width/thickness (W/T)
after Gibling (2006) was applied, where W/T for anastomosing rivers is 1-60, for
meandering rivers is 61-250, and for braided rivers >250. In this system, only true
perennial anastomosing systems were accepted as entries with width/thickness ratios less
than 60. This did not include channels on a megafan, delta distributary systems, and
40
ephemeral river channels, or valley fill deposits which can also have similar W/T.
Sedimentologic context was important in choosing appropriate examples for the database.
Entries in the database were limited to examples that included information concerning the
external geometry of identified channel bodies for which the author included direct or
indirect measurements of channel widths, thicknesses, or a width/thickness ratio.
Problems occurred with standardizing width and thickness measurements because
many authors used different techniques to derive their estimates. In some instances,
direct measurements of a single channel body were given, but in other instances, ranges
of measurements for a suite of channel bodies was used, sometimes across a whole
formation containing a variety of river types through time. The use of a single fluvial
system gave the most valuable information, but many older articles do not differentiate
between different river systems within a formation, so the inclusion of mixed river
system data was inevitable. These older articles predate the advent of sequence
stratigraphy as well as the newest refinements in fluvial system models This information
is represented by the mixed categories of anastomosing to meandering, anastomosing to
braided, and meandering to braided. Since these entries are highly variable and do not
represent a single river system, they are not as useful. However, many of them have
carbonates deposits associated with them and could not be disregarded.
Commonly, average values of channel width and thicknesses were used because it
gives a more accurate view of the total distribution of channels in the ancient fluvial
system (Miall, 1996). If an exact width to thickness ratio was not given, this information
was calculated. But, if the widths and thicknesses were given in ranges, the
41
width/thickness ratios were found by dividing the largest number in the thickness range
by the smallest in the width range and vice versa. A limitation with this derivation is not
obtaining true width/thickness ratios (W/T) for individual channels. Thus, the method of
W/T collection is included in the database in Appendix A as follows: (A) W/T was taken
from Gibling (2006) database, (B) W/T is the direct measurement of a channel, (C) W/T
was derived from a diagram in the articles used, (D) W/T is an average of multiple
channels, (E) the width measurements may not be accurate, and (F) the width and/or
thicknesses were described as, “few hundred meters” or “tens to hundreds of meters
thick.”
Table 2 contains Quaternary anastomosing river entries with citations.
Unfortunately, these could not be directly compared to the other ancient river examples
because accurate width/thickness measurements cannot be derived with these as yet
“incomplete” deposits. For a channel to be preserved, a landslide or mass wasting event
must fill the channel and immediately preserve it (Keefer, 1999) or multiple flooding
events have to occur on the floodplain to allow sediments to infill the channel and
preserve its dimensions (Gibling, 2006). Studies of channel deposits found in the rock
record are much more consistent and reliable for analysis. Quaternary examples were
also less useful because coal and carbonate deposits may have not fully formed in these
systems even though dissolved carbonate ions and peat bogs may exist. In addition,
descriptions of floodplain lake sediments for most modern rivers are lacking.
42
Table 2. List of Quaternary River Systems with Anastomosing Reaches
River System
N. Saskatchewan River
Location
Alberta, Canada
Reference
Smith & Smith, 1980
Mistaya River
Alberta, Canada
Smith & Smith, 1980
Alexandra River
Alberta, Canada
Smtih & Smith, 1980
Niger River
Central Mali, Africa
Makaske, 1998
Magdelena River
Colombia, S. Amer.
Smith &Smith, 1980; Smith, 1986
Tigris-Euphrates Delta
Mesopotamia
Aqrawi & Evans, 1994;
Baltzer & Purser 1990
Columbia River
B.C., Canada
Makaske, 1998; Makaske et al., 2002
Pecora River
Russia
Try et al., 1984
Lejowa Valley
Poland
Glazek, 1965
Ob River
Russia
Try et al., 1984
Volga River
Russia
Try et al., 1984
Yangtze River
China
Try et al., 1984
Jumahe River
China
Try et al., 1984
Indus River
Pakistan
Try et al., 1984
Mackenzie River
Canada
Try et al., 1984
S. Saskatchewan River
Canada
Smith & Putnam, 1980; Smith, 1983
Willamette River
sw Oregeon
Wallick et al., 2006
Mahakam River
Borneo
Flores & Ethridge, 1985
Araguaia River
Brazil
Try et al., 1984
Parana River
Argentina
Try et al., 1984
Rapaalven River
n Sweden
Axelsson, 1967
Pánuco River
Mexico
Hudson & Colditz, 2003
Cumberland Marshes
Canada
Try et al., 1984
Pitalito Basin
S. Africa
Bakker et al., 1989
Narew River
Poland
Gradzinski et al., 2003
References for Table 2 appear in Appendix G.
43
The database and citations given in Appendices A-F only represents a portion of
the data collected from ancient river examples because of space limitations. Appendix A
lists all ancient river systems found with their formation name, location, age,
width/thickness ratio for channels, river type, presence of carbonates, and presence of
carbonates in formations, but it only gives the location, the method of W/T collection,
and citations for each entry. Complete references for the citations in Appendix A are
found in Appendix F. Appendix B highlights the river deposits classified as anastomosing
with similar information as given in Appendix A. Appendix C lists the meandering river
deposits separately. Complete references for the citations in Appendix C are found in
Appendix F. Appendix D lists other anastomosing river entries that could not be
included in this study because they did not contain W/T measurements but may be useful
for further study.
Some fluvial deposit studies that included full facies descriptions were excluded
from this study because W/T was not measured. This limitation may be because fluvial
style assessments are hard to derive from limited core information, subsurface wire-logs,
and from stratigraphic columns that are widely dispersed.
Results
Overall, 232 river deposits were examined in the creation of this database. Total
number of river entries tabulated with W/T measurements was 176. These included 171
different formations of which 122 contained an anastomosing river deposits that were
differentiated separated from the formations’ other types of fluvial deposits. Of these, 56
44
of them were ancient anastomosing deposits with carbonate lake deposits. These deposits
also had carbonates in their provenance. This does not include the entries that did not
give a width/thickness ratio (found in Appendix D) even if carbonates were found
associated with them and they were classified as anastomosing. Regardless, this means
46% of the tabulated ancient anastomosing river deposits in this study have carbonate
lake deposits as part of floodplain facies and have source area carbonates. The
anastomosing river systems without carbonate lake deposits added up to a total of 66
entries with no carbonates found in their source area. The percentage of anastomosing
river deposits with no significant carbonates in their floodplain nor in their source area
amounts to 54%. Therefore, 100% of the definitively anastomosing river deposits with a
carbonate provenance accumulated carbonates within their flood basins. As theorized,
anastomosed river deposits require carbonate source areas to form carbonate lake
deposits. Thus, a large proportion of carbonate deposits are genetically related to
anastomosing rivers and carbonate lake formation is controlled by the presence of
significant carbonate source rocks.
Only twelve meandering river deposits identified as separate systems within
formations were found in the literature. This small limited sample size is because
meandering river floodplain deposits have a low preservation potential in the rock record
because of the processes of lateral migration (Gibling, 2006). None of these entries
contained carbonate lake deposits, though four entries were found to have significant
carbonates in their source area. This information suggests that carbonates do not
precipitate in a meandering system even if carbonates are present in the source area.
45
In the transitional category of anastomosing to meandering, 26 total examples
were identified with six having a carbonate source area as well as carbonate lake deposits
while thirteen had no carbonates in the floodplain or in the source area. Seven entries
had no carbonate lake deposits but carbonates in their source area. Entries in this
category had width/thickness ratios of 0-250. Another transitional category ranged from
anastomosing to braided and showed one entry with carbonate lake deposits and
provenance carbonates, while three had no carbonate lake deposits and two had
carbonates in the source area, but no carbonate lake deposits. With these examples
representing a broad range of river systems in a single formation, it is unclear exactly
what river systems contained carbonate floodplain lakes and what source area was
drained during their deposition.
Finally, a few braided deposits were included, showing three entries without
carbonates and no carbonate provenance and three with a carbonate provenance but no
carbonate deposits. A quick cursory examination of braided river systems showed no
carbonate lake deposits are present in ancient floodplains.
Thirty additional river deposits were examined but the studies did not have
useable width/thickness measurements. One example of a clearly anastomosing river
deposit that does not have a measured channel width/thickness ratio but has associated
thick carbonate deposits, is the Fenghuoshan Group of north-central Tibet in the Hoh Xil
Basin. The carbonates in this river deposit are intercalated with siliciclclastic lacustrine
and alluvial plain deposits and are interpreted as forming in temporary shallow lake
systems (Cyr et al., 2005).
46
Table 3: Results
River Style
Carbonates
in Lakes &
Provenance
No
Carbonates
No Carbonates
in Lakes, but
Carbonates in
Provenance
Anastomosing
56
66
0
Meandering
0
8
4
Anastomosing-Meandering
6
13
7
Anastomosing-Braided
1
3
2
Meandering-Braided
0
2
2
Braided
0
3
3
Total river entries tabulated with W/T measurements: 176 (from 171 formations).
Finally, 25 Quaternary examples of anastomosing river systems were documented
(Table 2). These entries were not included in the database because they are not yet
complete deposits as those in the geologic record. Direct comparisons are not possible but
the recognition of characteristic anastomosing characteristics is useful. One example
where a modern day anastomosing river system exists with carbonate lake deposits on its
floodplain is located on the Lower Mesopotamian Plain of Iraq where the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers flow (Baltzer and Purser, 1990; Aqrawi and Evans, 1994). The marshes
of the flood basins contain hundreds to thousands of shallow lakes with both carbonate
and siliciclastic sediments. Peat and organic deposits are also present but not extensive
47
perhaps because of the arid climate and possible low subsidence rates (Baltzer and
Purser, 1990; Aqrawi and Evans, 1994). The source area indeed contains carbonates.
Discussion
The hypothesis that carbonate lake deposits form preferentially in perennial
anastomosing river systems is supported by the collected data. No meandering river
floodplains contain carbonate lake deposits. In addition, the model presented here that
provenance is crucial to the accumulation of carbonates is supported. The hydrodynamics
of flood basin isolation from bedload is explained by relatively high levees that only
allow dissolved and suspended load during flooding events. Aggradational processes are
important in preserving floodplain deposits in anastomosing systems. Even though lateral
migration occurs in anastomosing river systems, this process is not as dominant and
lateral scours are limited in comparison to vertical aggradation in anastomosing river
systems. In contrast, meandering floodplain deposits have a low preservation potential
because of widespread lateral migration of channels. Thus, point bars deposits in
meandering rivers systems are very extensive while those in anastomosing river systems
are not.
Thus, because of lateral migration, the width/thickness ratios (W/T) of channels in
meandering river systems are larger than those of anastomosing river systems.
Meandering W/T is usually greater than 60 while anastomosing channel width/thickness
ratios are usually less than 10 (Gibling, 2006). Both anastomosing and meandering river
systems form floodplain lakes, but oxbow lakes in meandering river systems are not
48
stable for long periods of time and are filled by frequent overbank flooding events (Wren
et al., 2008). The lakes found in anastomosing river systems are stable and form in
protected flood basin areas surrounded by relatively high levees, only receiving
suspended to dissolved loads during most floods. This protection and isolation in
anastomosing systems is conducive to the precipitation of carbonates and to the
accumulation of peat/coal as well.
Other information that may help distinguish between the two river systems in the
geologic record is the presence and quantity of crevasse splay deposits. In anastomosing
systems, crevasse splays appear to be abundant and laterally extensive while, in
meandering river systems, they mostly absent or limited. The presence of upright tree
trunks might be a useful indicator for an anastomosing river deposit because of the
unique river dynamics. Flooding events and lateral accretion processes, like the erosion
of cut banks, differentially knock down and destroy large trees in meandering river
systems. Within anastomosing river systems, with high-velocity flooding events
generally restricted to channels and with suspended and dissolved load reaching
vegetation in flood basin areas, in situ tree trunks have a higher preservation potential.
This may be the case but few descriptions of upright tree trunks are documented in the
literature (Heward, 1978; Gibling and Rust, 1990; McKnight et al., 1990; Nadon, 1994;
Batson and Gibling, 2002; Bowen and Bloch, 2002). Many articles described “abundant
plant debris,” “root traces,” “tree trunks”, and “fossilized plant detritus”. The main
problem may be due to the low preservation potential of the wood material, but trunk
molds and molds of their upper root systems are difficult to identify in the fossil record
49
(Martel and Gibling, 1991; Melrose and Gibling, 2003). Any information on in situ tree
preservation was used to reinforce the classification of a river as anastomosing.
The river entries that were found to be anastomosing with no carbonate deposits
did not have carbonates in their source area, as theorized. It was interesting that no
meandering river deposits had carbonates associated with them even though five river
entries had a carbonate source area. These examples help confirm the idea that no
protected locations exist on a meandering fluvial floodplain and carbonate precipitation
does not occur in these systems. Even though some examples from the combined
category of anastomosing to meandering had carbonates associated with them, perhaps
the anastomosing systems in the fluvial successions are responsible for the accumulation
of lake carbonates. More field work will be necessary to confirm this.
No entries in the braided and braided-meandering categories had carbonate
deposits, as theorized. There was one river entry in the anastomosing to braided category
that had a carbonate lake deposit and this can be attributed to an anastomosing river
system. The inclusion of these mixed categories did lead to some ambiguous results but
since so many of the entries in the database belonged in this category, this information
could not be disregarded. These discrepancies exist because many of the deposits
included channel measurements from an entire suite of channels across a whole formation
containing a succession of fluvial styles through time, not just from one single fluvial
system. Many of the articles also contained width/thickness channel measurements that
classified a fluvial system contrary to the Gibling (2006) classification; these articles
were written before the advent of sequence stratigraphy (Vail et al., 1977) and without
50
the benefit of the newest advances in fluvial sedimentologic models. For example,
Englund (1974) classified the Mississippian Pocahontas Formation in the Appalachian
Basin as anastomosing to meandering with W/T ranging from 52.8-140.8. This range is
indeed across these two fluvial types and indicates measurements of at least two different
fluvial systems.
Other factors such as the abundance of crevasse splays and presence of upright
tree trunks confirmed if an entry was anastomosing or not. Many more entries could
have been added to include braided river deposits. But, since the floodplains of these
river systems do not contain any protected locations, they were disregarded in this
research. Only a few were included to reinforce the idea that carbonate deposits do not
form in association with them.
Overall, 46% of the tabulated ancient, anastomosing river deposits contain
floodplain carbonate lake deposits, to the exclusion of other river types. With 100% of
these river deposits having a carbonate source area, carbonate deposits are genetically
related to anastomosing river deposits. The other 54% of anastomosing river deposits
without carbonate indeed contained little to no carbonate source rocks in their source
area, indicating that carbonate lakes cannot develop without a significant amount of Carich rocks, such as marble, limestones, and dolomites, in the surrounding watershed.
Conclusions
Continental waters derive their highly variable chemistry directly from the
watershed in contrast to the well-defined chemistry of marine waters. Provenance is a key
51
indicator for the genesis of carbonates lakes as well as the type of fluvial depositional
paleoenvironment. River systems, which contain perennially protected areas on their
floodplain, are ideal localities to accumulate and preserve carbonate lacustrine and
palustrine deposits.
Two types of rivers that contain significant lakes on their floodplains,
anastomosing and meandering, were examined. It was shown that the lakes associated
with meandering rivers systems are very temporary and rarely preserved due to lateral
migration. On the other hand, the lakes found in anastomosing river systems are stable
over extended periods and form in protected flood basin areas surrounded by high levees,
only receiving suspended and dissolved load. This protection and isolation is conducive
to the precipitation of carbonates. Therefore, anastomosing river systems are the most
likely fluvial style to form carbonate lake deposits.
The reasons that anastomosing rivers can form carbonate deposits are: (1)
anastomosing rivers possess concave-upward interchannel areas or flood basins that are
conducive to lake development and vertical aggradational processes promote preservation
of lake deposits, (2) suspended and dissolved load generally enter these flood basins
during flooding events where Ca-rich waters can precipitate carbonates and the absence
of siliciclastic bedload can promote peat growth and coal formation, and (3) stable
channels do not erase lake deposits by extensive lateral migration. Meandering and
braided river systems seem less likely to form carbonate lakes because they carry bedload
sediments across their meander belt no where no significant areas are isolated from
siliciclastic input and their channels are generally unstable through time.
52
Future Work and Significance
To increase the number of anastomosed river deposits in this database, better
measurements of channel deposits are needed. The sedimentology of river deposits from
the older literature need to be reassessed using sequence stratigraphic methods to identify
the evolution of river systems through time in the formations of continental basins and
measure W/T separately in the different river systems. Appendix D lists river deposits in
which published studies do not contain definitive W/T measurements and lack detailed
sedimentologic and sequence stratigraphic descriptions. Adding this information to the
collected data would enhance the results. More information regarding present day river
systems needs to be collected to more fully understand their preservation potential and
parameters in comparison to ancient examples.
The data collected are important in the refinement of fluvial sedimentologic
models for exploration. Applications of this research include enhancing coal recovery,
refining porosity and permeability measurements, and improving oil and natural gas
recovery within ancient fluvial rocks. The easy recognition of anastomosing river
deposits in the geologic record using the presence of carbonate floodplain deposits will
simplify field work and augment sedimentologic analyses.
53
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APPENDIX A: DATABASE OF ANCIENT RIVER SYSTEMS
Table 4. River Systems
Age
Location
W/T
River type
Carbonates
Carb. In
Prov.
Devonian
New York
7.5-20
A
Y
Y
Devonian
South Wales
1-3
A
Y
Y
Devonian
South Wales
11.67
A
Y
Y
Devonian
South Wales
5
A
Y
Y
5
Oneonta Fm. (Catskill Magnafacies)
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex A
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex B
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex C
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex D
Devonian
South Wales
15
A
Y
Y
6
Zoologdalen Fm.
Devonian
Greenland
5-6
A
N
N
7
Kapp Kjeldsen; Wood Bay Fm.
Devonian
Spitsbergen, Norway
57-60
A
Y
Y
8
Bulgeri Fm.
Upper Devonian
Queensland, Australia
6
A
N
N
9
Formation (Fm.)
1
2
3
4
Member (Mb.)
Castlehaven Fm.
Upper Devonian
southern Ireland
3.3-5
A
Y
Y
10
Lower Kekiktuk Fm.
Mississippian
northeast Alaska
35.88
A
Y
Y
11
Pocahontas Fm.
Mississippian
SW Virginia; S West Virginia
52.8-140.8
A-M
N
Y
12
Fletcher Bank Grit
Mississippian
Lancashire, England
>27.59
A
N
N
24
A
N
N
12.4
A
N
N
>72.73
M
N
N
15-30
A
N
N
13
14
Westcoe Coal Fm.
Animas Fm.
Mississippian
England
Mississippian
southern Scotland
46.32
A
N
N
100
M
N
N
222.22
M
N
N
2.5-3.3
A
N
N
15
Threequarter Seam
Mississippian/Penn.
North Derbyshire, England
60
A
N
N
16
Malpas Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Catalonian Pyrenees
16.67-30
A
N
N
17
Sydney Mines Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Atlantic Canada
2.86-5.56
A
N
N
68
18
Springhill Mines Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Nova Scotia, Canada
19
Joggins Fm.
Pennsylvanian
20
Boss Point Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Nova Scotia, Canada
New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia
21
Sandia Fm.
Pennsylvanian
New Mexico
22
Salvan-Dorenaz Basin Fill
Pennsylvanian
Switzerland/France
23
Port Hood Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Nova Scotia, Canada
24
Seaton Sluice Ss.
Pennsylvanian
England
25
Waddens Cove Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Nova Scotia, Canada
3-37
A
N
N
0.46-51
A
N
N
>32
A
N
N
15.63
A
N
N
17
A
N
N
15-20
A
Y
Y
>15
A
N
N
190
M
N
N
13.14,8
A
N
N
26
Petersburg Fm. Springfield Coal Mb.
Pennsylvanian
Indiana
42.11-454.55
A-M
N
N
27
Breathitt Gp.
Pennsylvanian
eastern Kentucky
66.67-166.67
M
N
N
28
Pastora Fm.
Pennsylvanian
northern Spain
6.67-66.67
A-M
N
Y
29
Warwickshire Thick Coal
Pennsylvanian
England
5-50
A
N
N
30
Durham Coal Measures
Pennsylvanian
England
142.86
M
N
N
31
Coal Measures(Westphalian)
Pennsylvanian
South Wales
2-3
A
N
N
≤ 73
A-M
Y
Y
100-1066.67
M-B
N
Y
12.5-33.35
A
N
N
12.5
A
Y
Y
30.26
A
N
N
Pennsylvania
2.4
A
Y
Y
West Virginia
>40
A
Y
Y
New Mexico
≤ 40
A
Y
Y
N
32
Clifton Fm.
Pennsylvanian
New Brunswick, Canada
33
Pennsylvanian
north-west Germany
34
Lower Coal Measures
Lower/Upper Mahoning Mb. Conemaugh
Gp.
Pennsylvanian
Ohio
35
Grafton Ss. Conemaugh Gp.
Pennsylvanian
northern West Virginia
36
Vamoosa Fm. Gypsy Ss.
Oklahoma
37
Upper Freeport Fm.
38
Monongaela-Dunkard groups
39
Cutler Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Middle
Pennsylvanian
Upper
Penn./Permian
Upper
Penn./Permian
40
Archer City & Nocona Fms.
Lower Permian
Texas
8.33
A
N
41
Shanxi Fm.
Lower Permian
China
<30
A
N
N
42
Leard and Maules Creek Fm.
Lower Permian
eastern Australia
40-200
A-M
N
N
43
Bainmedart Coal Measure Toploje Mb.
Permian
eastern Antarctica
6.66
A
N
N
44
Bainmedart Coal Measure Dragon Teeth Mb
Permian
eastern Antarctica
3.33-33.33
A
Y
Y
69
45
Ecca Group
Permian
Zululand, South Africa
2-15
A
N
N
46
Ecca Gp.
Permian
South Africa
45.45
A
N
N
47
Beaufort Gp.
Permian
South Africa
12, 14
A
Y
Y
17.86
A
Y
Y
15
A
Y
Y
30
A
Y
Y
34.09
A
Y
Y
22.73
A
Y
Y
33.33
A
Y
Y
3.18
A
Y
Y
48
Beaufort Gp.
Permian
South Africa
49
Barren Measures Fm.
Permian
India
35.71-200
A-M
N
N
50
Barakar Fm.
Permian
India
48-76
A-M
N
N
51
Rangal Coal Measure
Permian
Australia
37.5 - 154
A-M
N
N
52
Goonyella Coal Measure
Permian
Australia
M
N
N
53
German Creek Fm.
Upper Permian
Australia
80-160
142.86714.29
M-B
N
N
30-50
A
N
N
12.5
A
N
N
54
Betts Creek Bed
Upper Permian
Queensland, Australia
55
Bijori Fm.
Upper Permian
India
56
Newcastle Coal Measure
Upper Permian
eastern Australia
50-200
A-M
N
N
57
Uralian Foreland Basin Deposits
Upper Permian
Russia
2.5-50
A
Y
Y
58
Buntsandstein Sequence
Permian, Triassic
central Spain
3.89-10
A
N
N
59
Tanzhuang Fm.
Triassic
China
6.25-10
A
Y
Y
60
Limos y Areniscas de Rillo Fm.
Triassic
Spain
26-44
A
Y
Y
61
Chinle Fm. Moss Back Mb.
Upper Triassic
Utah/Arizona
22.22-50
A
Y
Y
62
Chinle Fm. Petrified Forest Mb.
Upper Triassic
Utah/Arizona
35
A
Y
Y
63
Chinle Fm. Owl Rock Mb.
Upper Triassic
Utah/Arizona
>33.33
A
Y
Y
64
Callide Coal Measure
Queensland, Australia
6.67
A
N
N
N
65
Elliot Fm.
Upper Triassic
U. Triassic/L.
Jurassic
66
Kayenta Fm.
Jurassic
SW USA
67
Zone Y10
Jurassic
northwestern China
South Africa
>20
A
N
8-200
A-M
Y
Y
<15
A
N
N
70
68
Ness Fm.
Middle Jurassic
northern North Sea
71.43-500
M-B
N
N
69
Ravenscar Gp.
Middle Jurassic
Yorkshire, England
5-60
A
N
N
70
Scalby Fm.
Middle Jurassic
U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.)
2.5-46.67
A
N
N
71
Scalby Fm.
Middle Jurassic
U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.)
3.33-166.67
A-M
N
N
72
Scalby Fm.
Middle Jurassic
U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.)
10
A
N
N
11.67
A
N
N
73
Saltwick Fm.
Middle Jurassic
Yorkshire, England
74
Morrison Fm.; Brushy Basin Sh. Mb.
upper Jurassic
Colorado
75
Salt Wash Member, Morrison Fm.
Upper Jurassic
Four Corners area, SW USA
76
Sergi Fm.
Upper Jurassic
Brazil
77
Shishu Fm.
Upper Jurassic
Xinjiang, China
78
El Castellar Fm.
U. Jurassic/L. Cret.
Spain
79
Nubian Facies
U. Jurassic/L. Cret.
Egypt
60
A
N
N
17-30
A
N
N
10.1
A
Y
Y
53-59
A
N
N
>30
A
N
N
15.45
A
N
N
<100
A-M
Y
Y
3.33-100
A-M
N
N
18.18-45.45
A
N
N
50
A
N
N
3.53-40.91
A
Y
Y
1.58-125
A-M
N
N
50
A
Y
Y
8.57
A
N
N
80
Mist Mountain Fm. Kootenay Gp.
U. Jurassic/L. Cret.
Alberta and B.C., Canada
81
Wessex Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Southern England
82
Cloverly Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Wyoming and Montana
83
Mattagami Fm.
LowernCretaceous
Ontario, Canada
84
Cedar Mountain Fm.; Ruby Ranch Mb.
Lower Cretaceous
Utah
85
Manville Gp.
Lower Cretaceous
Alberta and Saskatchewan
86
Piedrahita de Muno Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Spain
5-10
A
Y
Y
87
Escucha Fm. Upper Mb.
Lower Cretaceous
northeastern Spain
1250
B
N
Y
88
Kootenai Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Montana
8.6-17
A
Y
Y
89
Khuren Dukh Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Mongolia
10
A
N
N
2.5-100
A
N
N
10
A
N
N
300-1920
B
N
Y
0.19-33
A
N
N
90
Cuerda del Pozo Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
north-central Spain
91
McMurray Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Alberta
92
Gates Fm. Falher Mb.
Lower Cretaceous
western Canada
93
Hasandong Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
South Korea
94
Haizhou Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
northeastern China
95
Subzone SII (13-16)
Lower Cretaceous
Daqing, China
5-15
A
N
N
20-40
A
N
N
71
96
Matasiete Fm. Lower Mb. Chubut Gp.
Lower Cretaceous
Argentina
<10
A
Y
Y
97
Matasiete Fm. Middle Mb. Chubut Gp.
Lower Cretaceous
Argentina
avg. 21
A
Y
Y
Y
98
Matasiete Fm. Upper Mb. Chubut Gp.
Lower Cretaceous
Argentina
<20
A
Y
99
Castillo Fm.
Cretaceous
Argentina
>15
A
Y
Y
100
Ericson Fm. Canyon Creek Mb.
Cretaceous
Wyoming
50
A
N
N
101
Blackhawk Fm.
Cretaceous
central Utah
>15
A
N
N
11.92-500
A-B
N
Y
2-4
A
N
N
102
Castlegate Fm.
Cretaceous
central Utah
103
Kogokri Unit
Cretaceous
Korea
104
Helvetiafjellet Fm.
Cretaceous
Svalbard
46.67-300
A-B
N
N
105
Bajo Barreal Fm.
Cretaceous
Argentina
17-53
A
Y
Y
106
St. Mary River Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
8-27
A
Y
Y
107
Dinosaur Park Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
28
A
N
N
22
A
N
N
108
Dakota Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
southwest Utah
7-20
A
N
N
109
Straight Cliffs Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
southern Utah
10-60
A
N
N
110
Kaiparowits Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
southern Utah
<15
A
Y
Y
111
Atane Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Greenland
61.25-245
M
N
N
5.5-33
A
N
N
N
112
Dunvegan Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
British Columbia, Canada
<30
A
N
113
Crevasse Canyon Fm. Bartlett Mb.
Upper Cretaceous
New Mexico
333.33-1000
B
N
Y
114
Crevasse Canyon Fm. Gibson Coal Mb.
Upper Cretaceous
New Mexico
100
M
N
Y
115
Lower Williams Fork Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Colorado
avg. 58.74
A
N
N
116
North Horn Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
central Utah
20-200
A
Y
Y
117
Two Medecine Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
western Montana
20-200
A-M
N
N
118
Lenticular Ss. & Shale Sequence
Upper Cretaceous
Wyoming
10-20
A
Y
Y
119
Messak Ss.
Upper Cretaceous
Libya
1.5-2000
A-B
N
N
120
Horseshoe Canyon Fm. Coal-bearing unit
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
B
N
N
121
Horseshoe Canyon Fm. Fine-grained unit
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
600-2400
20003333.33
B
N
N
122
Oldman Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
10
A
N
N
123
Cardium Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
33.33-100
A-M
N
N
72
124
Calcaire de Rognac Fm.
Cret.-Paleocene
Southern France
125
Ferris Fm.
Cret.-Paleocene
south central Wyoming
0.6-1
A
Y
Y
75-333.33
M-B
N
Y
Y
126
Raton Fm.
Cret.-Paleocene
Colorado/New Mexico
2 - 120
A-M
N
127
Hell Creek Fm.
Cret.-Paleocene
Montana and North Dakota
<83.33
A-M
N
Y
128
Fort Union Fm. Tullock Mb.
Paleocene
Wyoming
1-100
A-M
Y
Y
129
Fort Union Fm.
Paleocene
Wyoming
<33
A
Y
Y
48.31
A
Y
Y
130
Bullion Creek Fm.
Paleocene
Montana
100-200
M
N
Y
131
Sentinel Butte Fm.
Paleocene
Montana
33.33-300
A-B
N
Y
132
Ludlow and Lower Slope Fm.
Paleocene
Montana
64
M
N
Y
133
Paskapoo Fm.
Paleocene
Alberta, Canada
13.33
A
N
N
134
Willwood Fm.
Paleo.-Eocene
Wyoming
40-150
A-M
Y
Y
135
Kuldana Fm.
Eocene
Pakistan
38522
A
Y
Y
136
Escanilla Fm.
Eocene
Spain
<15
A
Y
Y
137
Escanilla Fm.
Eocene
Spain
15-25
A
Y
Y
138
Escanilla Fm.
Eocene
Spain
24-150
A-M
Y
Y
139
Bournemouth Fm
Eocene
Dorset, England
140
Green River Fm.
Eocene
141
Wasatch Fm.
Eocene
142
Bridger Fm. Unit B
Eocene
143
Guarga Fm.
144
Amphitheatre Fm.
South Dakota
60avg.
A
Y
Y
20-166.67
A-M
N
Y
Wyoming
<83.33-500
A-B
Y
Y
Wyoming
105 - 165
M
N
Y
SW Wyoming
2.5-3.75
A
Y
Y
Spain
0.38-0.6
A
Y
Y
Alaska
16.67-40
A
N
N
145
Middle and Upper Borna beds
U. Eocene
U.
Eocene/Oligocene
U.
Eocene/Oligocene
146
Brule Fm.
Oligocene
147
Tortola Fan Fm.
Oligocene-Miocene
Spain
148
Uncastillo Fm.
northern Spain
Turkey
Spain
149
Yeniçubuk/Middle Soma Fm.
Lower Miocene
lower-middle
Miocene
150
Castissent Fm.
Miocene
Germany
5-5000
A-B
N
N
8.75-16.66
A
Y
Y
14.17-212.5
A-M
N
Y
avg <15
A
Y
Y
5-15
A
Y
Y
50-250
A-M
N
Y
73
151
Kızılburun Fm.
Miocene
Turkey
3.33-10
A
Y
Y
152
Montello Conglomerate
Miocene
Italy
2.67-9.47
A
N
N
153
Shakardarra Fm.
Miocene
Pakistan
1000-3000
B
N
N
154
Vinchina Fm.
Miocene
Argentina
<30
A
N
N
6.67-100
A-M
N
N
20-42.5
A
Y
Y
<50
A
Y
Y
about 25
A
N
N
Spain
1.5
A
N
N
Southwest Japan
>3
A
N
N
155
Prangat Fm.
Miocene
Indonesia
156
Lower Freshwater Molasse
Miocene
Switzerland
157
Tariquia Fm.
Bolivia
158
Clayey-coal Unit- Upper Mb.
159
Intermediate Unit
160
Tokai Gp.
161
Tatrot/Pinjor Fm.
Upper Miocene
MiocenePleistocene
MiocenePleistocene
MiocenePleistocene
MiocenePleistocene
162
Fosso Bianco Fm.
Pliocene
163
St. David Fm. (M.Mbr.)
164
Unit 5
central Poland
India
≥ 7 - 26
A
N
N
Umbria, central Italy
1.2-9
A
Y
Y
Plio-Pleist
southeastern Arizona
<15
A
Y
Y
Plio-Pleist
southern Spain
2-7
A
Y
Y
avg. 6
A
N
N
<15
A
Y
Y
165
Upper Dupi Tila Fm.
Plio-Pleist
Bangladesh, India
166
Chalk Hills Fm.
Plio-Pleist
Idaho
167
Glenns Ferry Fm.
Plio-Pleist
Idaho
168
Muda Fm.
Plio-Holocen
15
A
Y
Y
20-120
A-M
N
N
169
Warners and Massenetta Series
L. Holocene
Indonesia
western Maryland and
Virginia
around 10
A
Y
Y
170
Niobrara River Fm.
Holocene
Nebraska
2.5-60
A
N
N
171
Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm.
M. Holocene
Netherlands
39.44
A
N
N
43.33
A
N
N
26.09
A
N
N
9.64
A
N
N
14.58
A
N
N
22.32
A
N
N
23.21
A
N
N
74
171
Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm.
continued
18.27
A
N
N
8.11
A
N
N
12.33
A
N
N
11.73
A
N
N
8.89
A
N
N
7.39
A
N
N
4.76
A
N
N
9.87
A
N
N
10.59
A
N
N
10.71
A
N
N
36.36
A
N
N
82.61
M
N
N
51.28
A
N
N
94.87
M
N
N
67.86
M
N
N
66.67
M
N
N
Citations for Table 4 above (Method refers to mode of collection, see text for explanation:
Formation (Fm.)
1
2
3
4
5
Member (Mb.)
Oneonta Fm. (Catskill Magnafacies)
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex A
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex B
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex C
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex D
Location
Method
References
New York
C
Demicco et al., 1987; Gordon and Bridge, 1987; Dunagan and Driese, 1999
South Wales
B
Owen and Hawley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2006; Woodcock, 2000
South Wales
B
Owen and Hawley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2006; Woodcock, 2000
South Wales
B
Owen and Hawley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2006; Woodcock, 2000
South Wales
B
Owen and Hawley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2006; Woodcock, 2000
75
6
Zoologdalen Fm.
Greenland
B
Olsen and Larsen, 1993
7
Kapp Kjeldsen; Wood Bay Fm.
Spitsbergen, Norway
B
Moody-Stuart, 1966; Blomeier et al., 2003
8
Bulgeri Fm.
Queensland, Australia
B
Veevers, 1984; Lang and Fielding, 1991; Lang, 1993;
9
Castlehaven Fm.
souther Ireland
B
Graham, 1983; MacCarthy, 1990; Woodcock, 2000
10
Lower Kekiktuk Fm.
northeast Alaska
B
Melvin, 1987
11
Pocahontas Fm.
SW Virginia; S West Virginia
D
Englund, 1974
12
Fletcher Bank Grit
Lancashire, England
B
Okolo, 1983; Hallsworth et al., 2000; Warr, 2000
13
Westcoe Coal Fm.
England
B
Keogh et al., 2005; Warr, 2000
14
Animas Fm.
southern Scotland
B
Andrews et al., 1991; Craig, 1983
15
Threequarter Seam
North Derbyshire, England
C
Guion, 1984
16
Malpas Fm.
Catalonian Pyrenees
C
Besly and Collinson, 2006
17
Sydney Mines Fm.
Atlantic Canada
A
Batson and Gibling, 2002
18
Springhill Mines Fm.
Nova Scotia, Canada
A
Rust et al., 1984
19
Joggins Fm.
Nova Scotia, Canada
A
Rygel, 2005
20
Boss Point Fm.
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia
B
Browne and Plint, 1994; Plint and Browne, 1994
21
Sandia Fm.
New Mexico
B
Soegaard, 1991
22
Salvan-Dorenaz Basin Fill
Switzerland/France
B
Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004
23
Port Hood Fm.
Nova Scotia, Canada
D
Keighley and Pickerill, 1996
24
Seaton Sluice Ss.
England
B
Haszeldine, 1983; Holdsworth et al., 2000
25
Waddens Cove Fm.
Nova Scotia, Canada
A
Gibling and Rust, 1990
26
Petersburg Fm. Springfield Coal Mb.
Indiana
D
Eggert, 1984; Kolata and Nelson, 1988; Treworgy et al., 1997
27
Breathitt Gp.
eastern Kentucky
E
Aitken and Flint, 1995; Eble et al., 2002
28
Pastora Fm.
northern Spain
D
Heward, 1978; Bruner and Smosna, 2000
29
Warwickshire Thick Coal
England
F
Fulton, 1987; Warr, 2000
30
Durham Coal Measures
England
B
Fielding, 1986; Warr, 2000
31
Coal Measures(Westphalian)
South Wales
B
Bluck and Kelling, 1963
32
Clifton Fm.
New Brunswick, Canada
B
Rust and Legun, 1983
33
Lower Coal Measures
north-west Germany
D
Hampson et al., 1999; Koenigswald and Meyer, 1994
34
Lower/Upper Mahoning Mb.Conemaugh Gp
Ohio
D
Donaldson, 1974
35
Grafton Ss. Conemaugh Gp.
northern West Virginia
B
Morton and Donaldson, 1978
36
Vamoosa Fm. Gypsy Ss.
Oklahoma
B
Doyle and Sweet, 1995
76
37
Upper Freeport Fm.
Pennsylvania
E
Garcés et al., 1997
38
Monongaela-Dunkard groups
West Virginia
B
Ghosh, 1987
39
Cutler Fm.
New Mexico
B
Eberth and Miall, 1991
40
Archer City & Nocona Fms..
Texas
B
Sander, 1989; Tabor and Montañez, 2004
41
Shanxi Fm.
China
B
Zhang et al., 1997; Rongxi and Youzhu, 2008
42
Leard and Maules Creek Fm.
eastern Australia
D
Hunt and Holday, 1984
43
eastern Antarctica
C
Fielding and Webb, 1996; McLoughlin and Drinnan, 1997
44
Bainmedart Coal Measure Toploje Mb.
Bainmedart Coal Measure Dragon Teeth
Mb.
eastern Antarctica
C
Fielding and Webb, 1996; McLoughlin and Drinnan, 1997
45
Ecca Group
Zululand, South Africa
B
Hobday, 1978; Turner and Whateley, 1983; Petters, 1991
46
Ecca Gp.
South Africa
A
Cairncross, 1980; Petters, 1991
47
Beaufort Gp.
South Africa
A
Stear, 1983; Petters, 1991
48
Beaufort Gp.
South Africa
A
Stear, 1983; Turner, 1978; Petters, 1991
49
Barren Measures Fm.
India
D
Casshyap and Tewari 1984
50
Barakar Fm.
India
B
Casshyap and Tewari 1984
51
Rangal Coal Measure
Australia
A
Veveers, 1984; Fielding et al., 1993; Michaelsen et al., 2000
52
Goonyella Coal Measure
Australia
D
Johnson, 1984; Veveers, 1984
53
German Creek Fm.
Australia
D
Veevers, 1984; Falkner and Fielding, 1993
54
Betts Creek Bed
Queensland, Australia
F
Veveers, 1984; Allen and Fielding, 2007
55
Bijori Fm.
India
C
Chakraborty and Sarkar, 2005
56
Newcastle Coal Measure
eastern Australia
D
Hunt and Holday, 1984; Veveers, 1984
57
Uralian Foreland Basin Deposits
Russia
D
Newell et al., 1999
58
Buntsandstein Sequence
central Spain
D
Ramos and Sopena, 1983; Gibbons and Moreno, 2002
59
Tanzhuang Fm.
China
F
Mangano et al., 1994; Yuejun et al., 2002
60
Limos y Areniscas de Rillo Fm.
Spain
A
Munoz et al., 1992
61
Chinle Fm. Moss Back Mb.
Utah/Arizona
C
Dubiel, 1991
62
Chinle Fm. Petrified Forest Mb.
Utah/Arizona
A
Blackey and Gubitosa, 1984; Dubiel, 1991
63
Chinle Fm. Owl Rock Mb.
Utah/Arizona
F
Tanner, 2000
64
Callide Coal Measure
Queensland, Australia
B
Veveers, 1984; Jorgensen and Fielding, 1996
65
Elliot Fm.
South Africa
B
Eriksson, 1985; Petters, 1991; Bordy et al., 2004
66
Kayenta Fm.
SW USA
A
North and Taylor, 1996
77
67
Zone Y10
northwestern China
F
Qiu et al., 1987
68
Ness Fm.
northern North Sea
C
Ryseth, 2000
69
Ravenscar Gp.
Yorkshire, England
B
Mjos et al., 1993; Hesselbo, 2000
70
Scalby Fm.
U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.)
A
Nami and Leeder, 1978; Hesselbo, 2000
71
Scalby Fm.
U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.)
A
Nami and Leeder, 1978; Hesselbo, 2000
72
Scalby Fm.
U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.)
A
Eschard et al., 1991; Hesselbo, 2000
73
Saltwick Fm.
Yorkshire, England
B
Dreyer, 1990; Mjos and Prestholm, 1993; Hesselbo, 2000
74
Morrison Fm.; Brushy Basin Sh. Mb.
Colorado
B
Campbell, 1976; Richmond and Morris, 1996; Dunagan, 2000
75
Salt Wash Member, Morrisson Fm.
Four Corners area, SW USA
C
Peterson and Tyler, 1985; Robinson and McCabe, 1997
76
Sergi Fm.
Brazil
B
Scherer et al., 2007
McKnight et al., 1990; Carrol et al., 1995
77
Shishu Fm.
Xinjiang, China
B
78
El Castellar Fm.
Spain
B
Liesa et al., 2006
79
Nubian Facies
D
Bhattacharyya and Lorenz, 1983; Tawadros, 2001
80
Mist Mountain Fm. Kootenay Gp.
Egypt
Alberta and British Colombia,
Canada
D
Dustin and Bustin, 1987; Bustin and Dunlop, 1992
81
Wessex Fm.
Southern England
B
Stewart, 1983; Gale, 2000
82
Cloverly Fm.
Wyoming and Montana
D
Ostrom, 1970; Zaleha et al., 2001
83
Mattagami Fm.
Ontario, Canada
A
Try et al., 1984; Long, 2000
84
Cedar Mountain Fm.; Ruby Ranch Mb.
Utah
B
Stokes, 1944; Masters et al., 2004
85
Manville Gp.
Alberta and Saskatchewan
B
Putnam, 1983
86
Piedrahita de Muno Fm.
Spain
B
Platt, 1989a; Platt, 1989b; Platt, 1990; Platt and Meyer, 1991
87
Escucha Fm. Upper Mb.
northeastern Spain
B
Querol et al., 1992
88
Kootenai Fm.
Montana
D
Hopkins, 1985
89
Khuren Dukh Fm.
Mongolia
C
Ito et al., 2005
90
Cuerda del Pozo Fm.
north-central Spain
F
Clemente and Pérez-Arlucea, 1993
91
McMurray Fm.
Alberta
B
Mossop and Flach, 2006
92
Gates Fm. Falher Mb.
western Canada
C
Wadsworth et al., 2003
93
Hasandong Fm.
South Korea
D
Choi, 1986; Paik et al., 2001; Jo, 2003
94
Haizhou Fm.
northeastern China
D
Chonglong et al., 1992
95
Subzone SII (13-16)
Daqing, China
D
Qiu et al., 1987
96
Matasiete Fm. Lower Mb. Chubut Gp.
Argentina
D
Paredes et al., 2007
78
97
Matasiete Fm. Middle Mb. Chubut Gp.
Argentina
D
Paredes et al., 2007
98
Matasiete Fm. Upper Mb. Chubut Gp.
Argentina
D
Paredes et al., 2007
Castillo Fm.
Argentina
D
Paredes et al., 2007
Ericson Fm. Canyon Creek Mb.
Wyoming
B
Martinsen et al., 1999
101
Blackhawk Fm.
central Utah
D
Adams and Bhattacharya, 2005
102
Castlegate Fm.
central Utah
D
Adams and Bhattacharya, 2005; McLaurin and Steel, 2007
103
Kogokri Unit
Korea
C
Ryang and Chough, 1999
104
Helvetiafjellet Fm.
Svalbard
D
Nemec, 1992
99
100
105
Bajo Barreal Fm.
Argentina
D
Bridge et al., 2000; Sylwan, 2001
106
St. Mary River Fm.
Alberta, Canada
A
Nadon 1993, 1994
107
Dinosaur Park Fm.
Alberta, Canada
A
Wood 1989; Eberth and Hamblin, 1993; Hamblin, 1997
108
Dakota Fm.
southwest Utah
A
Kirschbaum and McCabe, 1992; Ulicny, 1999
109
Straight Cliffs Fm.
southern Utah
A
Shanley and McCabe, 1993
110
Kaiparowits Fm.
southern Utah
D
Roberts, 2007
111
Atane Fm.
Greenland
D
Olsen, 1993
112
Dunvegan Fm.
British Columbia, Canada
A
McCarthy et al., 1999
113
Crevasse Canyon Fm. Bartlett Mb.
New Mexico
C
Cavaroc and Flores, 1984
114
Crevasse Canyon Fm. Gibson Coal Mb.
New Mexico
C
Cavaroc and Flores, 1984
115
Lower Williams Fork Fm.
Colorado
D
Cole and Cumella, 2005
116
North Horn Fm.
central Utah
D
Spieker, 1946; Olsen, 1995
Lorenz and Gavin, 1984; Fink and Schmitt, 1999; Roberts and Hendrix,
2000
117
Two Medecine Fm.
western Montana
D
118
Lenticular Ss. & Shale Sequence
Wyoming
D
Shuster and Steidtmann, 1987
119
Messak Ss.
Libya
D
Bhattacharyya and Lorenz, 1983; Tawadros, 2001
120
Horseshoe Canyon Fm. Coal-bearing unit
Alberta, Canada
C
Nurkowski and Rahmani, 1983
121
Horseshoe Canyon Fm. Fine-grained unit
Alberta, Canada
C
Nurkowski and Rahmani, 1984
122
Oldman Fm.
Alberta, Canada
D
Putnam, 1993
123
Cardium Fm.
Alberta, Canada
B
Plint et al. 1988; Hart et al., 2003
124
Calcaire de Rognac Fm.
Southern France
D
Cojan, 1993; Léonide et al., 2007
125
Ferris Fm.
south central Wyoming
F
Jones and Hajek, 2007
126
Raton Fm.
Colorado/New Mexico
B
Flores and Pillmore, 1987
79
127
Hell Creek Fm.
Montana and North Dakota
D
Butler and Hartman, 1999; Hartman et al., 2002
128
Fort Union Fm. Tullock Mb.
Wyoming
D
Johnson and Pierce, 1990; Nichols and Brown, 1992
129
Fort Union Fm.
Wyoming
A
Warwick and Stanton, 1988
130
Bullion Creek Fm.
Montana
F
Cherven and Jacob, 1985
131
Sentinel Butte Fm.
Montana
F
Cherven and Jacob, 1985
132
Ludlow and Lower Slope Fm.
Montana
B
Cherven and Jacob, 1985
133
Paskapoo Fm.
Alberta, Canada
D
Smith, 2005
134
Willwood Fm.
Wyoming
A
Jones and Hajek, 2007; Bowen and Bloch, 2002; Kraus and Gwinn, 1997
135
Kuldana Fm.
Pakistan
A
Wells, 1983
136
Escanilla Fm.
Spain
A
Bentham et et al., 1993
137
Escanilla Fm.
Spain
A
Bentham et et al., 1993
138
Escanilla Fm.
Spain
A
Dreyer et al., 1993
139
Bournemouth Fm
Dorset, England
D
Plint, 1983; Anderton, 2000
140
Green River Fm.
Wyoming
D
Sklenar and Andersen, 1985
141
Wasatch Fm.
Wyoming
A
Warwick and Flores, 1987
142
Bridger Fm. Unit B
SW Wyoming
C
Buchheim et al., 2000
143
Guarga Fm.
Spain
F
Nickel, 1982
144
Amphitheatre Fm.
Alaska
D
Ridgeway and DeCelles, 1993
145
Middle and Upper Borna beds
Germany
C
Halfar et al., 1998
146
Brule Fm.
South Dakota
D
Ritter and Wolfe, 1958; Terry and Kosmidis, 2004
147
Tortola Fan Fm.
Spain
B
Diaz-Molina, 1993; Gibbons and Moreno, 2002
148
Uncastillo Fm.
northern Spain
B
Nichols, 1987; Turner, 1992
149
Yeniçubuk/Middle Soma Fm.
Turkey
D
Türkmen and Kerey, 2000; İnci , 2002
150
Castissent Fm.
Spain
D
Marzo et al., 1988
151
Kızılburun Fm.
Turkey
F
Alçiçek, 2007
152
Montello Conglomerate
Italy
C
Massari et al., 1993
153
Shakardarra Fm.
Pakistan
F
Abbasi, 1994
154
Vinchina Fm.
Argentina
B
Limarino et al., 2001
155
Prangat Fm.
Indonesia
F
Land and Jones, 1987
156
Lower Freshwater Molasse
Switzerland
B
Burgisser, 1984; Morend et al., 2002
157
Tariquia Fm.
Bolivia
F
Uba et al., 2005
80
158
Clayey-coal Unit- Upper Mb.
central Poland
F
Krzyszkowski, 1993
159
Intermediate Unit
Spain
B
Alonso Zarza et al., 1993
160
Tokai Gp.
Southwest Japan
B
Nakayama, 1996
161
Tatrot/Pinjor Fm.
India
B
Kumar and Tandon, 1985; Thomas et al., 2002
162
Fosso Bianco Fm.
Umbria, central Italy
D
Cavinato and De Celles, 1999; Basilici, 2000
163
St. David Fm. (M.Mbr.)
southeastern Arizona
A
Smith, 1994
164
Unit 5
southern Spain
D
Soria et al., 1998
165
Upper Dupi Tila Fm.
Bangledesh, India
D
Gani and Alam, 2004
166
Chalk Hills Fm.
Idaho
B
Middleton et al., 1985
167
Glenns Ferry Fm.
Idaho
A
Kraus and Middleton, 1987
168
Muda Fm.
Indonesia
F
Darmadi, 2007
169
Warners and Massenetta Series
western Maryland and Virginia
D
Shaw and Rabenhorst, 1997
170
Niobrara River Fm.
Nebraska
D
Bristow et al., 1999
171
Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm.
Netherlands
A
Tornqvist et al., 1993; Makaske, 1998; Makaske et al., 2007
Reference list can be found in Appendix F.
81
APPENDIX B: ANASTOMOSING ENTRIES FROM APPENDIX A
Table 5. Anastomosing Entries
Age
Location
W/T
River
type
Carbonates
Carb. In
Prov.
Devonian
New York
7.5-20
A
Y
Y
Devonian
South Wales
1-3
A
Y
Y
Devonian
South Wales
11.67
A
Y
Y
Devonian
South Wales
5
A
Y
Y
5
Oneonta Fm. (Catskill Magnafacies)
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex A
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex B
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex C
Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel
Complex D
Devonian
South Wales
15
A
Y
Y
6
Zoologdalen Fm.
Devonian
Greenland
5-6
A
N
N
7
Kapp Kjeldsen; Wood Bay Fm.
Devonian
Spitsbergen, Norway
57-60
A
Y
Y
8
Bulgeri Fm.
Upper Devonian
Queensland, Australia
6
A
N
N
9
Castlehaven Fm.
Upper Devonian
souther Ireland
3.3-5
A
Y
Y
10
Lower Kekiktuk Fm.
Mississippian
northeast Alaska
35.88
A
Y
Y
12
Fletcher Bank Grit
Mississippian
Lancashire, England
>27.59
A
N
N
N
Formation (Fm.)
1
2
3
4
Member (Mb.)
Mississippian
England
24
A
N
12.4
A
N
N
15-30
A
N
N
46.32
A
N
N
13
Westcoe Coal Fm.
14
Animas Fm.
Mississippian
southern Scotland
15
Threequarter Seam
Mississippian/Penn.
North Derbyshire, England
16
Malpas Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Catalonian Pyrenees
16.67-30
A
N
N
17
Sydney Mines Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Atlantic Canada
2.86-5.56
A
N
N
18
Springhill Mines Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Nova Scotia, Canada
3-37
A
N
N
19
Joggins Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Nova Scotia, Canada
0.46-51
A
N
N
2.5-3.3
A
N
N
60
A
N
N
82
20
Boss Point Fm.
Pennsylvanian
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia
>32
A
N
N
21
Sandia Fm.
Pennsylvanian
New Mexico
15.63
A
N
N
17
A
N
N
22
Salvan-Dorenaz Basin Fill
Pennsylvanian
Switzerland/France
15-20
A
Y
Y
23
Port Hood Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Nova Scotia, Canada
>15
A
N
N
25
Waddens Cove Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Nova Scotia, Canada
13.14,8
A
N
N
29
Warwickshire Thick Coal
Pennsylvanian
England
5-50
A
N
N
31
Pennsylvanian
South Wales
N
N
Pennsylvanian
Ohio
2-3
12.533.35
A
34
Coal Measures(Westphalian)
Lower/Upper Mahoning Mb. Conemaugh
Gp.
A
N
N
35
Grafton Ss. Conemaugh Gp.
Pennsylvanian
northern West Virginia
12.5
A
Y
Y
36
Vamoosa Fm. Gypsy Ss.
Oklahoma
30.26
A
N
N
37
Upper Freeport Fm.
Pennsylvania
2.4
A
Y
Y
38
Monongaela-Dunkard groups
West Virginia
>40
A
Y
Y
39
Cutler Fm.
Pennsylvanian
Middle
Pennsylvanian
Upper
Penn./Permian
Upper
Penn./Permian
New Mexico
≤ 40
A
Y
Y
40
Archer City & Nocona Fms..
Lower Permian
Texas
8.33
A
N
N
41
Shanxi Fm.
Lower Permian
China
<30
A
N
N
43
Permian
eastern Antarctica
N
N
Permian
eastern Antarctica
6.66
3.3333.33
A
44
Bainmedart Coal Measure Toploje Mb.
Bainmedart Coal Measure Dragon Teeth
Mb.
A
Y
Y
45
Ecca Group
Permian
Zululand, South Africa
2-15
A
N
N
46
Ecca Gp.
Permian
South Africa
45.45
A
N
N
47
Beaufort Gp.
Permian
South Africa
12, 14
A
Y
Y
17.86
A
Y
Y
15
A
Y
Y
48
Beaufort Gp.
Permian
South Africa
30
A
Y
Y
34.09
A
Y
Y
22.73
A
Y
Y
33.33
A
Y
Y
3.18
A
Y
Y
83
54
Betts Creek Bed
Upper Permian
Queensland, Australia
55
Bijori Fm.
Upper Permian
India
30-50
A
N
N
12.5
A
N
N
57
Uralian Foreland Basin Deposits
Upper Permian
Russia
2.5-50
A
Y
Y
58
Buntsandstein Sequence
Permian, Triassic
central Spain
3.89-10
A
N
N
59
Tanzhuang Fm.
Triassic
China
6.25-10
A
Y
Y
60
Limos y Areniscas de Rillo Fm.
Triassic
Spain
26-44
A
Y
Y
Y
61
Chinle Fm. Moss Back Mb.
Upper Triassic
Utah/Arizona
22.22-50
A
Y
62
Chinle Fm. Petrified Forest Mb.
Upper Triassic
Utah/Arizona
35
A
Y
Y
63
Chinle Fm. Owl Rock Mb.
Upper Triassic
Utah/Arizona
>33.33
A
Y
Y
64
Callide Coal Measure
Queensland, Australia
6.67
A
N
N
65
Elliot Fm.
Upper Triassic
U. Triassic/L.
Jurassic
South Africa
>20
A
N
N
67
Zone Y10
Jurassic
northwestern China
<15
A
N
N
69
Ravenscar Gp.
Middle Jurassic
Yorkshire, England
5-60
A
N
N
70
Scalby Fm.
Middle Jurassic
U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.)
2.5-46.67
A
N
N
72
Scalby Fm.
Middle Jurassic
U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.)
10
A
N
N
N
73
Saltwick Fm.
Middle Jurassic
Yorkshire, England
74
Morrison Fm.; Brushy Basin Sh. Mb.
upper Jurassic
Colorado
75
Salt Wash Member, Morrisson Fm.
Upper Jurassic
Four Corners area, SW USA
76
Sergi Fm.
Upper Jurassic
Brazil
77
Shishu Fm.
Upper Jurassic
80
Mist Mountain Fm. Kootenay Gp.
81
Wessex Fm.
11.67
A
N
60
A
N
N
17-30
A
N
N
10.1
A
Y
Y
53-59
A
N
N
>30
A
N
N
15.45
18.1845.45
A
N
N
U. Jurassic/L. Cret.
Xinjiang, China
Alberta and British Colombia,
Canada
A
N
N
Lower Cretaceous
Southern England
50
3.5340.91
A
N
N
A
Y
Y
50
A
Y
Y
N
82
Cloverly Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Wyoming and Montana
84
Cedar Mountain Fm.; Ruby Ranch Mb.
Lower Cretaceous
Utah
85
Manville Gp.
Lower Cretaceous
Alberta and Saskatchewan
8.57
A
N
86
Piedrahita de Muno Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Spain
5-10
A
Y
Y
88
Kootenai Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Montana
8.6-17
A
Y
Y
84
89
Khuren Dukh Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Mongolia
90
Cuerda del Pozo Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
north-central Spain
10
A
N
N
2.5-100
A
N
N
91
McMurray Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Alberta
93
Hasandong Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
South Korea
N
94
Haizhou Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
northeastern China
95
Subzone SII (13-16)
Lower Cretaceous
Daqing, China
96
Matasiete Fm. Lower Mb. Chubut Gp.
Lower Cretaceous
Argentina
<10
A
Y
Y
97
Matasiete Fm. Middle Mb. Chubut Gp.
Lower Cretaceous
Argentina
avg. 21
A
Y
Y
98
Matasiete Fm. Upper Mb. Chubut Gp.
Lower Cretaceous
Argentina
<20
A
Y
Y
99
Castillo Fm.
Cretaceous
Argentina
>15
A
Y
Y
10
A
N
0.19-33
A
N
N
5-15
A
N
N
20-40
A
N
N
100
Ericson Fm. Canyon Creek Mb.
Cretaceous
Wyoming
50
A
N
N
101
Blackhawk Fm.
Cretaceous
central Utah
>15
A
N
N
103
Kogokri Unit
Cretaceous
Korea
2-4
A
N
N
105
Bajo Barreal Fm.
Cretaceous
Argentina
17-53
A
Y
Y
106
St. Mary River Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
8-27
A
Y
Y
107
Dinosaur Park Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
28
A
N
N
22
A
N
N
108
Dakota Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
southwest Utah
7-20
A
N
N
109
Straight Cliffs Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
southern Utah
10-60
A
N
N
110
Kaiparowits Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
southern Utah
<15
A
Y
Y
111
Atane Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Greenland
5.5-33
A
N
N
112
Dunvegan Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
British Columbia, Canada
A
N
N
115
Lower Williams Fork Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Colorado
<30
avg.
58.74
A
N
N
116
North Horn Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
central Utah
8-20
A
Y
Y
118
Lenticular Ss. & Shale Sequence
Upper Cretaceous
Wyoming
10-20
A
Y
Y
122
Oldman Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
10
A
N
N
124
Calcaire de Rognac Fm.
Cret.-Paleocene
Southern France
0.6-1
A
Y
Y
129
Fort Union Fm.
Paleocene
Wyoming
133
Paskapoo Fm.
Paleocene
Alberta, Canada
<33
A
Y
Y
48.31
A
Y
Y
13.33
A
N
N
85
135
Kuldana Fm.
Eocene
Pakistan
6-20
A
Y
Y
136
Escanilla Fm.
Eocene
Spain
<15
A
Y
Y
137
Escanilla Fm.
Eocene
Spain
15-25
A
Y
Y
138
Escanilla Fm.
Eocene
Spain
60avg.
A
Y
Y
142
Bridger Fm. Unit B
Eocene
SW Wyoming
2.5-3.75
A
Y
Y
143
Guarga Fm.
Spain
0.38-0.6
A
Y
Y
144
Amphitheatre Fm.
U. Eocene
U.
Eocene/Oligocene
Alaska
A
N
N
146
Brule Fm.
Oligocene
South Dakota
16.67-40
8.7516.66
A
Y
Y
148
Uncastillo Fm.
northern Spain
avg <15
A
Y
Y
149
Yeniçubuk/Middle Soma Fm.
Lower Miocene
lower-middle
Miocene
5-15
A
Y
Y
Turkey
151
Kızılburun Fm.
Miocene
Turkey
152
Montello Conglomerate
Miocene
Italy
154
Vinchina Fm.
Miocene
Argentina
156
Lower Freshwater Molasse
Miocene
Switzerland
157
Tariquia Fm.
Bolivia
158
Clayey-coal Unit- Upper Mb.
159
Intermediate Unit
160
Tokai Gp.
161
Tatrot/Pinjor Fm.
Upper Miocene
MiocenePleistocene
MiocenePleistocene
MiocenePleistocene
MiocenePleistocene
162
Fosso Bianco Fm.
Pliocene
163
St. David Fm. (M.Mbr.)
164
Unit 5
165
166
3.33-10
A
Y
Y
2.67-9.47
A
N
N
<30
A
N
N
20-42.5
A
Y
Y
<50
A
Y
Y
about 25
A
N
N
Spain
1.5
A
N
N
Southwest Japan
>3
A
N
N
central Poland
India
≥ 7 - 26
A
N
N
Umbria, central Italy
1.2-9
A
Y
Y
Plio-Pleist
southeastern Arizona
<15
A
Y
Y
Plio-Pleist
southern Spain
2-7
A
Y
Y
Upper Dupi Tila Fm.
Plio-Pleist
Bangledesh, India
avg. 6
A
N
N
Chalk Hills Fm.
Plio-Pleist
Idaho
<15
A
Y
Y
167
Glenns Ferry Fm.
Plio-Pleist
Idaho
A
Y
Y
169
Warners and Massenetta Series
L. Holocene
western Maryland and Virginia
15
around
10
A
Y
Y
170
Niobrara River Fm.
Holocene
Nebraska
2.5-60
A
N
N
86
171
Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm.
References can be found in Appendix F.
M. Holocene
Netherlands
39.44
A
N
N
43.33
A
N
N
26.09
A
N
N
9.64
A
N
N
14.58
A
N
N
22.32
A
N
N
23.21
A
N
N
18.27
A
N
N
8.11
A
N
N
12.33
A
N
N
11.73
A
N
N
8.89
A
N
N
7.39
A
N
N
4.76
A
N
N
9.87
A
N
N
10.59
A
N
N
10.71
A
N
N
36.36
A
N
N
51.28
A
N
N
87
APPENDIX C: MEANDERING ENTRIES FROM APPENDIX A
Table 6. Meandering Entries from Appendix A
Formation (Fm.)
Member (Mb.)
Age
Location
12
Fletcher Bank Grit
Mississippian
Lancashire, England
13
Westcoe Coal Fm.
Mississippian
England
24
Seaton Sluice Ss.
Pennsylvanian
England
27
Breathitt Gp.
Pennsylvanian
eastern Kentucky
30
Durham Coal Measures
Pennsylvanian
England
52
W/T
River type
Carbonates
Carb. In
Prov.
>72.73
M
N
N
100
M
N
N
222.22
M
N
N
190
M
N
N
66.67-166.67
M
N
N
142.86
M
N
N
Goonyella Coal Measure
Permian
Australia
111
Atane Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Greenland
114
Crevasse Canyon Fm. Gibson Coal Mb.
Upper Cretaceous
New Mexico
130
Bullion Creek Fm.
Paleocene
Montana
100-200
M
N
Y
132
Ludlow and Lower Slope Fm.
Paleocene
Montana
64
M
N
Y
141
Wasatch Fm.
Eocene
Wyoming
105 - 165
M
N
Y
171
Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm.
M. Holocene
Netherlands
82.61
M
N
N
94.87
M
N
N
67.86
M
N
N
66.67
M
N
N
Reference list can be found in Appendix F.
80-160
M
N
N
61.25-245
M
N
N
100
M
N
Y
88
APPENDIX D: ENTRIES WITH NO CHANNEL WIDTH/THICKNESS RATIOS
Table 7. Entries with No Width/Thickness Ratios
Formation (Fm.) Group (Gp.)
Age
Location
Pittsburgh Fm. Pittsburgh Ss. Mb.
Upper Penn./Perm.
northern West Virginia
M-B
Hoover et al., 1969
Pittsburgh Fm. Sewickly Ss. Mb.
Glenshwa Fm.
Upper Penn./Perm.
Middle-Late Penn.
West Virginia
OH, KY, and WV
A-B
B
Hoover et al., 1969
Martino, 2004
New Oxford Fm.
Triassic
Pennsylvania
Porto Novo
Jurassic
Portugal
Antlers Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
Texas/Oklahoma
River Type
B
A-M
M
Gething Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
B.C., Canada
A-M
Vega de Pas Fm.
Lower Cretaceous
northern Spain
A
References
de Wet and McCabe, 1998
Hill 1989; Cunha and dos Reis, 1995; Burla et al., 2008
Hobday et al., 1981
Stott 1973
Yusta et al., 1998
Winton Fm.
Cretaceous
Australia
A-M
Fielding, 1992
Styx Coal Measure
Cretaceous
Australia
A-M
Fielding, 1992
Stanwell Coal Measure
Cretaceous
Australia
A-M
Fielding, 1992
Burrum Coal Measure
Cretaceous
Australia
A-M
Fielding, 1992
Otway and Eastern View Groups
Cretaceous
Australia
A
Fielding, 1992
Strzelecki and Latrobe Groups
Cretaceous
Australia
A-M
Fielding, 1992
Otway and Sherbrooks Gp.
Cretaceous
Australia
A-M
Fielding, 1992
Takena Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Tibet
A-M
Leier et al., 2007
Ajka Coal Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Hungary
A
Haas et al., 1992
Wayan Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
southeastern Idaho
M
Schmitt and Moran 1982
Whitemud Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
A
Pruett and Murray, 1991
Lower Tuscaloosa Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Mississippi
M
Werren et al., 1990
Battle Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
A-M
Russell, 1983
Scollard Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
M-B
Russell, 1983
Foremost Fm.
Upper Cretaceous
Alberta, Canada
A-M
Ogunyomi and Hills, 1977
Ojo Alamo Sandstone or Animas
Paleocene
New Mexico and
A
Sikkink, 1987
89
Fm.
basal Black Peak Fm.
Colorado
Paleocene
Texas
A-M
Schiebout et al. 1987
Calvert Bluff Fm.
Paleocene-Eocene
Texas
M
Kaiser et al., 1977
Fenghuoshan Group
Eocene to Oligocene
north central Tibet
A
Wang et al., 2004; Cyr et al., 2005
Li Formation
mid-Cenozoic
Thailand
M
Nichols and Uttamo, 2005
Middle unit
Camp Rice and Palomas Fm.
Miocene
Plio-Pleist
NE Nevada, NW Utah
New Mexico
A
B
Hildebrand and Newman, 1985
Mack and James, 1993
*References for Table 7 above appear in Appendix E.
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