KRIEGSSPIEL AND THE SANDTABLE:
USING TABLETOP WARGAMES TO TEACH TACTICS AND EXERCISE
DECISION MAKING IN THE CLASSROOM
Ian A. MacNab
This paper was completed and submitted in partial fulfillment of the Master Teacher Program, a
two-year faculty professional development program conducted by the Center for Teaching
Excellence, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY, 2012.
______________________________________________________________________________
Wargame is an ambiguous term used to describe several different forms of military conflict
simulation. The wargame in its various forms has been used for centuries as a cheap and
convenient way to instruct students in the principles and conduct of warfare in a classroom
environment. The evolution of wargaming as a form of military instruction can be clearly traced,
from its formalization as “Kriegsspiel” in the early 1800s to the modern day “Tactical Decision
Making Exercise/Game” (TDE/TDG) and various computer-based wargames. Literature on the
subject of wargames and wargaming is quite extensive. It encompasses, however, a vast number
of seemingly unrelated academic disciplines with no truly shared lexicon. The literature is
divided as to the method, design, and delivery of these wargames and has been since the 1800s
with the bulk of literature focusing on the design of game play.
Teaching military tactics in a classroom environment presents many challenges for both the
teacher and student. Armed conflicts do not take place in a classroom; they take place in the
physical world, on varied terrain between multiple combatants over an extended period of time.
The wargame was originally invented to overcome the limitations of classroom based instruction
in military science. In 1811, the Prussian War counsel published Kriegsspiel (Wargame). 1 The
original Kriegsspiel was played between two students on a tabletop covered with sand that was
molded to make terrain features, with military units represented by wooden blocks. Kriegsspiel
underwent several manifestations throughout the 1800s, with the sandtable eventually being
replaced by a topographic map. 2 The first major divide in how officers believed kriegsspiel
should be implemented came in 1871 with the work of General Jules von Verdy du Vernois and
the advent of “free kriegsspiel.” 3 Before free kriegsspiel, kriegsspiel was executed using playing
dice and a complex system of tables and charts that governed the conduct of units on the
battlefield and resolved engagements between opposing forces. This original system later
1
Burenheide, Brad. “Using Wargames in the Classroom to Teach Historical Thought.” Teaching History: A Journal
of Methods, March 22, 2007, 20.
2
Raymond, Charles W. Kriegsspiel: A Paper Read Before the United States Military Service Institute at West Point,
N.Y., February 17, 1881/Charles W. Raymond. Fort Monroe, VA: United States Artillery School, 1881, 8.
3
Perla, Peter P. The Art of Wargaming: A Guide for Professionals and Hobbyists. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute
Press, 1990, 31.
became known as “rigid kriegsspiel.” Some officers, like General von Verdy, contended that this
rigid system was overly complicated and stifled the flow of combat and made the game take too
long. These same officers proposed a system of kriegsspiel where a senior officer served as
“umpire” of the game – resolving engagements based on his own personal experience. This
system became known as free kriegsspiel. 4 This system gained popularity due to its ease of
playing, but was criticized by some for its reliance on an umpire:
Only in a few exceptional cases would it be possible to obtain a director the superiority of
whose experience and attainments would be so undoubted that his decisions would
receive unhesitating acceptance. So far, therefore, as our own service is concerned, this
form of kriegsspiel seems hardly to merit further consideration. 5
This point seems just a valid today. How many U.S. Army officers have extensive experience in
both conventional and unconventional warfare at both the operational and tactical level, both
mounted and dismounted and in arctic, jungle, and desert environments? H.G. Wells in his work
Little Wars also conveyed that his compatriots in the British Military in 1913 were equally bored
with free kriegsspiel and constantly preoccupied with the judgment of the umpire. 6
The argument between free versus rigid wargaming methods persists today under a different
pretext. Major John F. Schmitt, USMCR, in his work, “How We Decide” contends that
wargames, which he refers to as Tactical Decision Making Games (TDGs), can exercise either
analytical or intuitive decision making processes. Schmitt argues that the intuitive is more
frequently utilized in real tactical emergencies. 7 Schmitt’s TDGs are the modern moral
equivalent of free kriegsspiel, whereas the more technical computer-based wargames are rigid
kriegsspiel. 8 The Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center’s workbook “Design and Delivery of
Tactical Decision Games: TDGS/STEX,” which is largely based on the work of Schmitt, lays out
a prescription for how to avoid the drawbacks associated with the role of the umpire in free
kriegsspiel: the umpire is redesignated as a “facilitator.”
There are a number of ways to solve any tactical problem, so there should not be any
“textbook” answers. What decision a player made is less important than why they made
it. In fact, since creativity is a prized trait in tacticians, unusual solutions should be
encouraged and recognized.
4
Ibid. 32.
Raymond, 4.
6
Wells, H.G. Little Wars: A Game for Boys from Twelve Years of Age to One Hundred and Fifty and For that More
Intelligent Sort of Girls Who Like Boys’ Games and Books. London: J.M. Dent and Sons, 1931, 107.
7
Schmitt, John F. “‘How We Decide’ Designing TDGs: A Tactical Decision Games Workbook.” Quantico, VA:
Marine Corps University, 1998, 3.
8
Ibid. 5.
5
Note: Having a “textbook” answer in mind is very common mistake made by
inexperienced facilitators. 9
U.S. Army Officer Frank Brewster II, another proponent of the TDG or Tactical Decision
Making Exercise (TDE) as they are referred to in the U.S. Army, goes into detail regarding the
medium with which one can present a TDG/TDE. “The materials are a simple graphic or sketch
(photo, map, or PowerPoint drawing) and a short written narrative that provides the necessary
details for the issue at hand.” 10 Brewster advised that TDEs be historically based. 11
From Brewster’s advice on historically based TDEs we can draw the connections to another
seemingly unrelated article by Burenheide, “Using Wargames in the Classroom to Teach
Historical Thought.” Burenheide proposes using tabletop miniature wargames to reenact
historical battles to give students insight into the thought processes of historical figures. 12 What
Burenheide proposes is really a civilian based spin-off of kriegsspiel made famous by science
fiction writer H.G. Wells in his book Little Wars, in which three dimensional terrain is placed on
a table surface and “toy soldiers” are used to represent unit formations. Burenheide makes one of
the more profound observations of the literature on the subject.
In a similar vein, the exploratory element of the wargame strategy allows students to
make initial forays into a unit or subject matter that would serve as a wonderful
motivating set for kinesthetic and active learners, which accurately describes many
students.
Until this point most of the literature on wargaming shares a preoccupation with the debate
between the analytical or intuitive nature of wargame design with little to no attention given to
how the wargames’ various chosen mediums might resonate with different learning styles of
military students.
If we then view these various wargaming systems through the lens of the three learning
archetypes – Read/Write, Auditory, and Kinesthetic in the Fleming and Mills Sensory-based
Learning Styles Typology – we find them all equally lacking in balance between these three
styles. 13 Miniatures based tabletop wargames, although anachronistic to many modern military
instructors, are more multifaceted with regard to audio, visual and tactile stimuli. Larry Sutton’s
article, “High Tech versus Low Tech Training” beautifully outlines several alternate styles of
9
Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center. “Design and Delivery of Tactical Decision Games: TDGS/STEX
Workbook.” Wildland Fire Leadership Development Program, TDG Library, TDG References. September 2007.
http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/TDG_Library/references/TDGS_STEX_Workbook.pdf (accessed March 21,
2012), 5.
10
Brewster II, Frank. “Using Tactical Decision Exercises to Study Tactics.” Military Review, November-December
2002: 4.
11
Ibid, 7.
12
Burenheide, 19.
13
Nilson, Linda B. Teaching at its Best: A Research Based Resource for College Instructors, 3rd ed. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bay, 2010, 232.
wargaming that could be used to present a more complete and well-rounded wargaming
curriculum. 14 Sutton proposes the use of several different styles of exercise like, “Scripted roleplaying simulation” which would appeal to the auditory learner and “Sand-based simulation,”
also referred to as Sandtable exercises or STEX which would appeal to the kinesthetic learner. 15
Recommendations
Regardless of what philosophical camp one falls into as an instructor, the reality is that
students have different learning styles and the medium through which wargames are executed
must be varied. Wargames can be either analytical or intuitive in nature and still be taught in a
multitude of formats limited only by the imagination of the instructor. Tabletop wargaming,
while largely unaccepted in popular circles of the military education establishment, is a useful
way to engage three dimensional thinkers and add variety and fun to otherwise boring and one
dimensional presentations of tactical problems.
14
Sutton, Larry. “High Tech versus Low Tech Training.” Wildland Fire Leadership Development Program, TDG
Library, TDG References.
http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/TDG_Library/references/High_Tech_vs_Low_Tech.pdf (accessed March 21,
2012).
15
Ibid, 6-7.
Bibliography
Brewster II, Frank. “Using Tactical Decision Exercises to Study Tactics.” Military Review,
November-December 2002: 3-9.
A widely cited article that reintroduced the practice of Tactical Decision Making Exercises
(TDE) to the U.S. Army – a practice long held by the Marine Corps in the form of the Tactical
Decision Making Game (TDG). While this article essentially parakeets the work of Major John
Schmitt, Brewster does spend some time discussing the value and potential of future computerbased wargaming systems.
Burenheide, Brad. “Using Wargames in the Classroom to Teach Historical Thought.” Teaching
History: A Journal of Methods, March 22, 2007.
Burenheide’s article was truly the most illuminating of all the articles read. It is a simple preface,
however, he goes into great detail as to how one can successfully build and utilize different tools
for the purpose of executing tabletop wargames in the classroom. He also has the most succinct
history of the evolution of wargaming of all the articles read.
Dunnigan, James J. The Complete Wargames Handbook: How to Play, Design and Find Them.
New York, NY: William Morrow and Company, 1992.
Dunnigan’s work is an encyclopedia of knowledge on the evolution of wargaming and its
mechanics. He also does an amazing job of detailing the rise and fall of wargaming’s popularity
within the United States military and its branches of service – a history he himself played a part
in. His detailed explanation is better than all the other books and articles as to how table top
wargaming fell out of favor in the Army, not simply due to the proliferation of computer-based
models, but also due to cultural shifts in the military during the Cold War. Dunnigan provides
great insight into the psyche of a US Army culture that did not embrace wargaming in its various
forms.
Frank, Anders. “Gaming the Game: A Study of the Gamer Mode in Educational Wargaming.”
Simulation Gaming, February 2012: 118-132.
This source is a very interesting analysis of a research project at the Swedish military academy.
The author’s primary purpose was to explore a phenomena in wargaming he terms “gamer
mode” where students abandon the learning objective and basic military principles in order to
win the overall game. Cadet pairs were put in a wargame computer laboratory and taped and
recorded as they played an operational level war game. Frank articulates a great dichotomy in the
attitude cadets assume within the context of a wargame; one is the professional attitude of a
future officer, the other is the lusory [sic] attitude of one playing a game to win. He also points
out another dilemma know as “warrior mode,” in which a wargame player transitions to an
attrition mentality in which destruction of the enemy overrides all other military objectives. It
gives simple study with profound lessons for any method or model of wargaming.
Nilson, Linda B. Teaching at its Best: A Research Based Resource for College Instructors, 3rd
ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bay, 2010.
This is a standard issue textbook for the Master Teacher Program conducted by the Center for
Teaching Excellence at the United States Military Academy. Although several themes are
discussed in this book, it was primarily used for its explanation of various learning style models
for this literature review, in particular, the Fleming and Mills Sensory-based Learning Styles
Typology.
Perla, Peter P. The Art Of Wargaming: A Guide for Professionals and Hobbyists. Annapolis,
MD: Naval Institute Press, 1990.
Much like Dunnigan’s work on wargaming, this book presents an all encompassing look at
wargaming in all its various formats. This work is slightly more scholarly and slightly less dated
in terms of content than Dunnigan’s work. Perla presents the best background on the creation of
“American Kriegsspiel” by Captain Livermore in the late 1800s.
Raymond, Charles W. Kriegsspiel: A Paper Read Before the United States Military Service
Institue at West Point, N.Y., February 17, 1881/Charles W. Raymond. Fort Monroe, VA: United
States Artillery School, 1881.
Captain Raymond’s work is a very rare and historical piece I discovered in the West Point
Library Archives. Captain Raymond is clearly trying to promote his own version of kriegsspiel
in the hopes of gaining the same notoriety as Captain Livermore and his “American Kriegsspiel.”
His arguments are well ordered with highly detailed descriptions of how his version should be
played and why. If anything Captain Raymond’s article is truly a window in the zeitgeist of
wargaming in the late 1800s.
Schmitt, John F. “‘How We Decide’ Designing TDGs: A Tactical Decision Games Workbook.”
Quantico, VA: Marine Corps University, 1998.
Schmitt’s work epitomizes the prevailing philosophical basis for all modern U.S. Army and
Marine Corps school house based wargaming. His work is provocative and at times almost
seditious in its tone. His work cites several scientific studies on the decision making process of
an individual under stress. He outlines the dichotomy between analytical and intuitive decision
making in the article.
Sutton, Larry. “High Tech versus Low Tech Training.” Wildland Fire Leadership Development
Program, TDG Library, TDG References.
http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/TDG_Library/references/High_Tech_vs_Low_Tech.pdf
(accessed March 21, 2012).
Sutton’s work is the most thought provoking with regards to alternative methods of wargaming
simulation outlining auditory, written, and physical simulations. He also gives the best back story
as to how the Marine Corps utilized sandtables when executing TDGs. This paper directly links
the wargaming practices of the Marine Corps with those of the wildfire fighting agencies.
Wells, H.G. Little Wars: A Game for Boys from Twelve Years of Age to One Hundred and Fifty
and For that More Intelligent Sort of Girls Who Like Boys’ Games and Books. London: J.M.
Dent and Sons, 1931.
Little Wars is an amusing and whimsical read, although the bulk of the book is not of any
practical use. The book’s greatest value comes from its appendix of kriegsspiel in which Wells
compares and contrasts his wargame with traditional kriegsspiel and gives suggestions for how
his system could be augmented to create a more realistic form of wargame that was still more
entertaining to play than formal kriegsspiel.
Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center. “Design and Delivery of Tactical Decision Games:
TDGS/STEX Workbook.” Wildland Fire Leadership Development Program, TDG Library, TDG
References. September 2007.
http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/TDG_Library/references/TDGS_STEX_Workbook.pdf
(accessed March 21, 2012).
This is by far the most useful work in all of the literature in terms of actual preparation and
execution of Tactical Decision Making wargames. It borrows extensively from Schmitt’s
philosophy, but is laid out in such a way that it is applicable to the construction of any manner of
educational wargames. The PDF file also contains links to videos that show examples of the
entire Sandtable Exercise from start to finish. It also has links to several articles, including Larry
Sutton’s article.