The Rise of Conducting
A Term Paper
Presented to
Dr. Tony Cunha
Professor of Music
Campbellsville University
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Course
Master’s Conducting Seminar in Literature
By
Lawrence V. McCrobie
December 2015
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
The art of Conducting is one that has developed, much like the actual art of technical
execution, over a long period of time. From a simplistic form of beating time for musicians
to easily follow, to that of small intricacies that come from the use of dual hands showing
extreme detail in musical nuances, the art; and execution of the art of conducting, is one that
continues to evolve and expand throughout the years.
However it is through the
development of this art that many great advances within musical performance practice has
occurred. For from the rise and development of the art, music can continue to grow and take
on new inspiration and emotional form. It is also equally important to know where this art
form has come from, and how it ultimately continues to inspire and create extremely
memorable music moments through its use and execution.
“The modern practice of
conducting emerges slowly over several generations, but through a variety of different
practices in different countries, genres, and venues”.1 It is equally important to note where
the term of conducting derived it’s meaning. The art of “conducting emerged simultaneously
with the rise of an independent performer who was a ‘mere’ interpreter of another’s work”.2
This in itself left the role of a conductor as one that was not fully understood early on, for the
earliest conductors were composers themselves; which then moved to a separate individual
whom worked to showcase the music of composers who were deceased; to a gradual shift
back to a time where there were composer-conductors; to a current time where there are
those that are completely separate.
1
Antonio Bowen, Cambridge Companion to Conducting (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,
2003), p.93.
2
Ibid., p. 93.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
The actual art of conducting is one that has developed through the practical application, and
ultimately is defined as a colorful and continually developing tradition that has a long
stretched and evolving history. The earliest form of conducting that has been recorded was
labeled as cheironomy which, is a form of sending simple signs through the use of hand
signals to illustrate how the motion/flow of a melody should be carried out. Cheironomy has
been dated back as early as 2800 B.C. when “Egyptian and Sumerian reliefs indicated that
such signals were used to direct harpists and flutists.”3 This form of conducting in the
Antiquity era is what really lays the foundation for the art form as it continues to evolve and
develop. Also during the Greek antiquity, there was a common practice for conductors to be
defined as those that tap their foot, more so during dances, as a method of creating an
internal pulse that the music would then use as a beat for performance. This method was
really the beginning of a true defined conductor, as it was this person who established a pulse
that would become the leader of the group of musicians and ultimately be the one responsible
for how the musical performance would be delivered (at least tempo wise). It was also
during this period that those leading the ensembles with either a foot tap, or the beat of a staff
(as was a common practice in the time of Jean-Baptiste Lully). On a side note, it was the art
of conducting that actually lead to the untimely death of Lully. It was the use of the staff
being struck against his foot that caused him to develop a life threatening infections that
eventually claim his life. During this period those leading the ensembles also made use of
hand signals to signal music notation and direction (a practice used in the period of
3
Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press, 1977), p. 197.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
Gregorian Chant, and more so in the developing church liturgical music). The placement at
the center of the ensemble also marked the historical recording of those that were tasked with
instructing the singers and supervising rehearsals. It was also during this period that, through
interpretations of the Bible and the biblical stories of the religious community of Judaea, that
one is found to also be labeled as being conductors through the hitting of the cymbals to
indicate the start of the choral performances and when to start signing them. It is said that
this cymbal crash served as the conductor’s baton, as it was this crash that ultimately marked
the rhythm that was to be taken in the piece, thus creating a modern orchestra leader with
their sharp penetrating tone that served to hold the group together as a whole.
As the role of conducting continued to develop through antiquity and thus moving to the
Middle Ages and into the Renaissance period, the art of conducting appears in the Gregorian
chant style era of music. As found in ancient antiquity, the hand was used in explaining the
melodic motion and the particular pitches that were to be performed in the musical
compositions. The style, referred to as the Guido Hand, served as not only a baton, but also
as a form of sight notation, as it was with this style of conducting that as early as the 8th
century one can find additions of the right hand accompaniment (finger motions) with the
Guido hand as a method to indicate a specific direction and specific note to be played. It was
also during this period that the designated conductor would also be found holding in one
hand a large staff (staff’s were used all the way through the 17th century) and with the other
specific performance gestures/information would be delivered to the singers. As music
continued to develop and expand in form, the need for beats to be specifically indicated
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
began to be a necessity, this was very true of the 10th century and the advent of polyphonic
music. It was during the development of this polyphonic music that the defined “beat
pattern” began to be developed, and needed for the correct performance of the music.
As the music continued to broaden and expand, the Baroque era of composition came into
existence. It was this period that “the earliest known treatise on conducting was written.”
4
These treatises were important because the 17th century saw a tremendous growth in opera
and that of instrumental music, that it ultimately became mandatory that a leader for each
ensemble be tasked with the duty of defining musical aspects of the compositions (rhythm,
dynamics, tempo, melodic motion). This is a time frame when we begin to see a shift from
the typical single leader in front of the ensemble with the staff beating time, or using the
various modes of hand signaling, to a period where the conductor is one that is still placed in
the center of the ensemble, but normally seated at a keyboard instrument, providing either
continuo support or even at time providing additional musical support and harmony. It can
be found during this time that the role of the conductor was split into two distinct role,
something that is more focused in the classical and romantic periods of music; whereas the
keyboard player seated in the center of the ensemble was more responsible for the singers of
the composition, and the violinist-leader (later renamed concertmaster) was the individual
that was tasked with responsibility for the instrumentalist and the performance of the
instrumentalists. It was, however, in this era that the keyboardist still executed a small
4
Nicholas Slonimsky, Baker’s Biographical Dictionary of Musicians (New York: Schirmer Books, 1984), p.
1780.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
degree of “influence” over the violinist-leader, thus still placing the need for a conductor
over the perceived “authority” of the violinist-leader.
Prior to 1800, the leaders of many ensembles were referred to as simply a Kapellmeister, or
chapel-master. This is attributed to the churches, and chapels, being the earliest institutions
to employ large groups of musicians. This musician normally was also normally tasked with
“responsibility for composing the music and seeing to its performance.”5 It is interesting to
see the correlation between the responsibilities and job duties of the conductor
(Kapellmeister) in the 1800’s as compared to those same duties that many conductors find of
themselves today. There is a strong pull for today’s conductors to also find themselves in the
role of a composer in addition to their duties of leader of the ensemble. One would imagine
it hard to, during the earlier mentioned time period, a single musician “who did nothing but
beat time and indicate gestures on how the music should be interpreted”.6 Because during
this era the conductor was seen more as someone who filled many musical roles, and was
thus not seen as a single “leader” of an ensemble. Some of these duties of the early 1800
conductor would have been to work as a booking agent to arrange the musical performance,
to direct the ensemble from the piano or the organ or even from the seat of the violinistleader, to fulfill a role of accompanist at the piano when there were a lack of, or in many
developing cases, no choir present. It would also be found that as the musical era continued
to develop that the conductor would slowly find itself evolving into including the role of the
5
Adam Von Ahn Carse, The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz (Cambridge, England: Broude, 1949),
p.289.
6
Ibid., p. 289
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
conductor as one who would actually stand in front of the ensemble to beat time. In fact it
would have “been difficult, by 1850, to find and orchestra [save for small orchestras] in
which the playing was controlled by any means other than that of a conductor beating time.”7
With the introduction, circa 1850-1875, of individuals who found themselves as more or less
sole “time” keepers for orchestras, it is interesting to note that the individual considered to be
most appropriate to conduct music of any given composer was in fact that composer himself.
This is contributed to the fact that many of the works that had been written up until this
point, had been the sole production and delivery, of the one that initially wrote it as they
were the best qualified to rely musical information relating to desired delivery. This all
begins to change as we move into the first half of the 19th century, as we begin to see new
composers, and conductors, appear that decide to present works of their peers that have came
before them (even that of their mentors) now that they are no longer living. This shift in
those presenting the various musical compositions ushered in an era full of man changes in
the overall philosophy of the concept of conducting.
As the ensembles began to grow and spread themselves over a larger “set-up” the need for a
conductor became more of a necessity during this transitional period of the mid 18th century.
It was during this time that the art of conducting, as well as orchestration itself, began to
develop; and in doing so the introduction of the baton “seemed to be widely accepted, as the
baton had not previously been unknown in England until 1820 when a conductor named
7
Ibid., p. 289
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
Sphor conducted his philharmonic concert with a stick.”8 It was during this developmental
period that ensembles moved away from the use of continuo and keyboard parts for the
“conductor” and thus paved the way for the conductor to use the newly defined baton or to
use their bow. However it is equally important to understand that the conductor, normally
highly proficient in performance, only played when it was extremely necessary (in an
emergency).
This need for a conductor allowed for the selection of the individual based upon their
observed abilities as it related to the rehearsal techniques/abilities that they possessed. This
was also coupled with the need for the conductor to be able to personally connect with each
of the musicians and to then relay performance technique messages to them in order to create
the best possible musical performance.
It is interesting to me that even though these
musicians were chosen for their extreme musical abilities (to become the leaders/conductors
of the ensemble), that many of the musical performances during this time frame were lacking
in their technicality; and normally were considered to be extremely poor in nature, quite
possibly due to the lack of the conductor’s defined conducting responsibilities.
As the art of conducting began to span into the 19th century, the various artistic approaches
that conductors began to take were as numerous as there were musicians. The different
aspects in which each of the musicians took during their rehearsal preparation were also
8
John Alexander Fuller-Maitland, English Music in the XIXth century (New York: E.P. Dutton and Co.,
1902), pp. 27-28.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
highly differencing; as some musicians would sacrifice the detail of a composition in order to
acquire a highly level of energy or spirit in the given performance, while others would
demand a high level of attention to the details and precision of the music so that the direction
of the rehearsal [or performance] would then be guided though the perfection of the music.
It was during this period of the mid 19th century that many of the conductors of the time
received very little in terms of publicity in relation to the notoriety that their artistic
colleagues would receive, a practice that was re-enforced by many in the theatrical world, as
their performance billings would list singers, dancers, and even members of the stage crew
but would fail to list the conductor of the music.
This development of the art of conducting could be seen to many as a series of attempts to
build improved communications between the conductor and the ensemble was merely an
attempt to effectively improve the various forms of musical communication between the two
entities. Though in the beginning the specific duties and ultimate outcome was not clearly
understood, the overall communication and effectiveness of the ensembles did begin to
improve. Because of this forward trend in the effectiveness of having a conductor as part of
the performance, the conductors themselves began to gain acceptance from not only the
audience, but also from the musicians themselves. The use of the conductor now meant that
rehearsal effectiveness and better musical mastery in regards to technicality was in fact
something that could easily be achieved, as the conductor was able to improve the
communication between the ensemble members, and because of the conductors need to know
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
the music to accurately rehearse; the need for standardized baton technique and the
development of scores became a necessity.
As we move into the 20th century and beyond, it is important to note that much of the
standardization of conducting was completed, and that they roles conductors needed to fill
were already well defined and in practice. It was this timeframe that saw the continue
refinement of the actual process, making conducting “one of the most demanding and
enjoyable”9 aspects of the Musical arts. A greater attention to musical notation in the score
is one of the major developments of music after, and during, the 20th century. Because of
this attention to the notation of the music, conductors are now able to deliver more specific
musical communication as it directly relates to the particular music composition that is being
rehearse/performed. Understandably the art of conducting is more than just the mastery of
the baton as an effective use of communication to the ensemble, the conductor as a
person/and role, is important in the fact that they are a clear representation of the music to the
ensemble. This person is instrumental in clearly delivering the information on how they
wish to interpret the music, essentially transforming the musical and technical abilities of the
large group of persons into a cohesive and unified group of musicians. “Serving as the
musical leader of the ensemble carries some heavy responsibilities.”10 Thus it is important to
understand that in reality, the actual art of conducting is one that is never really learned, but
rather is one that is forever changing and being analyzed, and when needed, is an art that is
9
Wayne Bailey, Conducting the Art of Communicating 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009),
p. vii.
10
Ibid., p. 3.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
changed, altered, and mutated to fit the need of the ensemble for a more efficient form of
communication.
Entry into the 20th century [and the late 19th] gave way to much larger and expanded
orchestra rosters. Orchestras that were once made up of 18-24 members, could now find
themselves boasting as many as 100 members (though normally the romantic era orchestras
would be comprised of ensembles generally 75-88). Because of this collection of musicians
this time frame became one of the more important eras for the developing conductor. For
“no decision we make as performers can ever be totally objective, bound and influenced as
we are by both the limits and the qualities of our talents, by our backgrounds, our training,
and our cumulative experience.”11 This lays the foundation for the reality that such a large
collective group of musicians can certainly not make adequate decisions, collectively, as to
performance practice; with such a great number of performers someone must lead. This
leader, either single role, or dual role [concertmaster], will make the necessary decisions. In
the case of such a large ensemble, it was beneficial of the conductor to be one of a single
role, and single responsibility.
This rise of the position of conductor is one that obviously has come with a great deal of
mutation as the need for specific elements have slowly unfolded. The role has, and will
continue, to change as the compositional, personnel make-up, and musical element needs of
the musical demand evolve. With that in mind an equally important element to the rise of
11
Gunther Schuller, The Compleat Conductor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 21.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
conducting comes in the form of what elements/attributes are actually needed/required in that
of a conductor. The conductor themselves are individuals that are selected, or those that are
highly trained in, the knowledge of composition and the various musical styles that exist with
not only the current musical time, but those of the past musical eras; as well as the ability to
embrace the ever evolving compositional style and performance practices of contemporary
music. The Conductor is one that “must be a trained musician, must know how to work with
people in a group, and must be able to convey his [her] intentions to his [her] players by
means of gestures.”12 Personally I think that the “trait” of working with people, or rather the
knowledge of how to work with people [musicians] is one that has potentially led to the
slowing down of the development of the position/role of the conductor. There was a point in
time where the conductor of any major ensemble was seen to be a dictator. This trait is one
that, though potentially in practice could be one that lead to a high level of musical
performance and musical sophistication, is also a trait that created a emotional divide when it
came to a collective bonding of an ensemble to create a powerful delivery of emotions during
a performance. The dictator attitude is one that does not foster this particular attention to
musical emotion, and thus can hinder taking those musical performances to the next level of
artistic delivery. What a dictator attitude can in fact help with, are the elements that create
technically accurate ensemble performances. The style of leadership can also create clear
communication as to the desired musical interpretation of the composition as well as the
technical details found within.
What a dictator style leadership approach cannot
control/provide is the ability to effectively work with a group of musicians and encourage
12
Max Rudolf, The Grammar of Conducting 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980), p. xv.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
them to pull from within them the emotional connection to the music, and thus create a
performance of the music that is filled with life and character.
For with a dictator
attitude/leadership style, there is a barrier that is created to where the musicians do not harbor
the same respect for the conductor as they do for their colleagues that choose to create a
unified working environment. Thus have the ability to work with others, and to do so in a
manner that is inviting, nurturing, and inclusive is far more of an asset to a conductor than to
lead with a stern rule.
Another angle of the gradual rise of the art form of conducting comes in the knowledge and
understanding of the musical compositions, as they would be performed in their specific time
periods. The knowledge one is able to gain from the historical accuracy and account of the
music is one that will only add to the abilities of the conductor at hand. Knowledge and
understanding of what the composer wanted while writing the piece is most important, as one
who “correctly understands and renders the gradations of emotion as the composer indicated
them”13 is a skills that is needed for strong performances of the work, but equally important
for the continued development of the skill of the conductor. This historical
information/knowledge that the conductor works towards gain also allows them to become
individual musicians that are well versed in compositional works, and performance
techniques.
13
Carl Bamberger, The Conductor’s Art (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1965), p. 19-20.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
Conductors are also individuals that are skilled in many areas, “musician, administrator,
executive, minister, psychologist, technician, philosopher, and dispenser of wrath.”14 All of
these traits are things that have developed over a long period of time as a direct result of the
creation of conductors as needed figures in the performance realm. These are important
traits for any conductor to have, for as one develops these skills the members of the ensemble
will look towards the conductor for guidance, as the ‘great’ provider, a fount of inspiration,
and the Teachers who knows all [not literally, but is the source of instruction]. These
mentioned traits are just a part of what is required of conductors in order for them to continue
developing their craft. The ability for a conductor to take the basic skills that have been
evolving for centuries, and to add to them a more “human” element, is what continues to
drive the rise of conducting. As we move into the 21st century, we begin to see the desire to
take the fundamental skills and to continue to improve on them to provide better delivery.
Most conductors will agree, “The ability to communicate their interpretation through the
projection of their personalities is primary to their craft.” 15 Which introduces the question of
whether or not conductors should be selected, or rather hired, based upon their personality. It
is true that the desire to lead and orchestra will end up steaming from something greater than
a desire to create memorable and lasting musical performances, and more from an “egodriven ambition which has little or nothing to do with serious music-making”16 but should
this affect the selection of a conductor to the post, is more importantly the question.
14
15
16
Harold Schonberg, The Great Conductors (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967), p.16.
Frederick Harris, Jr., conducting with feeling (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001), p.15.
Gunther Schuller, The Compleat Conductor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 5.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
As with the evolution of any subject, situation, institution, or process; the status quo is never
enough. The current rate of ‘performance’ [musical in this instance] is never enough. We
are always on a constant quest to continue to improve the execution, delivery, training, and
technicality of the present so that it does not become something that is done as part of a
ritual, but something that is done as a desire to continue to master and push the boundaries.
From a humble beginning of a simply take of a staff in order to feel the rhythmic pulse of a
piece of music during the performance, to what we have today in the form of conducting;
with the baton, introduction of facial gestures, the art of cue, the understanding of ‘dead
beats’, and the use of bar lines to dictate metrical definition, the evolution of the art of
conducting is one that has come a great distance. But it is also one that is not easily
mastered. In fact conductors will always continue to try and carve out a special place in the
field, and art form, in which they can excel. The conductor musician will try to become
different, and by doing so create [hopefully] career longevity through the desire of music
patrons to observe the skills in which he/she has perfected.
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977)
Bailey, Wayne. Conducting the Art of Communicating 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009)
Bamberger, Carl. The Conductor’s Art (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1965)
Bowen, Antonio. Cambridge Companion to Conducting (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)
Fuller-Maitland, John Alexander . English Music in the XIXth century (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1902)
Harris, Jr., Frederick. conducting with feeling (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001)
Rudolf, Max. The Grammar of Conducting 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980)
Schonberg, Harold. The Great Conductors (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967)
Schuller, Gunther . The Compleat Conductor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997)
Slonimsky, Nicholas. Baker’s Biographical Dictionary of Musicians (New York: Schirmer Books, 1984)
Von Ahn Carse, Adam. The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz (Cambridge, England: Broude, 1949)
This paper is based on the historical aspects of the art of conducting. Written by Lawrence V. McCrobie. Permission must be obtained before
referencing or citing direct the information contained within.