CHAPTER - II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CHAPTER-II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Research in education is inevitable for the development of the
country. A great deal of research had been carried out on different
aspects of educational problems. Familiarity with the literature in any
problem area helps the student to discover what is already known,
what others have attempted to find out, what methods of research
have been promising or disappointing and what problems remain to
be solved (John W. West, 1977). Review of related literature is one of
the prerequisites of the investigator to have identified his research
problem, more reliable and purposeful, and move in a systematic way.
It gives the deepest depth in a subject in which the investigator is
involved in finding solutions for the problem he has selected for his
research study. "The review of related literature promotes a greater
understanding of the problem and its crucial aspects and ensures the
avoidance of unnecessary duplication". A number of studies have
been made on the different aspects of learning through perception and
mnemonic both in India and abroad. It is note worthy to review such
literature which will help in developing greater insights into the study
under investigation. A review of related literature facilitates the
researcher to have a clear understanding of the research problem.
"Survey of related literature implies locating, reading and evaluation
reports of research as well as report of causal observation and opinion
that is related to the individuals' planned research project". According
to Good and Scater, "In all scientific endeavor the identification of
solution of problems depends in a large measure on the work of
predecessors and co workers".
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2.2. PUROPSE OF RELATED LITERATURE
The survey of related literature is not without purpose. The
following are some of the purposes of the survey.
1. Related literature provides knowledge of previous studies so as
to eliminate duplications.
2. It provides back ground to a research project and makes the
researcher aware of the status of the issue.
3. It provides ideas, theories, and explanations on hypothesis
valuable in formulating the problem.
4. To suggest methods of research appropriate to the problem.
5. To collect comparative data useful in the interpretation of
results.
6. Complete survey of related literature gives the research
necessary insight into the problem. It enables him to put forth
vigorously the rationale for the study.
7. It helps to orient the readers with other researches that had
been conducted in this field previously.
8. It widens the horizon of the researches.
2.3. RELATED STUDIES ON MNEMONICS
The keyword method is one of the most extensively researched
Mnemonic strategies, Avila and Sadoski (1996). It has proven most
effective in improving both immediate and delayed recall of
vocabulary. There is a proof that poorer learners received benefits
when coaching was provided by pegword method of Mnemonic
strategy. According to Bakken, the pegword method is to help
students remember that spider has eight legs, displaying a picture of a
spider spinning a web on a gate. (Pegword for 8) (Eight is a gate). To
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learn that insects have six legs, a picture of insects walking on sticks
is shown (Pegword for six) (Six is sticks).
A Mnemonic device is a memory aid that provides a method for
organizing information to make it more easily remembered. Sentence
Mnemonic helps to reduce spelling error. The acronym and keyword
mnemonic is expected to produce positive, long-term benefit under
conditions of repeated testing and intentional learning.
E.Levin and Joel R.Levin (1990) investigated the methods for
maximizing more than memory. In their research, the college
undergraduates were asked to study a hierarchical plant classification
system according to one of two provided organizational strategies: (a) a
figural taxonomy, which consisted of labeled boxes connecting lines to
represent, respectively, the nodes and links of the hierarchy; (b) a
pictorial mnemonomy, in which the unfamiliar plant terms were
recoded into more familiar concepts, which were then thematically
related to other terms on the same branch of the hierarchy.
Mnemonomy students outperformed taxonomy students on (a) both
immediate and 5-day delayed measures of classification system
construction and use; and (b) a test that required solving analogies
involving the plant terms. Mnemonic strategies facilitate performance
on tasks that require some degree of higher-order thinking. The locus
of Mnemonic facilitation was found to reside in the more meaningful
links afforded by the mnemonomy. Such performance data, along with
favorable student self-reports, support the educational utility of
scientific mnemononics.
Margoo A. Mastropieri and Barbara J.Mushinski Fulk (1990)
presented a paper on the enhancing academic performance with
Mnemonic instruction. They presented abstract science concepts
using acoustic reconstruction and the materials for that investigation
consisted of lists of vocabulary terms, rather than materials adapted
from a specific textbook.
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Mastropieri, M.A., and Scruggs, T.I. (1990) dealt with
teaching students ways to remember; They suggested strategies for
learning Mnemonically the Mnemonic interventions for students with
behavior disorder-memory for learning and behavior. Mnemonic
strategies have been seen to impact very positively on potential
problem areas for students with behavior disorder, academic deficits,
attention/ concentration deficits and poor motivation. They pointed
out that the keyword method works best when the words students
must learn are unfamiliar to them. To help students remember that
the Italian word "rana" means "frog," a picture of a frog sitting in the
rain could be shown (keyword for rana). Many students already know
what sponges are, but may not know where they are found. To
remember that sponges attach themselves to the ocean floor, it may
only be necessary to picture sponges (rather than a keyword for
sponge) attached to the ocean floor.
Naresh K. Malhotra (1991)
made an investigation on
Mnemonic technique. In his study popular Mnemonic techniques are
defined, classified, and described. Empirical evidence is cited
supporting the effectiveness of Mnemonic techniques in a variety of
learning contexts. It is explained why Mnemonics are effective. Then, a
particular Mnemonic technique, the first letter Mnemonic, is selected
to illustrate how the topic of questionnaire design can be taught using
Mnemonics. The use of Mnemonics in classroom teaching is
discussed with specific reference to teaching marketing research and
other marketing courses.
Scruggs & Mastropieri (1992) in their article brief on the
effects of training students with memory problems and ways of using
Mnemonic strategies independently. A combination of teacher-created
and student-generated Mnemonic strategies is the best way to
enhance recall as it promotes independent strategy use. The earlier
studies successfully trained students with disabilities to use the
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Mnemonic procedures and then to generalize the procedures for
learning new vocabulary words. More recent studies trained students
with disabilities to use the strategies across different content areas,
including science and social studies. All of these studies demonstrated
some positive benefits for training students to use Mnemonic
strategies independently.
King-Sears et al. (1992) taught students the IT FITS strategy:
❖ Identify the term.
❖ Tell the definition of the term.
❖ Find a keyword.
❖ Imagine the definition of doing something with the
keyword.
❖ Think about the definition of doing something with the
keyword.
❖ Study what we imagined until we know the definition.
King-Sears, Mercer, and Sindelar (1992)
analyzed on
independence with keyword Mnemonic (A strategy for science
vocabulary) in secondary level students' science vocabulary and
terminology. Students learned substantially more information under
the Mnemonic conditions, and also learned to transfer the strategy to
independent learning. Mnemonic strategies were helpful for teaching
vocabulary and terminology even within the context of experimental
learning.
Mnemonic strategies can enhance instructional
programming for students with emotional disturbance, and these
strategies can have a positive effect on motivation.
Paul T. Sindelar (1992) points out the use of Mnemonic to learn
and remember information for students with learning problems.
According to him, the use of Mnemonics to learn and remember
information holds promise for students with learning and memory .
problems. Keyword Mnemonics were used in two of three instructional
procedures taught to students with minimal handicaps in this study.
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Students were required to learn and remember definitions of
unfamiliar science terms that they have come across previously.
Systematic teaching, an imposed keyword method, and an induced
keyword method (taught by using the IT FITS strategy) were compared.
Favorable results for imposed and induced keyword methods were
obtained. Implications for teaching strategies increase students'
opportunities for independent success in content curricula as well as
active involvement of students in the learning process.
Mastropieri, Scruggs, Bakken and Brigham (1993) analyzed
the study on the Mnemonic strategies which systematic procedures for
enhancing memory. Mnemonic strategies are extraordinarily effective.
Mnemonic strategies are systematic procedures for enhancing
memory. Their particular use is developing better ways to take in
(encode) information so that it will be much easier to remember
(retrieve).
Brigham, Scruggs, & Mastropieri (1995) administered a new
test on Mnemonic in map and in American war. Mnemonics can be
used in acquiring foreign language vocabulary. Keywords have also
been used to improve recall of map locations. It is more successful in
locating Revolutionary War battle locations on a map when they were
Mnemonically encoded (e.g., a picture of a tiger, keyword for Fort
Ticonderoga) than when representational pictures were used. When
asked for the location of Fort Ticonderoga, students proved to be
much more able to identify where on the map the tiger had been than
they were to identify the location of a more traditional illustration.
Further, if the tiger was shown tending a cannon, students were more
likely to remember that at Fort Ticonderoga, cannons were captured
that were helpful in the American war effort. The most important step
toward a better memory is decided to improve students' skills and
memory if teachers follow rules simply and then practise:
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Alan Beaton, Michael Gruneberg and Nick Ellis (1995)
studied "Retention of foreign vocabulary learning using the keyword
method". Their study assesses an individual's level of recall for
foreign vocabulary learned ten years ago using the keyword method.
Without any revision at all, he remembered 35% of the test words with
spelling fully correct and over 50% with only very minor errors of
spelling. After he spent 10 minutes looking at a vocabulary list, recall
increased to 65% and 76% respectively. After a period of revision
lasting a further 1 hour, recall was virtually 100%. This level of recall
was maintained for at least one month.
Deschler et al., (1996) examined on Mnemonic. According to
them, two popular methods for student development of Mnemonics
are FIRST and LISTS. FIRST employs the following steps: (1) form a
word, (2) insert a letter(s), (3) rearrange the letters, (4) shape a
sentence, and (5) try combinations.
This method can be a helpful
study aid. It assists students in identifying important information
within textbooks on which to focus and commit to memory. Students
benefit from instruction in skills and strategies in academic areas that
are affected by their lack of interesting in the subject. They also need
an opportunity to explore their strengths as they overcome their
learning problems.
In giving students with learning problems
opportunities for enrichment and tools to compensate for their
learning problems, teachers are providing them the chance to reach
their full academic potential.
Rossana De Beni (1997) made a brief account of Learning from
Texts or Lectures: Loci Mnemonics can interfere with reading but not
with listening. He explored to what extent loci Mnemonics can help
learning from textual information and examine the extent and possible
causes of the oral presentation effect (Cornoldi 86 De Beni, 1991); that
is, the loci method is more useful when the presentation modality is
oral rather than written. The hypothesis presented is that the effect is
due to selective interference between reading and visuo-spatial
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imagery in the use of loci Mnemonics. He carried out three
experiments, varying the modalities of presentation and of testing. In a
series of sessions, subjects were trained in the use of loci Mnemonics
and verbal repetition, and were then tested for memory of texts
presented in either a written or oral form. The result showed that loci
Mnemonics can also enhance memory for texts when presentation
time is controlled, if the modality of presentation is oral. This last
result supports the selective interference explanation of the oral
presentation effect.
Joanna Touljoumtzoglou (1997) tried to investigate about "the
keyword Mnemonic in modern Greek language acquisition." In his
study, two major issues were investigated and compared to previous
research: (a) the applicability and effectiveness of the keyword method
in a regular classroom as opposed to a "laboratory" setting; and (b) the
keyword effectiveness for the acquisition of Greek unknown
vocabulary items. Introducing individuals to the structured keyword
Mnemonic, students' scores increased resulting in substantial
improvement in the performance trajectory. Students' performance
improved with the use of the structured keyword condition
particularly in the case of poorer achievers. Low scoring individuals
were the ones to benefit mostly from the use of the structured
keyword device, while high scoring students maintained their level of
achievement in all three conditions. The keyword Mnemonic must be
expected to produce positive, long-term benefits under conditions of
repeated testing and intentional learning.
Margo A.Mastropieri and Thomas E.Scruggs (1998) made a brief
account of constructing more meaningful relationships in the
classroom (Mnemonic research in to practice). The researchers
revisited an inner-city middle school, where about a year before-they
had conducted an investigation on the effectiveness of Mnemonic
techniques in helping students with learning problems to remember
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U.S. states and capitals. As they entered the classroom, Crystal, who
was a student classified as mildly mentally challenged, recognized one
of their graduate students immediately. When he asked the question
what the capital of Florida is, she answered, Florida, the key word
being flower. - the flower was on a television set, and television was
the keyword for Tallahassee! In this scenario, a student classified as
mentally challenged remembered the information she had been taught
a year ago. This study threw light on the need for effective Mnemonic
strategies for school students with learning problems.
Thomas E. Scruggs and Margo A. Mastropieri (2000) studied
the effectiveness of Mnemonic instruction for students with learning
and behavior problems. One of the most commonly described
problems of students with learning and behavioral difficulties is
memory for academic content. The overall effectiveness of Mnemonic
techniques was found to be associated with an overall mean
standardized "effect size" of 1.62, indicating an unusually large effect
for treatment and replicating closely a research synthesis reported in
the literature in the 1980s. Also, laboratory research yielded results
similar to those obtained in field-based investigations using
established school curricula. Mnemonic strategies are effective and
useful in ecologically valid settings.
Richards (2002) investigated a study on related Mnemonics. In
his study, rather than giving students rhymes or sayings to remember
key words and facts, learning strategies were designed to enhance
memorization capacity and enable students to develop their own
meaningful Mnemonics. Students can be taught to develop short
sentences with the initial letter of each word forming one of the names
or words to recall in the correct sequence. They may also learn how to
assemble a sequence of letters with each letter representing one of the
key words to remember. Creating Mnemonic devices allows students
to use one of their strengths as well as creativity.
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Weinfeld (2002) made a survey on learning-strategies that can
help compensate for many of the common weaknesses shared by
gifted students with learning disabilities.
Teachers may choose
among many strategies available to assist students to develop their
memory, including LINKS. Teachers introduce students to the
following steps: (1) list the parts, (2) imagine a picture, (3) note a
reminding word, (4) construct a linking story, and (5) self-test. This
strategy is particularly appropriate for slow learner because it allows
them to utilize their strong areas of creativity and visual memory.
John Wiley (2003) experiments were conducted in an effort to
combine a Mnemonic strategy for remembering individual items with a
Mnemonic procedure for remembering, and reasoning about inter-item
relationships. In Experiment 1, students using the combined
Mnemonic approach were able to identify more individual items (fish
names from their pictures) and were subsequently able to remember
more components of six studied hierarchies (order, family, and species
names of the fish) than did students in their own best method control
condition. In experiment 2, the initial number of to-be-learned fish
was reduced so that the performance of both Mnemonic and Control
students was comparable with respect to fish identification. Despite
such item-level comparability, an advantage for Mnemonically
instructed students was observed in both immediate and two-daydelayed hierarchy tests.
The Strategic Instruction Model (SIM) has been used in Florida
since the 1980s to enable students with learning difficulties to be
successful in the general curriculum. SIM is an intervention model
designed for struggling readers in grades 4-12. The model is
developed for students who have already possessed basic word
recognition skills. Vocabulary strategies are Word Identification
Strategy and Vocabulary Strategy. Comprehension strategies are
paraphrasing strategy, self-questioning strategy, and visual imagery.
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Stephen Munday (2005) conducted on investigation in adult
western students at high school in Japan. He used Mnemonic
strategy as a tool. He collected 1945 kanji set as a sample. It is
Japanese kanji learning: It is a short cut to rapid mastery. In his
Mnemonic methods formula or rhyme is used to assist memorization.
An example of a Mnemonic embedded in mind from childhood is
"Never Eat Shredded Wheat". He employed Mnemonics, creating a
sentence to plant the image of the kanji deep in the learner's mind. He
took a fast-and-loose approach with the meanings assigned to
individual elements of each kanji in reaching his goal of creating a
memorable mind-picture.
Stephen Munday (2005) test was administered on Mnemonic
form. In his study Michael Rowley's book Kanji Pict-O-Graphix
presents the reader with just over 1,000 kanji in a visually memorable
form. Taking each character, he first breaks it down into constituent
radicals. However, in contrast to Henshall's academic approach,
Rowley uses a visual cue for each element to produce beautifullydrawn illustrations that both carry the meaning and hint at the shape
of the kanji. He also provides a brief Mnemonic phrase to provide
additional reinforcement, although this is not the core of this method.
Rick Brigham (2007) drew attention to "the use of the
Mnemonic instruction to improve student learning". In his work
Mnemonics is a memory - enhancing instructional strategy that
involves teaching students to link new information that is taught to
the information they already know. It is designed to improve memory
of key information. Mnemonic instruction facilitates access to
curriculum by giving students the tools they need to better encode
information so that it will be much easier to retrieve it from memory at
later points. The use of Mnemonic strategies helps students
significantly improve their academic achievement. This approach has
shown promise for learners with mild to moderate cognitive
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disabilities, limited language learners, and students with attention
deficits. Mnemonics can be used in all academic subjects, and it does
not require a wealth of additional materials or extensive planning and
preparation time.
Discriminate among vocabulary that can be taught in a more
incidental manner.
Describe the general model of instruction
recommended for vocabulary not requiring Mnemonic representation.
Identify the different types of Mnemonic presentations, their uses and
limitations. Identify the components of effective keyword Mnemonics
and how they operate together to promote high levels of student
performance. Describe the model of instruction developed for using
keyword Mnemonics. Select critical vocabulary and create keyword
Mnemonic representations for use in their own classrooms.
Fahey and John A (2007) showed that "Memory improvement
and research are related to the science of memory". The purpose of
this study is to propose proven methods to enhance memory, thus
learning, for both students and teachers. In a time of high-stakes
testing and accountability, educators are supposed to use researchbased skills, tools and techniques to assist students learn content and
remember the information. The new millennium should produce
exciting, innovative ways to access and expand memory. Scientists
have located multiple loci in the brain for memory storage, and
neurochemical research has provided invaluable information on the
chemistry of neuron activity. Recent use of music and exercise are
demonstrating exciting and effective ways to increase memory. All of
these discoveries and the potential instructional strategies are
important for educators to incorporate into their pedagogical
repertoire.
A proposal to use music, movement and objects or articles as
metaphors to assist students to remember will be offered in order to
add practical application to understanding. Recent investigations of
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brain-based research on memory suggest types of memory lanes
(Sprenger, 1999), the importance of attention and receptor
modification (Jensen, 1998) and the action of messenger proteins in
the recall processes (Milner, 1999). Each discovery illuminates an
important feature in the science of memory.
Serge Mikhail Sov (2008) made a brief account of rhymes and
songs Mnemonic memory technique. Rhythm, repetition, melody, and
rhyme can all aid memory. The use of rhyme, rhythm, and repetition
helped the story tellers remember them. Many children learn the
letters of the alphabet to the tune of "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star." In
fact, it was demonstrated how she memorized the quadratic formula
(notorious among algebra students for being long and difficult to
remember) by singing it to a familiar tune. Using these techniques
can be fun, particularly for people who like to create. Rhymes and
songs draw on our auditory memory and may be particularly useful
for those who can learn tunes, songs, or poems easily.
Serge Mikhailov (2008) conducted a study on "acronym
Mnemonic memory technique". Based on the technique, he formed
acronyms by using each first letter from a group of words to form a
new word. This is particularly useful when remembering words in a
specified order. Acronyms are very common in ordinary language and
in many fields. Some examples of common acronyms include NBA
(National Basketball Associations), SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater
Breathing Apparatus), BTUs (British Thermal Units), and LASER
(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). The
memory techniques in this section, for example, can be rearranged to
form the acronym "SCRAM" (Sentences/acrostics, Chunking, Rhymes
& songs, Acronyms, and Method of loci).
Acronym Mnemonic memory technique was used to memorize
the names of four kinds of fossils in geology class: 1) Actual remains,
2) Petrified, 3) Imprint, and 4) Molds or casts.
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Take the first letter of each item we are trying to remember:
APIM. Then, arrange the letters so that the acronym resembles a word
we are familiar with: PRIM or IMAP.
Although acronyms can be very useful memory aids, they do
have some disadvantages. First, they are useful for rote memory, but
do not aid comprehension. Be sure to differentiate between
comprehension and memory, keeping in mind that understanding is
often the best way to remember. Some people assume that they can
remember something that they must "know"; but memorization does
not necessarily imply understanding. A second problem with
acronyms is that they can be difficult to form; not all lists of words will
lend themselves equally well to this technique. Finally, acronyms, like
everything else, can be forgotten if not committed to memory.
Richmond, A. S., Cummings, R., & Klapp, M. (2008) studied
about transfer of the method of loci, pegword, and keyword
Mnemonics in the eighth grade classroom. The goal of this study was
to understand whether students could transfer use of Mnemonic
under both specific and general transfer conditions. One-hundred and
eight eighth-grade students were randomly assigned to one of four
conditions (e.g., method of loci, pegword, keyword, or free study). Over
a 2-week period, students learned their assigned Mnemonic device,
and they were tested on their ability to transfer their Mnemonic under
a specific transfer condition (study metal alloy uses) and a general
transfer condition (study Revolutionary War battle events).
This study provided evidence to researchers and teachers that
by teaching the keyword, Mnemonic to eighth-grade students may
increase their repertoire of memory strategies which in turn enhances
academic performance.
Serge Mikhailov (2008) studied about Simonides Mnemonic
technique. In his study the memory trick was invented after a grisly
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event in ancient Greece. Back around 500 BC, a Greek who won a
wrestling match in the Olympic Games celebrated by having a feast in
his house. A man named Simonides gave a speech praising the
wrestler, and then he left the banquet hall. While he was out, the roof
collapsed, crushing everyone inside. Though the bodies of the guests
were mangled beyond recognition, Simonides could remember where
each person had been seated. By doing that, he could name all of the
people who were at the feast. Knowing where each person was sitting
helped him remember who was there.
Jane Lee Saber and Richard D. Johnson (2008) made a
survey on the verbal repetition Mnemonics and active learning. In
this study the effectiveness of using verbal repetition and first-letter
acronyms to teach a common marketing framework was examined•
Use of the acronym increased scores for both unaided recall and
concept application, and analysis was compared to the active learning
method alone.
Doug Eldon (2009) studied about the Lyrical LearningPromoting scientific literacy through song. The concept of using lyrics
and music to teach and to learn is as old as education itself. We may
remember the alphabet song, nursery rhymes, and tunes heard on the
playground or around the campfire for the rest of our lives. Several
researchers have found that the use of music, songs, poems, and
other musical Mnemonics have greatly aided learning in the case of
slow learners.
Janet G. Van Hell & Andrea Candia Mahn (2009) examined
the efficacy of the Keyword method vs. rote rehearsal in learning
foreign language vocabulary. Keywords meaningfully related to the
foreign word form more effective retrieval cues than semantically
unrelated keywords.
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Jennifer Carpenter (2009) in her study "Boost your memory
with Mnemonic devices" revealed interesting concepts about
Mnemonic. Almost everyone uses one or more mnemonic devices to
remember some list of facts more easily. A Mnemonic device is a
memory aid that provides a method for organizing information to
make it more easily remembered. The fact of the matter, however, is
that much of what we learn in school is simple memorization.
Simonides Mnemonic technique helped to remember a list of things -whether its stuff we need to buy at the store or vocabulary at school.
So it becomes essential that we have to increase our memory.
2.4. RELATED STUDIES ON PERCEPTUAL LEARNING STYLE
Gary R. Gullickson (1966) recommended that the auditory
stimulus can be used in Perceptual research. Forty-eight preschool
children were individually placed in a stimulus familiarization
situation involving 80 presentations of an auditory stimulus.
Immediately following the familiarization phase which consisted of the
presentation of stimulus A (modified door chime) or stimulus B (audiooscillator), all were given 80 additional trials in which they were
allowed to control the presentations of the non familiar (novel) and the
familiar stimulus. The prediction that would prefer the novel over the
familiar stimulus was supported for both groups.
Fraser (1990) indicated that, even when standard performance
evaluation criteria do not register the "effect" of curricular and
educational innovations, the Perception of classroom environment
may allow such an effect to become manifest. That is, the students'
Perception of the classroom climate can directly reveal the impact of
new innovations in curricular programs and, indirectly, their
measurable "quality." Thus this sort of Perception, if quantifiable,
would be an important item of information for teachers to have,
serving them as feedback when they design a new curriculum or
classroom activity. This study combines qualitative and quantitative
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methods to determine the impact of an interdisciplinary instructional
module on classroom climate. Data were collected by using "What Is
Happenning In this Classroom" questionnaires, interviewing students,
and evaluating classroom videotapes, classroom observation journals
and students' written feedback. The results show that even though the
global evaluation is positive, there are differences among the
Perceptions of the participants. Moreover, to a certain degree these
different Perceptions and opinions are gender-based. Finally, practical
suggestions are provided.
Dretske (1990) observed that a century of research in visual
psychophysics and neurobiology of vision shows that the basic
Perceptual abilities of the human visual system (such as the ability to
perceive luminance contrast) are largely innate, while others (such as
varieties of object constancy) are acquired and depend on the visual
experience (Spelke, 1990). The study may help clarify the nature of
the long - term memory representations of objects and scenes.The
research suggests that continual learning is required in order to
accurately perceive the world.
Fraser, Fisher, Lis McRobbie (1996) studied what is happening
in the class (WIHIC) and questionnaire were used to assess students'
Perceptions of their Biology-learning environment. The WIHIC consists
of 7 scales and 56 items (Fraser, Fisher, & McRobbies, 1996). The
seven scales are Student Cohesiveness, Teacher Support,
Involvement, Investigation, Task Orientation, Cooperation and Equity.
The reliability coefficient for different WIHIC scales ranged from 0.75
to 0.90. In addition, eight-item scale was used to assess students'
satisfaction in terms of enjoyment, interest, and expectations in that
science classes according to a scale from the Test of Science Related
Attitudes (TOSRA; Fraser, 1981). The relationship between biology
classroom environments as measured by the WIHIC scales and
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students' attitudes toward Biology was explored by simple correlation
analysis.
Data analyses indicated that Turkish high school students
generally had positive Perceptions of Biology classroom environments.
Task Orientation scale has the highest mean (M=4.05), followed by
Students Cohesiveness scale (M=3.93). However, Teacher Support
scale has the lowest mean (M=2.57), followed by Involvement scale
(M=3.20). Of the seven scales of the WIHIC questionnaire only 4
scales (Teacher Support, Involvement, Task Orientation, Equity) were
found to be significantly correlated (p<0.01) with students' attitudes
toward Biology. All seven scales of the WIHIC questionnaire were
found to be significantly and positively correlated (p<0.01) with the
GPA of the students. T-test results revealed that there were
significant differences in the Perceptions of Biology learning
environment by gender. Girls had more positive Perceptions and
attitudes towards Biology than boys. Similarly, t-test results also
revealed that ninth grade students had more positive Perceptions in
two scales of WIHIC questionnaires (Students Cohesiveness, Teacher
Support) and attitudes toward Biology.
John Eichinger (1997) reported on the "Successful students'
Perceptions of secondary school science". In his study the attitudinal
Perceptions of successful college science students regarding their
junior high and high school science experiences were compared with
those of successful non science students. Results indicate that science
students were especially motivated by knowledgeable, enthusiastic,
communicative, committed, friendly, competent, and creative science
teachers, whereas the non science group preferred patient,
knowledgeable, congenial, friendly, supportive, and enthusiastic
instructors. Both groups agreed that, although traditional methods
(textbooks, lectures, quizzes/tests) dominated their science
experiences, their preferred instructional strategies included more
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dynamic methods, including laboratory activities, teacher
demonstrations, and discussions. Both groups also agreed that high
school science courses - provided a closer match than did junior
high/middle school courses in providing their preferred teacher
attributes and instructional methods.
Academically, gifted students' interest in science is relatively
depressed during the junior high/middle school years, and in the
middle school and high school, it is their science teachers who affect
their interest in their efforts to cultivate nurturing and effective
classroom learning environments. The educational process can be
actively directed toward the maximization of student interest and
achievement.
Goldstone RL. (1998) investigated on Perceptual Learning. The
ecological approach to Perceptual learning continues to offer a fertile
research program in developmental psychology and event perception.
The research will be predominantly concerned with the internal
mechanisms that drive Perceptual learning and mediate between the
external world and improvements in performance which are frequently
due to reduced processing of irrelevant dimensions.
Todd L. Drew and Gerald G. Work (1998) highlighted on the
Gender-based differences in Perception of experiences in higher
education.
Proponents of such efforts frequently cite research
conducted in primary- and secondary-level public schools, which
indicates that' younger female students particularly may benefit
developmentally from separate but equal learning environments. Hite
(1985) found gender-based differences in Perceptions of doctoral
students regarding support from faculty. It is found that "both male
and female students perceived professors of liked classes as less sexist
than those of disliked classes, and female professors as less sexist
than male professors". Female students reported disliking their
classes more than male students.
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Dunn (2002) in her article, 'Effects of learning style strategies
on special education students', describes the effects of research
concerned with identifying the learning styles of Special Education
(SPED) students and then teaching them globally, tactually, and / or
kinesthetically with instructional resources that complement their
Perceptual strengths. It documents statistically higher achievementand attitude-test scores when such treatments are provided, as well
as behavioral and lateness improvements.
Dzapasi et.al. (2002) investigated a Comparative study of
Learning Styles of 68 Blind and 71 Sighted Pupils in Zimbawe, and it
was found that there was no difference between learning styles of
blind and sighted boys and girls. The boys and girls showed no
significant difference in learning styles across various grades. There
was a difference between schools as regards the use of Perceptual
learning styles but no difference between the learning styles of blind
and sighted children was recorded.
Clara (2002) in her study on 'Cross-cultural differences in
learning styles of secondary school English learners' investigated the
learning styles of English learners. According to the study, students
favored a variety of instructional strategies. They exhibited either
major or minor preferences for all four basic Perceptual learning styles
but significant ethnic group differences were visible in preferences for
group and individual learning. All students exhibited either major or
minor preferences for kinesthetic or tactile learning.
Stephanie O'Neill (2002) made a brief account of "Different
Perceptions at primary and secondary level". According to him
primary students tended to be very positive in attitude, perceiving
science as both interesting and exciting. They appear fascinated by
anything that helps them to understand the world around them. 26%
cited 'experiments' as the most interesting aspect of science, 20%
'wildlife/nature' and 15% 'computers/internet.' Very few appear to
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understand the term technology, only a minority associating it with
electrical items such as televisions, etc. Primary students tended to
have a broader Perception and interpretation of science than those in
secondary, perceiving it to be about discovery and experimentation. It
appears to excite their imagination in a particular way through a
perception of experiments and 'potions'. The author observed that the
secondary students did not share enthusiasm for science of primary
level. There is a Perception that science teachers fail to relate theory
to everyday life. In general, both primary and secondary students
failed to see an interconnection between science and technology. The
two are seen to be separate. Technology is seen to be fast moving and
dynamic, as opposed to scientific discoveries which are perceived to
evolve over a longer time.
Yeap and Tin (2002), described the theoretical explanation of
Perceptual learning styles. According to them, students use different
approaches when faced with learning tasks and problems. The way in
which the students approach the learning tasks and the behavior in
learning situations determine their learning style.
Vinod Menon, Jesse M. Boyett-Anderson, Alan F. Schatzberg
and Allan L. Reiss (2002) provide a clear indication about "Relating
semantic and episodic memory systems". According to them episodic
and semantic memory are two forms of declarative memory which
appear to function in distinct yet interdependent ways. Here we
provide direct evidence for a functional relationship between these two
memories systems by showing that left lateral temporal lobe regions
involved in semantic memory play an important role in accurate
episodic memory retrieval.
A study was conducted by Doss and Muthiah (2002) to find out
the types of learning prevalent among college students, to study the
influence of Personal factors and institutional back ground and to
correlate styles of learning with academic performance. 925 college
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students were selected from 25 arts and science colleges affiliated to
Madurai Kamaraj Univesisty in Tamil Nadu. A students-learning style
questionnaire was used in this study, and the statistical techniques
employed were ANOVA and t-test. The predominant styles of learning
among the college students are collaborative styles, and academic
performance is related to their learning styles.
Biing-Lin Cherngi (2004) conducted a study on "Students'
Perception of Subjective Competence and Their Use of Avoidance
Strategies". The purposes of this study were to: (a) test the correlation
between empirically observed data and the reciprocal causal model of
subjective competence and avoidant strategies proposed by the
author, (b) analyze the moderating effects of classroom goals on
students' Perception of subjective competence and use of avoidance
strategies, and (c) confirm the developmental trends of students'
Perception of subjective competence and use of avoidant strategies.
Participants were 655 students (51% males) from ten junior high
schools, and data were collected during two consecutive academic
years. Students' Perceptions of subjective competence were not
related to use of avoidance strategies in classroom mastery goal
structure, whereas there was an inverse relation between students'
Perception of subjective competence and their use of avoidance
strategies in classroom performance goal structure. There was a
significant downward developmental trend in junior high school
students' Perception of subjective competence, together with a
significant upward developmental trend in their use of avoidance
strategies.
Genevieve Marie Johnson (2006) reported about Perception of
classroom climate, use of WebCT, and academic achievement. The
current investigation sought to understand the relationships between
college student Perception of classroom climate, use of WebCT, and
academic achievement. Fifty-three college students provided three
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categories of predictor and criterion measures: (1) rating scale
responses that assessed perception of seven dimensions of classroom
climate, (2) four metrics of use of WebCT, and (3) four measures of
academic achievement. Results of stepwise regression analyses
revealed that dimensions of classroom climate were useful in
predicting student achievement but in ways that appear unique to
hybrid learning environments. The student use of WebCT was
predictive of academic achievement, but in ways that appear unique to
hybrid learning environments.
In a study on 'Learning styles of prospective primary teachers'
Hasirchi (2006) recognized that academic achievement depends not
only on the intellectual ability and aptitude of the learner but also on
the individual's learning styles (Kolb 1984), and this topic has
increasingly been studied by many educators in recent years. The
experiential learning model has been conceptualized as being
composed of two independent but mutually connected dimensions
(perceiving and processing), which refer to four learning styles.
A survey by the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC)
(2006) revealed that students' academic performance and interest in
secondary school Biology has been generally poor. This has been
attributed to the current methods of instruction and lack of
instructional resources amenable to the study and proper
understanding of such complex areas as cell theory. The study
assessed the effects of a computer-based instruction simulation (CBIS)
program developed for the teaching of school biology, as part of a
classroom innovation for science instruction to improve students'
understanding and Perception of cell theory. This article presents
results of an empirical evaluation undertaken over a four-week period
with 102 form three students in Nakuru district. Comparisons of the
pretest and post test data of the experimental group ([E.sub.1]) and
two control groups (C) and ([E.sub.2]) were used to determine the
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students' learning gains with respect to their understanding and
Perception of cell theory. An analysis of the results showed that the
CBIS program resulted in significant learning gains and better
Perceptions towards the cell division topic in school Biology. In
addition to corroborating earlier findings on the effectiveness of the
use of educational media and hypermedia to improve students'
academic achievement and affective behaviors, the study concludes
that the innovation has major implications for improving those areas
of science that are difficult to teach and learn using the regular
methods and should therefore be integrated into the existing school
curriculum.
The primary educational goal for teaching cell division in school
biology is to teach students the location and orientation of
chromosomes and chromosomal movement during mitosis and
meiosis. But with lack of conducive learning environments and
employment of ineffective approaches, students' understanding of cell
division might not be effected (Wekesa, 2003). This could be partly the
reason why the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) report (1999)
asserted that a considerable number of secondary school students in
Kenya have inadequate understanding of cell theory and the
associated underlying concepts such as mitosis, meiosis,
chromosomes, and chromatids, even after the conclusion of the
instructional process. This should not be so because the topic
occupies a central role in the biology curriculum at all levels (KIE,
1999; Wekesa, 2003).
Several authors have identified the factors causing this problem
to include lack of adequate instructional materials and/or poor
ineffective teaching methods (Ramorogo 8s Kiboss, 1997).
Furthermore, Kiboss (2002) has singled out the expository approach
to be the dominant teaching method commonly used for science
instruction in our schools. The expository approach is instruction in
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which the teacher spends most of the time giving verbal explanations
in the form of talk-and-chalk while the students listen and write notes
from the blackboard. Obviously, such inadequate and limited teaching
methods tend to negatively affect the learners' views of scientific
concepts and associated methods (Kiboss 8v Ogunniyi, 2003). Unless
urgent measures are taken to curb the problem, the poor performance
in the subject at the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE)
national examination that qualifies students for tertiary and post
secondary education, will continue to persist.
Nevertheless, the use of computer-based instruction simulations
(CBIS) that have proven useful for teaching areas of science
considered difficult or dangerous to teach and learn through the
regular methods, could prove beneficial in curbing the problem
(Kiboss 8v Ogunniyi, 2003). The topic may also be improved by the use
of CBIS program because the current recommended method of using a
squashed young onion root tip or electronic micrographs is incapable
of giving it the dynamic nature of the process. It is here that a CBIS
instructional program would promote realism by incorporating
movement and color. This is because a CBIS program is capable of
incorporating a model of a process, phenomenon, or system, giving a
description of the state of the model and showing its state of change
through time and/or as a result of intentional manipulations (Njoo
De Jong, 1993). Moreover, it is an instructional technique that
combines animated color graphics to present the dynamic nature of
the process of cell division through a multi-sensory approach. This
involves the students in complex study processes that allow them to
examine a model.
Jale Cakiroglu (2009) has observed that learning environment
impacts students' attitudes towards Biology. The purpose of this
study was to examine Turkish high school students' Perceptions of
learning environment in Biology classrooms and to investigate
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relationships between learning environment and students' attitudes
toward Biology. Secondly, the study aimed to investigate the
differences in students' Perceptions of learning environments in
Biology classrooms by gender, grade levels and academic achievement.
A total of 1250 ninth and tenth grade students from different type of
high schools (Anatolian, Technical, Vocational, and Private etc.)
participated in this study. Among these students, about % 50 were
girls. A Perception of learning is an effective method to students for
their development in the subject.
Kayla Garelick (2009) set out to argue in his study the
kinesthetic and learning styles of different children. They learn
through moving, doing and touching. Tactile/Kinesthetic persons
learn best through a hands-on approach, actively exploring the
physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long
periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and
exploration. Students learn though their body, but they do not
express their knowledge through their body. They have a good sense
of balance and eye-hand co-ordination.
Kolf (2009) observed that the tactile-kinesthetic learners
involved in hands-on or creative activities, were encouraged to take
their own notes, dividing a class into small sections that allowed
movement between sections. The tactile-kinesthetic learners were
grouped on one side of the class so their fidgeting did not disturb
others. Role playing, creating posters, demonstrations and creating
models were the suggested activities for better understanding and
memorization. Tactile-kinesthetic learners learn best through
movement and touch. They benefit from hands-on activities that allow
them to manipulate items. Teaching tactile-kinesthetic learners
effectively require creative activities that allow them to experience
materials through gross and fine motor skills. Tactile-kinesthetic
learners have strong motor memory, which means they can remember
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how to do something after doing it once. They have well developed
gross and fine motor skills and actively participate in class activities.
2.5. STUDIES ON MIND MAPPING
According to
Margulies (1991),
before students learn a
language, they visualize pictures in their minds which are linked to
concepts. Unfortunately, once students are trained to write only words
in one color on lined paper, their creative channels and mental
flexibility diminishe. Images keep this creativity fired up.
White, R. and Gunstone, R. (1992) investigated about probing,
and understanding the mind maps. Mind Maps are based on
associations and connections. Once ideas are displayed in Mind Map
form, patterns of thought can be easily examined revealing similarities
and linkages between information in different parts of the map. By
encouraging people to link apparently different ideas and concepts in
this way, Mind Mapping actually promotes divergent and highly
creative thinking.
Lavoie D.E. (1997) used a modified concept mapping strategy
to identify students' alternative scientific understandings of Biology.
He presented a paper at the 1997 annual meeting of the National
Association for Research in Science Teaching, Chicago, Illinois. The
researchers investigated the sensitivity of student-generated concept
maps as methods for documenting changes in student understanding.
The researchers used an experimental pre/post design. Students who
were undergoing an elementary science course were randomly divided
into two groups. Both sets took a "Life Zones in the Ocean" multiplechoice exam and 22 constructed concept maps on the topic at the
start of the experiment. The experimental group was given 45 minutes
of computer instruction on the marine life zones, and the Control
group received similar instruction on an unrelated topic. Following
this, both sets took a "Life Zones in the Ocean" multiple-choice exam
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and constructed on the topic at the start of the experiment. The
researchers found that the experimental students' concept maps were
much more detailed than those of the Control students.
The Bosley group (2000) in U.S.A. studied about Mind
Mapping. In the United States, Boeing Aircraft uses a 25-foot long
Mind Map to enable a team of aeronautical engineers to learn in a few
weeks what would have taken a few years. In training, British
Petroleum and Digital Equipment use the techniques extensively in
their staff training programs. An estimated saving of $10 million was
realized. They are looking for a short-cut to improve their performance
at work. Just recently a gracious consideration was received from
Hyundai Motors. They are initially utilizing 30 work stations with
mind mapper installed. Hyundai Motors plans to utilize this Mind
Mapping software for training, sharing ideas, improving productivity
in all areas, and marketing.
Many instructors at universities around the world have
purchased Mind Mapper with the idea of organizing class room study
in a structured format. Students soon learned of this wonderful Mind
Mapping tool and they too, by hundreds have started using Mind
Mapper as well, for classroom study, term papers, tutoring other
students, organizing topics, ideas, and more. More and more
companies today are learning how to better utilize the power of
networking. For example a recent client, Philips Lighting of The
Netherlands has proven that over a network using Windows NT, ideas
can be shared with everyone quickly and productively.
Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that the mind
map technique had a limited but significant impact on memory recall
in undergraduate students (a 10% increase over baseline for a 600word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a -6%
increase over baseline). This improvement was only robust after a
week for those in the mind map group, and there was a significant
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decrease in motivation compared to the subjects' preferred methods of
note taking. The conclusion of the study was "Mind Maps provide an
effective study technique when applied to written material. However
before Mind Maps are generally adopted as a study technique,
consideration has to be given towards ways of improving motivation
amongst users."
Karen Goodnough and Robin Woods (2002) made a brief
account of a student and teacher perceptions of Mind Mapping:. A
middle school case study. He studied on the use of Mind Mapping as
an instructional and learning tool in a sixth-grade classroom with 16
students. Students perceived Mind Maps as an entertaining and
interesting approach and thought that Mind Maps enhanced their
learning. Most students preferred individual Mind Mapping; some
preferred group Mind Mapping. The teacher enjoyed using Mind Maps
and thought that it fostered in the students motivation in learning
science. Mind Maps can be used to help support and develop
students' writing skills and summary of the main ideas of
construction.
Keith Poison (2003) has been working towards the concept of
Mind Mapping in learning and teaching pupil and teaching
perspectives. This research would be of interest to practitioners who
have interests in the use of visual learning schemes to assist young
people in developing transferable skills for school and life. Mind
Mapping, a graphic technique developed by Buzan in the late 1960s
and early 1970s, and recently updated by Caviglioli was explored in
two S2 classrooms as a tool for enhancing history education. A
detailed evaluation of the technique in a specific subject area, with the
perceptions of pupils and teachers taken in to account emerges. This
research offers practitioners evidence-based insights into a previously
under-explored learning method, identifying many benefits and
potential classroom uses.
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John Budd (2007) has promoted active learning in his classes
by having students in small groups create Mind Maps. Budd assigns
students two Mind Mapping exercises over the course of a term. Both
involve the same steps and take approximately 1 hour and 45
minutes. Students are given three newspaper articles from different
years which, while fictional, dramatize real historical events and facts.
Each group maps one article so that the class as a whole will generate
a series of maps that represent important moments in time. The
exercise occurs toward the end of the semester and provides students
with an opportunity to reflect on the course.
As a classroom activity, Mind Mapping facilitates collaborative
learning and brainstorming accommodates different learning styles,
energizes the students, and encourages classroom discussion. Mind
Mapping also promotes discipline-specific goals and objectives. The
students explore labor conflict and resolution issues by examining
historical materials, understand the range of contributing factors by
visually representing a historical moment, hierarchize and
contextualize, contributing factors by organizing information.
Buzan, Tony's (2008) work has shown that the Mind Maps
have been used for centuries in learning, brainstorming memory,
visual thinking, and problem solving by educators, engineers,
psychologists, and others. Some of the earliest examples of Mind Maps
were developed by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker of the 3rd
century, as he graphically visualized the concept categories of
Aristotle. Philosopher Ramon Llull (1235 - 1315) also used mind
maps.
Plotnick (2008) focuses on the importance on Mead Map-Mind
Mapping for students. If we are in school-at any level-we need Mead
Map. Mead map leads us to Mind Map over the web. But more than
that, it is designated with students' mind. Mead Map is focused on
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helping students leverage the power of Mind Mapping and online
collaboration.
A study was conducted by Chandrikadevi Ammam (2008) to
determine the effectiveness of computer based Mind Maps for
classroom learning. The Mind Map is an external mirror of our radiant
thinking and allows us access into this vast thinking powerhouse. The
experimental study was conducted on 60 students (Std XI). Pre-test Post-Test parallel group design was adopted. The unit 'Bacteria' was
selected for the study. The obtained data was analyzed using the
statistical technique of Analysis of Co-Variance. The study revealed
that the Computer based Mind Maps developed by the investigator
were found to be more effective than the routine teacher dominated
lecture method for transacting Biology at Higher Secondary Level.
Mind Mapping can be used to optimum advantage in the field of ICT
engaged education.
Jane Genovese (2008) discovered how to help combat climate
change with the energy saving Mind Map. Mind Maps are visual tools
that students and teachers can use to organize ideas and thus
enhance learning. Teachers can use these tools to teach many
subjects, making curricular options broader. This allows relationships
to be clearly identified and connections to be made. Using Mind Maps
in this way can support the development of word and concept skills to
develop good learners. Mind Mapping provides students with a
powerful visual framework where they can see how the knowledge
they have acquired hangs together. This reinforces learning, and taken
a step further, can be used to show understanding by encouraging
students to create their own Mind Maps.
Rita Carter (2008) attempted to develop mapping the mind.
According to .her, in the last decades of the 20th century, scientists
have come to believe that the human brain is almost completely
modular. Every bit of the brain does something in particular, and
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surprisingly specific abilities, memories, and responses are in
localized areas. Journalist Rita Carter has drawn a map of what is
known (and speculated) about the mind in a heavily illustrated field
guide to the human brain. "Mapping the mind is an up-to-date, easy
to read, gorgeously produced happy hybrid of textbook and coffeetable tome. Having a map is essential for any new journey.
Shashi Bhushan (2008) has proposed collaborative e-learning
platform designed to enhance the online learning of diplomacy. New
features are being proposed to provide a stimulating environment for
online learning with a high level of interactivity.
Tony Buzan (2009) has worked to impress upon educators that
in the mind map 'to use or not to use'-is the question about using key
words in Mind Maps rather than phrases or a collection of words.
Tony states that a key word is essentially a word that will trigger as
much relevant meaning as possible. Using key words in our mind
map, we open up our thinking and stimulate our mind to dig deeper
and see greater detail on thoughts that were previously vague.
Sentences lock in ideas as key words are hidden away. For the
ultimate freedom of thinking key words should be used.
2.6. STUDIES ON BIOLOGY
Richard E. Hodges (1982) worked on "improving spelling and
vocabulary in the secondary school near the University of Puget
Sound. Students got help to "work smarter" at developing science
vocabulary "dissecting" words into their prefixes, roots and suffixes.
Consider the word "photosynthesis". Photo- or phot- is a prefix that
comes from the Greek language meaning light, and the root word is synthesis, also from the Greek word - syntithenai, meaning to put
together. Photo-synthesis therefore means "light - to put together". The
natural definition is clear if one considers the word by translating it
"backwards" resulting in "to put together from light". To develop
vocabulary this way after learning a couple of standard prefixes, root
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words and suffixes, we could start "backwards" translating many
unfamiliar words as students read them for the first time, increasing
reading comprehension, understanding of the main idea, and
shortening the amount of time. His work has shown that the students
by this way developed their knowledge of spelling and vocabulary.
Baldwin,J.A., Ebert - May.D. and Burns,DJ. (1999) defined
through the classroom assessment instruments attitude inventories in
biology. (Biology Self-Efficacy Instrument for Nonmajors (BSEIN)) The
Biology Self-Efficacy Instrument for Nonmajors is a 23-item scale that
asks students to rate on a five-point scale their level of confidence in
three key areas: 1) in writing and critiquing biological ideas through
the use of laboratory reports; 2) in general skills used in a typical
biology course (e.g., analyzing data, asking meaningful questions etc.);
and 3) in ability to apply biological concepts to every day life.
Hall, T. R., D. Ashley, and J. Rushin's (2001) work has shown
academic achievement in introductory Biology. The purpose of the
current investigation is to identify students' variables affecting
achievement in an introductory Biology course designed for Biology
majors. 53 students from four separate semesters responded to an
instrument assessing entry-level background, interest in biological
emphasis, and confidence of successfully completing activities that
relate to understanding Biology as a process. Male students had
significantly higher confidence in performing laboratory techniques
than females (p<.023), and there was no difference in the other four
subcategories (p<.05). Biology professors determined what parts of the
curriculum are facilitating confidence, and what modifications need to
be made to enhance student' learning to a greater degree.
Cakiroglu (2003) has worked to impress on "Turkish high
School student's Perceptions of learning environment in Biology
classrooms and their attitudes toward Biology". The purpose of this
study was to examine Turkish high school students' Perceptions of
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learning environment in Biology classrooms and to investigate
relationships between learning environment and students' attitudes
toward Biology. Secondly, the study aimed to investigate the
differences in students' Perceptions of learning environments in
Biology classrooms by gender, grade levels, and academic
achievement. A total of 399 ninth and tenth grade students
participated in the study. Data were collected utilizing an adapted
version of the "What is Happening in This Classroom" (WIHIC)
instrument and Biology Attitude scale. Turkish high school students
generally had positive Perceptions of Biology classroom environments
and there is a positive association between the nature of the Biology
classroom environment with respect to teacher support, involvement,
task orientation, equity and the students' attitudes toward Biology.
Necmettin Yumusak, Semra Sungur and Jale Cakiroglu's
(2007) studies aimed at investigating the contribution of motivational
beliefs, cognitive, and metacognitive strategy to Turkish high school
students' achievement in Biology. In order to investigate the specified
purpose of the study, 519 tenth-grade students were administered the
Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich, Smith,
Garcia, & McKeachie, 1991) and a Biology Achievement Test developed
by the researchers. Results of multiple linear regression analyses
showed that extrinsic goal orientation, task value, rehearsal strategy
use, organization strategy use, management of time and study
environment, and peer learning contributed significantly to the
prediction of achievement scores.
Manzoor Hussain (2009) explained the impact of type of school
on the achievement of students in Biology at secondary level in
Khanewal district. For this purpose 08 English medium and 08 Urdu
medium comprising 04 boys and 04 girls from secondary schools were
selected as a sample through random sampling technique. The total
samples comprised 401 9th class Biology students. A multiple-choice
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items type test containing 40 items from the syllabus of secondary
biology as a research tool was developed. The test was based on the
general understanding and comprehension in the subject of Biology.
The achievement of English medium students was better than
that of Urdu medium students in the subject of Biology. This study
also revealed that achievement of all female students was better than
that of all male students, and achievement of English medium males
was quite negligible as compared to Urdu medium females. The
achievement of the Urdu medium female students was better than
that of the Urdu medium males. The achievement of the female
students as compared to male students in English Medium was quite
insignificant.
2.7. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner (1983) studied about theory of multiple
intelligences. He suggested eight different intelligences ((Linguistic
intelligence
("word smart"),
Logical-mathematical intelligence
("number/reasoning smart"), Spatial intelligence ("picture smart"),
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart"), Musical intelligence
("music smart"),
Interpersonal intelligence
("people smart"),
Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart"), and Naturalist intelligence
("nature smart") to account for a broader range of human potential in
children and adults. According to him, teachers are trained to present
their lessons, in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative
learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner
reflection, and much more. The good news is that the theory of
multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators
around the country, and hundreds of schools are currently using its
philosophy to redesign the way it educates children. The bad news is
that there are thousands of schools still out there that teach in the
same old dull way, through dry lectures, and boring worksheets and
textbooks.
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Teachers have difficulty to reach the students in the traditional
ways of instruction. The theory of multiple intelligences suggests
several other ways in which the material might be presented to
facilitate effective learning.
India's biggest asset is that it is young, hungry and curious. If
it is perfectly guided, the nation will become the mighty force of the
world even before 2020. The development of any country is depending
upon its educational system. Teacher education is the integral
component of the educational system. It is intimately connected with
society and is conditioned by the ethos, culture and character of a
nation.
In the light of the knowledge acquired by the review of related
literature, it is crystal clear that education alone can develop the
nation and its citizens. To educate the Higher Secondary students,
devoted Biology teachers with Perceptual learning and Mnemonic
adopted strategy skills are very much required. Perfectly designed
Perceptual learning and Mnemonic adopted strategy in Mind Mapping
in Biology curriculums have to be introduced in Higher Secondary
Schools to promote the slow learners. Importance has to be given for
developing Biology teaching to Higher Secondary students. Perceptual
learning and Mnemonic adopted strategies are incorporated with Mind
Mapping with which we solve the learning problems of Higher
Secondary students in Biology subject and find way for attaining
higher marks. Effect of Perceptual and Mnemonic adopted strategy+
will help the teachers in a long way to do their noble profession in a
sacred manner.
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