Why Distance Matters:
Effects on Cooperation, Persuasion and Deception
!
Erin Bradner and Gloria Mark
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ABSTRACT
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INTRODUCTION
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WL#6#! 6%1/.#6! L-5#! *'%! 8''H#/! -%! $#'$8#! 3'88-I'+-%.*G!
%'G#%L#+! %L+'1GL! 3',$1%#+?,#/.-%#/! 3',,1*.3-%.'*&! O#!
I#8.#5#! %L-%! .%! .6! +#8#5-*%! ('+! 020O! %'! 1*/#+6%-*/! L'M!
G#'G+-$L.3!
/.6%-*3#!
-((#3%6!
3',$1%#+?,#/.-%#/!
3',,1*.3-%.'*&!
Interaction and distance
R13L! '(! %L#! +#6#-+3L! '*! %L#! #((#3%6! '(! /.6%-*3#! I#%M##*!
$#'$8#! .6! I-6#/! '*! %L#! M'+H! '(! e-%-*i&! j.6! 6%1/.#6! L-5#!
-%%+.I1%#/! $L76.3-8! /.6%-*3#! %'! .*(81#*3#9! (+.#*/6L.$!
('+,-%.'*9! $#+61-6.'*! -*/! $#+3#.5#/! #N$#+%.6#&! e-%-*i`6!
ZDA[!%L#'+7!'(!6'3.-8!.,$-3%!38-.,6!%L-%!%L#!/#G+##!'(!6'3.-8!
.*%.,-37! .6! %L#! .*5#+6#! '(! %L#! -,'1*%! '(! $L76.3-8! /.6%-*3#!
I#%M##*! $#'$8#&! :! 3#*%+-8! -66#+%.'*! '(! %L.6! %L#'+7! .6! %L-%!
%L#! %.,#! 6$#*%! .*%#+-3%.*G9! $-7.*G! -%%#*%.'*9! +#3'88#3%.*G9!
-*/!-%%#,$%.*G!%'!$#+61-/#!'%L#+6!-88!/#38.*#!M.%L!/.6%-*3#&!
WL#6#! 5-+.-I8#6! 3'*6%.%1%#! %L#! 7#04!9. 4"1!0&! %L-%! '*#!
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND PROCEDURE
O#! 3L'6#! -*! #N$#+.,#*%-8! $-+-/.G,! %'! %#6%! %L#! #((#3%6! '(!
/.6%-*3#! '*! %#3L*'8'G7?,#/.-%#/! .*%#+-3%.'*&! WL'1GL!
6%1/7.*G! /.6%-*3#! .*%#+-3%.'*! .*! -*! '+G-*.X-%.'*-8! 3'*%#N%!
3'18/! $+'5./#! 16! M.%L! -! 3'*%#N%1-8.X#/! 1*/#+6%-*/.*G! '(!
I#L-5.'+9! M#! 3L'6#! -*! #N$#+.,#*%-8! -$$+'-3L! I#3-16#! .%!
I#%%#+! #*-I8#6! 16! %'! ('316! 6$#3.(.3-887! '*! %L#! %L+##! 6'3.-8!
I#L-5.'+6!'(!3''$#+-%.'*9!$#+61-6.'*9!-*/!/#3#$%.'*&!
227
374
)*! '+/#+! %'! I#! -I8#! %'! G#*#+-8.X#! %'! ,'+#! %L-*! '*#!
3',,1*.3-%.'*6!,#/.1,9!M#!3L'6#!%'!#N-,.*#!%L#!#((#3%6!
'(! 5./#'?3'*(#+#*3.*G! -*/! )*6%-*%! R#66-G.*G! Q)RS&! O#!
/#8.I#+-%#87! 3L'6#! ,#/.-! %L-%! $+'5./#/! 3'*%+-6%.*G! ,'/#6P!
%#N%! -*/! 5.61-8! .*('+,-%.'*&! )*! '%L#+! M'+H9! M#! L-5#!
.*5#6%.G-%#/! %L#! 6'3.-8! -(('+/-*3#6! '(! I'%L! 5./#'!
3'*(#+#*3.*G!-*/!)R!Z@9!<<[&!!
Experimental room and setup
WL#! #N$#+.,#*%! M-6! 3'*/13%#/! .*! %L#! q+'1$M-+#!
e-I'+-%'+7!'*!%L#!4*.5#+6.%7!'(!0-8.('+*.-9!)+5.*#!3-,$169!
ML.3L!L-6!%M'!-/U-3#*%!+'',6&!WL#!61IU#3%!6-%!.*!'*#!+'',!
.*!(+'*%!'(!-!3',$1%#+&!!
:4-2#.0#%-4&4#%&!)*!%L.6!3'*/.%.'*9!-!/.G.%-8!3-,#+-!-*/!D;?
.*3L! /.-G'*-8! Wr! 63+##*! M#+#! $'6.%.'*#/! .,,#/.-%#87! %'!
%L#! +.GL%! '(! %L#! 61IU#3%`6! 3',$1%#+! ,'*.%'+&! WL#! 3-,#+-!
3-$%1+#/! %L#! 61IU#3%`6! .,-G#o! %L#! Wr! /.6$8-7#/! -! 5./#'!
.,-G#! '(! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#&! OL#*! %L#! .,-G#! '(! %L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#!M-6!/.6$8-7#/9!%L#!/.,#*6.'*6!'(!%L#!(-3#!-*/!
%'+6'!M#+#!+'1GL87!#V1.5-8#*%!%'!%L#!%+1#!/.,#*6.'*6!M#+#!!
6L#!%'!$L76.3-887!6.%!ML#+#!%L#!5./#'!,'*.%'+!M-6!$8-3#/D&!
WL#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! -$$#-+#/! %'! I#! 8''H.*G! /.+#3%87! -%! %L#!
61IU#3%&!WL#!3'*(#/#+-%#!6-%!.*!%L#!-/U-3#*%!'((.3#&!0'*%+-+7!
%'! ML-%! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%! M-6! 8#/!%'!I#8.#5#9!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!
/./!*'%!6##!%L#!$-+%.3.$-*%`6!.,-G#&!:!$L'*#!M.%L!-!L#-/6#%!
.*! I'%L! '((.3#6! $+'5./#/! -! 5'.3#! 3'**#3%.'*! I#%M##*! %L#!
$-+%.3.$-*%!-*/!3'*(#/#+-%#!.*!%L.6!3'*/.%.'*!'*87&!
W'! #N-,.*#! %L#! #((#3%! '(! G#'G+-$L.3! /.6%-*3#! '*!
$#+61-6.'*9! /#3#$%.'*9! -*/! 3''$#+-%.'*9! M#! $+#6#*%#/!
61IU#3%6! M.%L! %L#! ('88'M.*G! %-6H6P! %L#! /#6#+%! 61+5.5-8! %-6H!
ZD@[9! %L#! b-18L16! "#3#$%.'*! 23-8#6! Qb"2o! Z<>[S! -*/! %L#!
$+.6'*#+`6!/.8#,,-!G-,#&!WL#!/#6#+%!61+5.5-8!%-6H!%#6%6!%L#!
#N%#*%! %'! ML.3L! -! $-+%.3.$-*%! 3-*! I#! $#+61-/#/! %'! 3L-*G#!
L#+!#5-81-%.'*!'(!%L#!+#8-%.5#!.,$'+%-*3#!'(!.%#,6!*##/#/!%'!
61+5.5#! .*! %L#! /#6#+%&! WL#! b"2! .6! -*! .*6%+1,#*%! 16#/! %'!
#N-,.*#!63'+#6!('+!.,$+#66.'*!,-*-G#,#*%!-*/!/#3#$%.'*&!
WL#! $+.6'*#+`6! /.8#,,-! G-,#! .6! 16#/! %'! -66#66! %L#!
M.88.*G*#66! %'! 3''$#+-%#&! W'G#%L#+9! M#! 16#! %L#6#! %-6H6! %'!
,#-61+#! %L#! #((#3%6! '(! %#3L*'8'G7! -*/! G#'G+-$L7! '*!
$#+61-6.'*9! '*! %L#! %#*/#*37! ('+! /#3#$%.'*9! -*/! '*!
3''$#+-%.'*&!h-3L!%-6H!.6!/#63+.I#/!.*!,'+#!/#%-.8!8-%#+& !
Factor
Levels of Factors
;%7&!%&. "277!<4%<. 0#%-4&4#%&! )*! %L.6! 3'*/.%.'*9! %L#!
$-+%.3.$-*%! 3',,1*.3-%#/! M.%L! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! '*87! 5.-!
.*6%-*%! ,#66-G.*G9! M.%L'1%! 5./#'! '+! -1/.'&! WL#! .*6%-*%!
,#66-G.*G!%''8!16#/!M-6!:Te`6!)*6%-*%!R#66#*G#+s&!WL.6!
%''8! -88'M#/! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! -*/! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%! %'! %7$#!
,#66-G#6! %'! '*#! -*'%L#+! .*! +#-8! %.,#&! h-3L! *#M! ,#66-G#!
M-6! /.6$8-7#/! '*! %L#! +#3.$.#*%`6! 63+##*! -(%#+! %L#! 6#*/#+!
$+#66#/! %L#! h*%#+! H#7&! WL169! ,#66-G.*G! M-6! V1-6.?
67*3L+'*'16! 6.*3#! %L#! 1*.%! '(! %+-*6,.66.'*! M-6! -*! #*%.+#!
,#66-G#!+-%L#+!%L-*!-!H#7!6%+'H#!Q'+!M'+/S&!
".6%-*3#!
2-,#!0.%7!Qc#-+S!
Subjects
QI#%M##*?61IU#3%6S!
".6%-*%!0.%7!Qp-+S!
R#/.-!W7$#!
r./#'!
QI#%M##*?61IU#3%6S!
)*6%-*%!R#66-G.*G!
:88! $-+%.3.$-*%6! M#+#! 1*/#+G+-/1-%#6! (+',! %L#! /#$-+%,#*%!
'(! )*('+,-%.'*! -*/! 0',$1%#+!23.#*3#!-%!%L#!4*.5#+6.%7!'(!
0-8.('+*.-9! )+5.*#&! :88! M#+#! *-t5#! %'! %L#! $1+$'6#6! '(! %L#!
6%1/7! -*/! M#+#! #-3L! $-./! gD<! ('+! $-+%.3.$-%.*G&! :!%'%-8!'(!
;E! 61IU#3%6! $-+%.3.$-%#/&! :$$+'N.,-%#87! L-8(! QA=uS! M#+#!
(#,-8#&!
Levels of distance
O#! 16#/! -! I#%M##*?61IU#3%6! /#6.G*9! M.%L! %M'! (-3%'+6P!
G#'G+-$L.3!/.6%-*3#!Q*#-+!'+!(-+S!-*/!,#/.-!%7$#!Q5./#'!'+!
.*6%-*%! ,#66-G.*GS&! W-I8#! D! 61,,-+.X#6! %L#! #N$#+.,#*%-8!
/#6.G*&!21IU#3%6!M#+#!+-*/',87!-66.G*#/!%'!3'*/.%.'*6&!
)*!%L#!m2-,#!3.%7n!Qc#-+S!3'*/.%.'*9!$-+%.3.$-*%6!M#+#!%'8/!
Table 1. Experimental design
%L-%! %L#.+! 3'88-I'+-%.*G! $-+%*#+! Q-! $-./! 3'*(#/#+-%#S! M-6!
3',,1*.3-%.*G!M.%L!%L#,!(+',!-*!'((.3#!6',#ML#+#!.*!%L#!
6-,#!3.%79!.*!)+5.*#9!0-8.('+*.-&!)*!%L#!m".6%-*%!3.%7n!Qp-+S!
3'*/.%.'*9! $-+%.3.$-*%6! M#+#! %'8/! %L-%! %L#.+! 3'88-I'+-%.*G!
$-+%*#+! M-6! .*! a'6%'*! Q-$$+'N.,-%#87! @9^^^! ,.8#6! -M-7S&!
:88! $-+%.3.$-*%6! 1*/#+6%''/! %L-%! a'6%'*! M-6! 8'3-%#/! -%! -!
3'*6./#+-I8#! G#'G+-$L.3! /.6%-*3#! (+',! ML#+#! %L#7! M#+#!
8'3-%#/&!!
Procedure
WL#! #N$#+.,#*%! %''H! '*#! L'1+&! :(%#+! %L#! 6%1/#*%! 6.G*#/! -!
3'*6#*%! ('+,9! -! B?,.*1%#! '+.#*%-%.'*! M-6! G.5#*! .*! ML.3L!
%L#! $-+%.3.$-*%! M-6! 6L'M*! L'M! %'! 63+'88! %L'1GL! %L#! '*?
63+##*! .*6%+13%.'*6&! :(%#+! %L#! +#6#-+3L#+! 3',$8#%#/! %L#!
'+.#*%-%.'*9! 6L#! $8-3#/! -! (-H#! $L'*#! 3-88! %'! -! $#+6'*! 6L#!
./#*%.(.#/! -6! %L#! '%L#+! $-+%.3.$-*%! .*! %L#! #N$#+.,#*%&! 2L#!
-6H#/!.(!%L-%!$-+%.3.$-*%!M-6!+#-/7!%'!6%-+%9!-*/!.*!%L#!5./#'!
3'*/.%.'*9! 6L#! $-66#/! %L#! $L'*#! QM.%L! L#-/6#%S! %'! %L#!
$-+%.3.$-*%!-*/!8#(%!%L#!+'',&!)*!%L#!)R!3'*/.%.'*!6L#!L1*G!
1$! %L#! $L'*#! -*/! 8#(%! %L#! +'',! -(%#+! 6L#! 6-M! %L-%! .*.%.-8!
3'*%-3%! 5.-! )R! L-/! I##*! #6%-I8.6L#/&! :(%#+! %L#! %-6H6! M#+#!
3',$8#%#/9! 61IU#3%6! +#6$'*/#/! %'! -! D=?.%#,! V1#6%.'**-.+#!
-*/!M#+#!-6H#/!%'!,-H#!-!/+-M.*G!%'!+#$+#6#*%!ML#+#!%L#7!
)*! +#-8.%79! M#! 16#/! %L#! 6-,#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! .*! %L#! #*%.+#!
#N$#+.,#*%9! -*/! 6L#! 6-%! .*! -! *#.GLI'+.*G! +'',&! 2L#! M-6!
-$$+'N.,-%#87! %L#! 6-,#! -G#! -6! %L#! 61IU#3%6& WL#!
3'*(#/#+-%#! M-6! -6H#/! *'%! %'! +#5#-8! $#+6'*-8! .*('+,-%.'*9!
#&G&! ML#+#! '+! .(! 6L#! L-/! -%%#*/#/! 63L''89! %'! ,.*.,.X#!
-((.*.%7!I#%M##*!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!-*/!%L#!6%1/7!$-+%.3.$-*%6&!
c'!61IU#3%6!+#$'+%#/!I#.*G!$+#5.'1687!-3V1-.*%#/!M.%L!%L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#&! WL#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! M-6! %'8/! ML-%! 3'*/.%.'*! %L#!
61IU#3%6! M#+#! .*! Q.&#&! a'6%'*! '+! )+5.*#S! 6'! %L-%! 6L#! 3'18/!
+#6$'*/! -$$+'$+.-%#87! .(! 61IU#3%6! -6H#/! ML#+#! 6L#! M-6!
8'3-%#/!'+!ML-%!%.,#!'(!%L#!/-7!.%!M-6&!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
D
! ! WL#! Wr! ,'*.%'+! M-6! $8-3#/! -%! -! /.6%-*3#! /#%#+,.*#/! %'! I#!
'1%6./#!%L#!k$#+6'*-8`!6$-3#!'(!-*!:,#+.3-*!Z=[&!!
228
375
123024=2-! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! %'! I#9!+#8-%.5#!%'!%L#,&!21IU#3%6!
M#+#!%L#*!/#I+.#(#/!-*/!$-./&!!
Desert Survival Situation
WL#! "#6#+%! 21+5.5-8! 2.%1-%.'*! .6! -! M./#87! 16#/! G+'1$!
/#5#8'$,#*%! %+-.*.*G! %''8! ZD@[&! p'+! %L.6! %-6H9! $-+%.3.$-*%6!
-+#!-6H#/!%'!.,-G.*#!%L#7!L-5#!3+-6L?8-*/#/!.*!%L#!2'*'+-!
"#6#+%9! .*! %L#! ,.//8#! '(! 61,,#+&! WL#7! -*/! %L#! '%L#+!
$-+%.3.$-*%! Q3'*(#/#+-%#S! -+#! %L#! '*87! 61+5.5'+6&! WL#7! -+#!
%'8/!D<!.%#,6!L-5#!I##*!+#3'5#+#/!(+',!%L#!3+-6L!-*/!#-3L!
$-+%.3.$-*%! .6! -6H#/! %'! +-*H! %L#! D<! .%#,6! .*! '+/#+! '(!
.,$'+%-*3#!%'!%L#.+!61+5.5-8&!T*3#!%L#7!3',$8#%#!%L#!.*.%.-8!
+-*H.*G9!%L#7!-+#!-6H#/!%'!#N3L-*G#!%L#.+!+-*H.*G6!M.%L!%L#!
'%L#+! $-+%.3.$-*%! Q3'*(#/#+-%#S&! WL#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! 16#6! %L#!
61IU#3%`6!+-*H.*G6!-*/!-!+#6L1((8.*G!H#7!%'!G#*#+-%#9!'*!%L#!
(879! L#+! +-*H.*G! %L-%! 6L#! +#%1+*6! %'! %L#! 61IU#3%&! ! p'+!
#N-,$8#9! .*! #5#+7! 3-6#9! %L#! .%#,! %L-%! .6! %'$! '*! %L#!
$-+%.3.$-*%`6! 8.6%! M-6! ,'5#/! %'! %L#! A%L! $'6.%.'*! I7! %L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#!-*/!%L#!6#3'*/!.%#,!'*!%L#!$-+%.3.$-*%`6!8.6%#/!
M-6! ,'5#/! %'! %L#! E%L! $'6.%.'*9! -*/! 6'! '*&! WL#! $-+%.3.$-*%!
-*/! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! %L#*! k/.63166#/`! %L#! +-*H.*G6&! W'!
#6%-I8.6L!L#+6#8(!-6!#N$#+.#*3#/!.*!%L.6!-+#-9!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!
3',,1*.3-%#/!%L#!('88'M.*G!.*('+,-%.'*!.*!%L#!/.63166.'*P!
;F=2. <#&. G7#"2G. 2H12342%02. /232I. 9!7&. 7$""23D. ;. /2912-.
#$&. #%. !. 3272!30/. 13#J20&. 4%. K&!0!"!D. '/4925. WL#!
$-+%.3.$-*%!.6!.*6%+13%#/!%'!-6H!V1#6%.'*6!'(!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!
+#G-+/.*G! %L#! +#8-%.5#! $'6.%.'*! '(! .%#,6! .*! %L#! 8.6%&!
4*I#H*'M*6%! %'! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%9! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! L-/! -!
63+.$%!'(!+#6$'*6#6&!WL#+#!M#+#!<A!+#6$'*6#6!.*!-889!%M'!('+!
#-3L! .%#,&! WL#! +#6$'*6#6! M#+#! -+G1,#*%6! ML7! #-3L! .%#,!
6L'18/!I#!+-.6#/!'+!8'M#+#/!.*!%L#!+-*H.*G&!)(!%L#!61IU#3%`6!
+#6$'*6#! M-6! 8'M#+! %L-*! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#`6! +#6$'*6#9! %L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#! 16#/!%L#!6%-*/-+/!-+G1,#*%!%'!%+7!%'!3'*5.*3#!
%L#!61IU#3%!%'!+-.6#!L#+!+-*H.*G9!'+!5.3#?5#+6-&!p'+!#N-,$8#P!
Experimental tasks
:6!/#63+.I#/!#-+8.#+9!M#!3L'6#!%L+##!#N$#+.,#*%-8!%-6H6!%'!
,#-61+#! %L+##! %7$#6! '(! .*%#+-3%.'*! I#L-5.'+9! I-6#/! '*!
$+#5.'16! +#6#-+3L! (.*/.*G6&! WL#! 61IU#3%6! $#+('+,#/! -88!
%-6H69! -*/! %L#! '+/#+! .*! ML.3L! %L#! %-6H6! M#+#! $+#6#*%#/! %'!
#-3L!61IU#3%!M-6!3'1*%#+I-8-*3#/!-3+'66!3'*/.%.'*6&!
Paulhus Deception Scales
WL#! b-18L16! "#3#$%.'*! 23-8#6! Qb"2S! Z<>[9! .*/#$#*/#*%87!
,#-61+#6! %M'! 6'3.-8! /#6.+-I.8.%7! (-3%'+6! _! 6#8(?/#3#$%.5#!
#*L-*3#,#*%! -*/! .,$+#66.'*! ,-*-G#,#*%&! )%! .6! -! A^?.%#,!
.*6%+1,#*%! %L-%! ,#-61+#6! %L#! %#*/#*37! %'! G.5#! /#3#$%.5#!
+#6$'*6#6&! "#3#$%.'*! .6! '$#+-%.'*-8.X#/! -6! .*(8-%#/! 6#8(?
#5-81-%.'*6! %L-%! '5#+?+#$'+%! 6'3.-887! /#6.+-I8#! I#L-5.'+&!
WL#! b"2! -*/! #-+8.#+! 5-+.-*%6! '(! .%! L-5#! I##*! .*! 16#! 6.*3#!
%L#!D;>^`6&!WL#!5-8./.%7!'(!%L.6!.*6%+1,#*%!.6!61$$'+%#/!I7!
,-*7! 6%1/.#6!Z3&(&!<>9!<[&!WL#!$+'3#/1+#!('+!-/,.*.6%#+.*G!
%L#!b-18L16!"#3#$%.'*!23-8#!+#V1.+#6!6.,$87!%L-%!%L#!6%1/7!
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63'+#!6L##%&!!
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3'*6.6%#*37! .*! %L#! $+#6#*%-%.'*! '(! %L#! V1#6%.'*&! Y#%! %'!
/.6,.66!616$.3.'*!'(!.,$'66.I87!(-6%!%7$.*G9!%L#!$-+%.3.$-*%!
M-6! ,-/#! -M-+#! %L-%! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! M-6! 3'$7.*G! %L#!
V1#6%.'*6! (+',! -! (.8#&S! WL#! $-+%.3.$-*%! +#6$'*/#/! %'! #-3L!
V1#6%.'*!16.*G!%L#!B?$'.*%!63-8#&!WL#!3'*(#/#+-%#!+#3'+/#/!
#-3L!+#6$'*6#!'*!-!63'+#!6L##%&!!
<S! e'M#+! .*! l-*H.*GP! !. 149#&F7. !43. "!1D. B/40/. 47. B/!&. ;.
!77$"2. B2. /!=2D. 47%F&. <#4%<. &#. 7/#B. 7"!99. B!&23. 7#$3027.
!%-.7/29&237D.B/40/.47.!99.B2.0!%./#12.&#.A4%-.%2!3C@5!
:(%#+! %L#! /.63166.'*9! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%! .6! %L#*! -6H#/! %'! M+.%#!
/'M*!L.6!'+!L#+!(.*-8!+-*H.*G&!!
Measure
O#! ,#-61+#/! $#+61-6.'*! I7! 3',$-+.*G! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%6`!
(.*-8!63'+#!-G-.*6%!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#`6!63'+#&!j'M#5#+9!6.*3#!
%L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#`6! +-*H.*G! .6! G#*#+-%#/! I7! +#'+/#+.*G! %L#!
$-+%.3.$-*%`6! +-*H.*G! M#! -+#! -I8#! ,#-61+#! %L#! /#G+##! %'!
ML.3L! %L#! 61IU#3%! -/U16%#/! L.6! '+! L#+! 63'+#6! -6! -! +#618%! '(!
%L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! %+7.*G! %'! $#+61-/#! L#+&! :! 3'++#8-%.'*! M-6!
3-8318-%#/! I#%M##*! #-3L! $-+%.3.$-*%`6! .*.%.-8! -*/! (.*-8!
+-*H.*G&! j.GL! 3'++#8-%.'*! I#%M##*! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%`6! (.+6%!
-*/!6#3'*/!+-*H.*G!.*/.3-%#6!8'M!$#+61-6.'*9!.&#&!%L#7!H#$%!
38'6#!%'!%L#.+!'+.G.*-8!+#6$'*6#6&!e'M!3'++#8-%.'*!.*/.3-%#6!
L.GL! $#+61-6.'*9! .&#&! %L#7! /#5.-%#/! (+',! %L#.+! '+.G.*-8!
+#6$'*6#6&! WL#+#! ,-79! '(! 3'1+6#9! I#! *'+,-8! 5-+.-%.'*!
I#%M##*! -! 61IU#3%`6! (.+6%! -*/! 6#3'*/! +#6$'*6#69! I1%! 6.*3#!
M#! -661,#! %L-%! 613L! 5-+.-%.'*! .6! *'+,-887! /.6%+.I1%#/!
-,'*G!61IU#3%69!-!6.G*.(.3-*%!/.((#+#*3#!I#%M##*!3'*/.%.'*6!
M'18/!.*/.3-%#!$#+61-6.'*&!
Measure
WL#! b-18L16! "#3#$%.'*! 23-8#6! 3'*%-.*6! %M'! 61I63-8#6P!
2#8(?"#3#$%.5#! h*L-*3#,#*%! Q2"hS! -*/! ),$+#66.'*!
R-*-G#,#*%&! 2"h! .6! %L#! %#*/#*37! %'! G.5#! ML-%! -!
$-+%.3.$-*%! I#8.#5#6! -+#! L'*#6%9! I1%! -+#! .*! (-3%! .*(8-%#/!
/#63+.$%.'*6! '(! L#+6#8(&! p'+! #N-,$8#9! 6.*3#! .%! .6! L1,-*87!
.,$'66.I8#! %'!I#!1%%#+87!+-%.'*-89!-*!#N%+#,#!+#6$'*6#!Q.&#&!
=23@. &3$2S! %'! %L#! 6%-%#,#*%! m;. !". !. 0#"192&29@. 3!&4#%!9.
1237#%n! M'18/! .*3+#-6#! %L#! +#6$'*/#*%`6! 2"h! 63'+#&!
),$+#66.'*! R-*-G#,#*%! .6! %L#! %#*/#*37! %'! G.5#! .*(8-%#/!
6#8(?/#63+.$%.'*6&!:!$'6.%.5#!+#6$'*6#!Q.&#&!5#+7!%+1#S!%'!%L#!
6%-%#,#*%! m;. !9B!@7. #C2@. 9!B7D. 2=2%. 4A. ;*". $%94E29@. &#. <2&.
0!$</&n!M'18/!.*3+#-6#!-!$#+6'*`6!.,$+#66.'*!,-*-G#,#*%!
63'+#&! WL#! .*5#*%'+7! M-6! L-*/! 63'+#/! -*/! -*-87X#/! 16.*G!
%L#!b"2!b+'(.8#!23-8#vZ<>[&!
229
376
-$$#-+-*3#! '(!%L#!$-+%.3.$-*%&! WL169!$L76.3-8!-%%+-3%.'*9!'+!
3L-+.6,-! -*/! 3'#+3.'*! '(! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! M'18/! *'%! I#!
8.H#87!#N$8-*-%.'*6!'(!'1+!(.*/.*G6&!)*!M+-$!1$!.*%#+5.#M69!
61IU#3%6! +#$'+%#/! %L-%! %L#7! I#8.#5#/! %L#! 6-,#?/.6%-*%! 3.%7!
,-*.$18-%.'*&!p'+!#N-,$8#9!'*#!$-+%.3.$-*%!6-./9!m(/2.7!@7.
7/2.47.4%.L#7&#%5.;.-#%F&.-#$C&.&/!&&n!p1+%L#+,'+#9!-(%#+!%L#!
#N$#+.,#*%9! ML#*! M#! +#5#-8#/! %'! $-+%.3.$-*%6! %L-%! %L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#!M-6!.*!%L#!*#N%!+'',9!%L#7!M#+#!V1.%#!6L'3H#/!
%'!8#-+*!%L.6&
Prisoner’s Dilemma Game
)*! %L#! $+.6'*#+`6! /.8#,,-! G-,#9! 61IU#3%6! -+#! $+#6#*%#/!
M.%L! %L#! 63#*-+.'! %L-%! %L#7! -*/! %L#! '%L#+! $-+%.3.$-*%!
Q3'*(#/#+-%#S! L-5#! I##*! #-3L! G.5#*! gD^&! T*! #-3L! +'1*/9!
.*/#$#*/#*%879!#-3L!$#+6'*!,16%!/#3./#!%'!H##$!%L#!gD^!'+!
G.5#!.%!-M-7&!WL#!$-7'((6!-(%#+!#-3L!/#3.6.'*!+'1*/!/#$#*/!
'*! %L#! /#3.6.'*6! '(! I'%L! $#'$8#! QW-I8#! <S&! 2.N! +'1*/6! -+#!
$8-7#/9! -8%L'1GL! %L#!$8-7#+6!-+#!*'%!%'8/!.*!-/5-*3#!ML#*!
%L#! G-,#! M.88! #*/&! WL#! k/.8#,,-`! -+.6#6! I#3-16#! %L#!
+-,.(.3-%.'*! '(! #-3L! /#3.6.'*! Q+#M-+/! '+! $#*-8%7S! /#$#*/6!
'*!%L#!/#3.6.'*!'(!%L#!'%L#+!$8-7#+9!7#%!L'M!%L#!$-+%*#+!M.88!
/#3./#! .6! 1*H*'M*&! b-+%.3.$-*%6! -+#! %'8/! %L#7! 3-*! /.63166!
%L#.+!/#3.6.'*6!M.%L!%L#!'%L#+!$-+%.3.$-*%!.(!%L#7!3L''6#&!)*!
%L#! 5./#'! 3'*/.%.'*9! /.63166.'*! %''H! $8-3#! I7! 16.*G! %L#!
%#8#$L'*#! 3'**#3%.'*! -*/! 5./#'&! )*! %L#! )R! 3'*/.%.'*9!
/.63166.'*! %''H! $8-3#! 16.*G! )R&! j'M#5#+9! .*! I'%L!
3'*/.%.'*69! $-+%.3.$-*%6! M#+#! .*6%+13%#/! %'! #*%#+! %L#.+! (.*-8!
/#3.6.'*! .*! -! 6#$-+-%#! 63+##*&! WL#7! M#+#! %'8/! %L-%! %L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#!3'18/!*'%!6##!%L#!/#3.6.'*!63+##*&!)*6%#-/9!%L#7!
M#+#!%'8/!-!3',$1%#+!$+'G+-,!M'18/!+#%1+*!-!$-7'((!'*3#!-!
/#3.6.'*!(+',!I'%L!$8-7#+6!M-6!+#3#.5#/&!:!6#$-+-%#!63+##*!
/.6$8-7#/!%L#!$-7'((6!%'!%L#!61IU#3%6!-(%#+!#-3L!+'1*/&!!
Paulhus Deception Scale
I give $10
I keep $10
Other
gives $10
I get $20
I get $30
Other gets $20
Other gets $0
WL#! +#618%6! ('+! %L#! b-18L16! "#3#$%.'*! %#6%! 6L'M! -!
6.G*.(.3-*%! /.((#+#*3#! .*! /#3#$%.'*! I7! G#'G+-$L.3! 8'3-%.'*!
'(! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! QpQD9! ;ASwA&@>9! $x&^BS&! WL#! /#3#$%.'*!
,#-*! ('+! %L#! ".6%-*%! 3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*! M-6! <&=;! Q6/! w! <&@>S!
-*/! %L#! ,#-*! ('+! %L#! 2-,#! 3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*! M-6! D&E<! Q6/! w!
D&>;S&! b#'$8#! ML'! I#8.#5#/! %L-%! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! M-6! .*! -!
/.6%-*%!3.%7!G-5#!,'+#!/#3#$%.5#!-*6M#+6!%'!L#+!%L-*!%L'6#!
ML'! I#8.#5#/! %L-%! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! M-6! .*! %L#! 6-,#! 3.%7&!
:33'+/.*G! %'! %L#! 6%-*/-+/! b"2! 63'+.*G9! /#3#$%.'*! 63'+#6!
-+#! G#*#+-%#/! I7! '*87! #N%+#,#! +#6$'*6#6! QD9! *'%! %+1#! '+! B!
5#+7!%+1#S!%'!V1#6%.'*6!613L!-6P!;.!".!.0#"192&[email protected]!&4#%!9.
1237#%5. WL169! %L#! *1,I#+! '(! #N%+#,#! +#6$'*6#6!
6.G*.(.3-*%87! .*3+#-6#/&! W7$#! '(! ,#/.-! Q5./#'! '+! )RS! L-/!
*'! #((#3%! '*! /#3#$%.'*! QpQD9! ;ASw^&@=9! $x&BBS&! O#! ('1*/!
*'! .*%#+-3%.'*! I#%M##*! ,#/.-! -*/! $8-3#! QpQD9;ASwD&BB9!
$x&<<S&!
Other
keeps $10
I get $0
I get $10
Desert Survival!
Other gets $30
Other gets $10
p'+! #-3L! 61IU#3%9! M#! 3-8318-%#/! %L#! 3'++#8-%.'*! I#%M##*!
%L#.+!(.+6%!-*/!%L#.+!(.*-8!+-*H.*G!'(!%L#!D<!61+5.5-8!.%#,6&!:!
3'++#8-%.'*! '(! '*#! M'18/! .*/.3-%#! %L-%! %L#! 61IU#3%! +#%-.*#/!
L#+! .*.%.-8! +-*H.*G9! -*/! %L16! M-6! *'%! $#+61-/#/! %'! 3L-*G#!
%L#! +-*H.*G&! 0'++#8-%.'*! 5-81#6! 8#66! %L-*! '*#! M'18/!
.*/.3-%#! %L-%! 6',#! 3L-*G#! L-/! '331++#/&! O#! -*-87X#/! %L#!
/.6%+.I1%.'*! '(! 3'++#8-%.'*! 5-81#6! -3+'66! 3'*/.%.'*6&! WL#!
,#-*! 3'++#8-%.'*! I#%M##*! 61IU#3%6`! (.+6%! -*/! 6#3'*/!
+#6$'*6#6! M-6! +! w! &A;! Q6/! w! &BDS! .*! %L#! ".6%-*%! 3.%7!
3'*/.%.'*9!-*/!+!w!&@B!Q6/!w!&BDS!.*!%L#!2-,#!3.%7!3'*/.%.'*&!
:*! :cTr:! 6L'M#/! %L-%! %L.6! /.((#+#*3#! .6! 6.G*.(.3-*%! Qp!
QD9!;AS!w!A&DA9!$x&^BS&!c'!#((#3%!('+!,#/.-!QpQD9;ASwD&==9!
$x&<DS9! '+! .*%#+-3%.'*! M-6! ('1*/! QpQD9;ASw&^A9! $x&EBS&!
WL169! %L'6#! .*! %L#! 2-,#! 3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*! M#+#! ,'+#!
$#+61-/#/!I7!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!%L-*!%L'6#!.*!%L#!".6%-*%!3.%7!
3'*/.%.'*&!
Table 2: Payoffs for Prisoner’s Dilemma
Measure
WL#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! M-6! .*6%+13%#/! %'! G.5#! %L#! gD^! Q.&#&!
3''$#+-%#S!.*!-88!%+.-86!-3+'66!-88!61IU#3%6&!O#!3L'6#!%'!L-5#!
%L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! 3''$#+-%#! .*! -88! %+.-86! I#3-16#! /'.*G! 6'!
,-.*%-.*#/! -! 3'*6.6%#*%! 6%.,1816! -3+'66! -88! %+.-86! -*/!
I#3-16#!%L.6!6%+-%#G7!L-/!I##*!6133#66(1887!16#/!I7!'%L#+6!
%'! ,#-61+#! M.88.*G*#66! %'! 3''$#+-%#! Z3&(&! <=[&! WL#!
3'*(#/#+-%#!M-6!-6H#/!%'!%L.*H!-I'1%!%L#.+!/#3.6.'*9!/.63166!
.%!.(!%L#7!3L'6#!%'9!%L#*!#*%#+!%L#!/#3.6.'*!ML#+#!.*/.3-%#/!
'*! %L#! 63+##*&! WL#! /#3.6.'*! %L-%! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%! ,-/#! '*!
#-3L!'(!%L#!6.N!+'1*/6!M-6!+#3'+/#/&!O#!-86'!+#3'+/#/!%L#!
/#3.6.'*! %'! /.63166! -! 6%+-%#G7! '+! %'! -**'1*3#! %L#! .*%#*/#/!
+#6$'*6#!I#('+#!%L#!(.+6%!/#3.6.'*!M-6!,-/#&!!
Prisoner’s Dilemma Game
:! /#3.6.'*! %'! kG.5#! %L#! gD^`! .6! 3'*6./#+#/! -! 3''$#+-%.5#!
3L'.3#! 6.*3#9! ML#*! +#3.$+'3-%#/9! .%! +#618%6! .*! %L#! L.GL#6%!
3'88#3%.5#! $-7'((&! e.H#M.6#9! 6.*3#! %L#! /#3.6.'*! %'! kH##$!
gD^`!+#618%6!.*!-!61I?'$%.,-8!$-7'((!3'88#3%.5#879!+#G-+/8#66!
'(! %L#! $-+%*#+`6! 3L'.3#! %L.6! /#3.6.'*! .6! 3'*6./#+#/! *'*?
3''$#+-%.5#&!!
RESULTS
O#! +#$'+%! %L#! (.*/.*G6! ('+! #-3L! ,#-61+#! I#8'M&! )%! .6!
.,$'+%-*%! %'! *'%#! %L-%! *#.%L#+! #((#3%6! '(! %-6H! '+/#+! *'+!
G#*/#+!M#+#!/#%#3%#/!.*!-*7!'(!'1+!-*-876#6&!:86'9!M+-$!1$!
.*%#+5.#M6! 6%+'*G87! 61GG#6%! %L-%! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! 3-,#!
-3+'66!-6!k*.3#`!-*/!k*#1%+-8`!M.%L!+#G-+/!%'!L#+!#5-81-%.'*!
'(! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%6&! p1+%L#+,'+#9! I#3-16#! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#!
3'18/! *'%! 6##! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%`6! .,-G#9! L#+! '+.#*%-%.'*!
%'M-+/6! #-3L! $-+%.3.$-*%! M-6! *'%! -((#3%#/! I7! %L#! $L76.3-8!
p.G1+#! D! 6L'M6! %L#! $#+3#*%-G#! '(! %.,#6! $-+%.3.$-*%6! ,-/#!
%L#! 3L'.3#! %'! 3''$#+-%#! -3+'66! 6.N! %+.-86&! b#+3#*%-G#6! ('+!
I'%L!2-,#!3.%7!Qc#-+S!-*/!".6%-*%!3.%7!Qp-+S!3'*/.%.'*6!-+#!
/.6$8-7#/&! p.G1+#! D! 6L'M6! %L-%! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%6! ML'!
230
377
%'! 3''$#+-%#! M.%L! -! $-+%*#+! .*! -! /.6%-*%! 3.%7! 3',$-+#/! %'!
6',#'*#! .*! %L#! 6-,#! 3.%7&! j'M#5#+9! '5#+! %+.-869! $#'$8#!
I#3-,#! ,'+#! M.88.*G! %'! 3''$#+-%#! M.%L! -! /.6%-*%! 3.%7!
$-+%*#+&! :%! %+.-8! =9! %L#7! M#+#! 6',#ML-%! "#32! M.88.*G! %'!
3''$#+-%#!M.%L!-!$#+6'*!(-+%L#+!-M-7!%L-*!M.%L!'*#!38'6#&!
% Cooperation Across Trials
100
%
80
60
Near
40
Far
Images of distance
:(%#+! %L#! 61IU#3%6! $#+('+,#/! %L#! %L+##! %-6H6! .*! %L#!
#N$#+.,#*%9!%L#7!M#+#!-6H#/!%'!/+-M!'*!$-$#+!ML#+#!%L#7!
$#+3#.5#/! %L#! '%L#+! $-+%.3.$-*%! %'! I#! +#8-%.5#! %'! %L#,&!
21IU#3%6! $+'/13#/! -! M./#! +-*G#! '(! /+-M.*G6&! WL#!
('88'M.*G!3-%#G'+.#6!#,#+G#/!(+',!%L#!/-%-&!WL#!/+-M.*G6!
/#$.3%!%L-%!%L#!$-+%.3.$-*%!-*/!3'*(#/#+-%#!M#+#P!!
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
trial
DS! 5#+7! *#-+! '+! -/U-3#*%! %'! #-3L! '%L#+9! #&G&! %L#7! M#+#!
6.%%.*G! -3+'66! (+',! #-3L! '%L#+! .*! %L#! 6-,#! +'',!
Qp.G1+#!<IS&!!
!
Figure 1: Percentage of Cooperation across Trials
<S! 38'6#9! I1%! *'%! .*! %L#! 6-,#! +'',! '+! I1.8/.*G9! #&G&! %L#7!
M#+#!.*!%M'!/.((#+#*%!I1.8/.*G6!'*!%L#!6-,#!+'-/!'+!.*!
%L#!6-,#!3.%7&!
I#8.#5#/! %L#7! M#+#! .*%#+-3%.*G! M.%L! -! $#+6'*! .*! -! /.6%-*%!
3.%7!M#+#!8#66!8.H#87!%'!3''$#+-%#!'*!%L#!(.+6%!%M'!%+.-86!%L-*!
%L'6#!ML'!I#8.#5#/!%L#!'%L#+!$#+6'*!M-6!.*!%L#!6-,#!3.%7&!
0''$#+-%.'*! %L#*! .*3+#-6#/! '*! %L#! 8-6%! %M'! %+.-86&! :!
+#$#-%#/!,#-61+#6!-*-876.69!M.%L!%+.-86!-6!-!M.%L.*?61IU#3%6!
(-3%'+9!6L'M6!%L#!/.((#+#*3#!I#%M##*!6-,#!-*/!/.6%-*%!3.%7!
3'*/.%.'*6! %'! I#! 6.G*.(.3-*%! QpQD9;DSw@&@E9! $x&^BS&! c'!
#((#3%! '(! ,#/.-! M-6! ('1*/! QpwQD9;DSD&A>9!$x&<<S9!*'+!M-6!
-*! .*%#+-3%.'*! ('1*/&! a7! 3'88-$6.*G! %L#! 61IU#3%6! '5#+! %L#!
,#/.-! 3'*/.%.'*9! M#! ('1*/! %L-%! 3''$#+-%.'*! .*! %L#! /.6%-*%!
3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*! 6.G*.(.3-*%87! .*3+#-6#/! I#%M##*! %+.-8! D! -*/!
%+.-8!=9!(+',!B>u!%'!>Eu!Q%!QAES!w!?<&<<9!$x&^@S&!j'M#5#+9!
ML#*!%L#!61IU#3%!I#8.#5#/!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!%'!I#!.*!%L#!6-,#!
3.%79!*'!3L-*G#!M-6!'I6#+5#/!Q.%!M-6!=>u!-%!%+.-8!D!-*/!%+.-8!
=S&! WL169! %L#+#! .6! -! 6.G*.(.3-*%87! /.((#+#*%! $-%%#+*! '(!
3''$#+-%.'*9! /#$#*/.*G! '*! ML#%L#+! %L#! $-+%*#+! .6! .*! %L#!
6-,#!'+!/.6%-*%!3.%7&!
@S! 5#+7!(-+!(+',!#-3L!'%L#+&!R-*7!61IU#3%6!16#/!-!4*.%#/!
2%-%#6! ,-$! -6! -! (+-,#! '(! +#(#+#*3#9! -*/! .*/.3-%#/!
ML#+#!#-3L!$#+6'*!M-6!6.%%.*G!M.%L!/'%6!Qp.G1+#!<-S&!
p.G1+#! <! 6L'M6! %M'! #N-,$8#6! '(! /+-M.*G6! (+',! %L#6#!
3-%#G'+.#6&!WM'!.*/#$#*/#*%!3'/#+69!ML'!M#+#!I8.*/!%'!%L#!
3'*/.%.'*69! 3'/#/! %L#! $.3%1+#6! -33'+/.*G! %'! %L#6#! %L+##!
3-%#G'+.#6&! :! ,.63#88-*#'16! 3-%#G'+7! M-6! -86'! -//#/9! -6!
6',#! /+-M.*G6! /./! *'%! (.%! .*%'! %L#! 3-%#G'+.#6&! WL#! %M'!
3'/#+6!L-/!;>u!-G+##,#*%!'(!%L#.+!3'/#/!+#6$'*6#6&!!
!
O#! +#3'+/#/! /.63166.'*! I#%M##*! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%! -*/!
3'*(#/#+-%#! I#3-16#! .%! L-6! I##*! +#$#-%#/87! 6L'M*! %L-%!
/.63166.'*! $+','%#6! 3''$#+-%.'*! Q@^9! <=S&! T1+! /-%-! -86'!
6L'M!%L-%!$-+%.3.$-*%6!3L'6#!%'!/.63166!%L#.+!6%+-%#G7!(-.+87!
.*(+#V1#*%879!'*87!@^u!'(!%L#!%.,#9!-3+'66!-88!3'*/.%.'*6&!:!
3L.?6V1-+#! %#6%! 6L'M#/! %L-%! %L#! (+#V1#*37! '(! /.63166.'*!
QI#%M##*! %L#! $-+%.3.$-*%! -*/! 3'*(#/#+-%#! +#G-+/.*G!
6%+-%#G7S!.6!+#8-%#/!*#.%L#+!%'!%L#!G#'G+-$L.3!/.6%-*3#!'(!%L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#!*'+!%7$#!'(!,#/.-!16#/&!!
Very
near
Same
city
Far
away
Boston
D<!
D!
<@!
Irvine
<>!
D^!
D!
Table 3. Coding results (counts) of drawings.
WL#! 3'/.*G! +#618%6! -+#! 6L'M*! .*! W-I8#! @&! "+-M.*G6! ('+!
(.(%##*!61IU#3%6!M#+#!*'%!3'88#3%#/&!:!3L.?6V1-+#!%#6%!6L'M6!
%L-%! %L#+#! .6! -! L.GL87! 6.G*.(.3-*%! /.((#+#*3#! .*! %L#! /+-M.*G!
3-%#G'+7! -6! -! (1*3%.'*! '(! %L#! /.6%-*3#! '(! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#!
!,Q<Sw@@&@9! $x&^^D&! WL.6! .6! *'%! $-+%.318-+87! 61+$+.6.*Go!
/.6%-*3#! M-6! -! /#$#*/#*%! 5-+.-I8#&! OL-%! .6! 61+$+.6.*G9! .6!
%L-%!$#'$8#!.*!%L#!2-,#!3.%7!3'*/.%.'*9!/+#M!"#32!$.3%1+#6!
WL169!'1+!/-%-!6L'M!%L-%!.*.%.-887!61IU#3%6!M#+#!8#66!M.88.*G!
-&!!R-$!Q(-+S!
I&!:/U-3#*%!Q5#+7!*#-+S!
Figure 2: Subjects’ drawings depicting the location of the confederate
231
378
%L-%! M#+#! 3'/#/! -6! k5#+7! *#-+`! -6! '$$'6#/! %'! k2-,#! 3.%7`!
WL.6! .6! 61+$+.6.*G! I#3-16#! k2-,#! 3.%7`! ,'+#! -331+-%#87!
+#(8#3%#/! %L#! 3'*/.%.'*! %L#7! M#+#! %'8/! %L#7! M#+#! .*&! WL.6!
61GG#6%6! %'! 16! %L-%! 61IU#3%6! .*! %L#! 2-,#! 3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*!
3'*6./#+#/! %L#.+! .*%#+-3%.'*6! M.%L! %L#.+! $-+%*#+! -6! %L'1GL!
%L#7! M#+#! 5#+7! *#-+I7&! j'M#5#+9! .*! %L#! ".6%-*%! 3.%7!
3'*/.%.'*9! $#'$8#! .,-G.*#/! %L#.+! $-+%*#+! %'! I#!
G#'G+-$L.3-887!(-+!-M-79!-*/!*'%!m*#-+I7n&!!
&/!&. ;. B!7. <2&&4%<. "#%2@. !%@B!@7. !%-. 7/2. B!7.
<2&&4%<."#%2@.&##D.7#.4&.B!7.<##-.A#3.C#&/.#A.$75..
WL.6!V1'%#!61GG#6%6!%L-%!$-+%.3.$-*%6!-$$+'-3L#/!%L#!/.6%-*%!
3'*(#/#+-%#! M.%L! 6',#! .*.%.-8! 616$.3.'*&! Y#%9! .(! %L.6!
616$.3.'*! .6! ,#%! M.%L! 3''$#+-%.'*! QML.3L! .6! -8M-76! %L#!
3-6#9!I#3-16#!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!-8M-76!3''$#+-%#/S!%L#*!%L-%!
616$.3.'*!.6!8.H#87!%'!I#!/.6,.66#/&!)*!-//.%.'*!%'!.*%1.%.5#87!
1*/#+6%-*/.*G! %L-%! %+16%! .6! -! ,-.*! 3',$'*#*%! '(!
3''$#+-%.'*9!$-+%.3.$-*%6!-86'!6##,#/!%'!I#!3'G*.X-*%!'(!%L#!
6.G*-86! %L-%! 3''$#+-%.5#! '+! 1*3''$#+-%.5#! I#L-5.'+! M'18/!
6#*/!'((&!T*#!61IU#3%!.*!%L#!a'6%'*!3'*/.%.'*!3L-+-3%#+.X#/!
.%!-6!-!V1#6%.'*!'(!I#.*G!-!kL1,-*.%-+.-*`!'+!kM.**#+&`!2L#!
/#63+.I#/P!!
DISCUSSION
T1+! (.*/.*G6! .*/.3-%#! %L-%! %L#! G#'G+-$L.3-8! /.6%-*3#! '(! -!
3'88-I'+-%.*G! $-+%*#+! -((#3%6! '*#`6! M.88.*G*#66! %'! .*.%.-887!
3''$#+-%#!M.%L9!I#!$#+61-/#/!I79!-*/!/#3#.5#!%L-%!$-+%*#+&!
)(! $#'$8#! I#8.#5#/! %L-%! %L#.+! $-+%*#+! M-6! (-+! -M-7! .*! -!
/.6%-*%! 3.%79! %L#7! .*.%.-887! 3''$#+-%#/! 8#66! %L-*! .(! %L#7!
I#8.#5#/! %L#! $-+%*#+! M-6! 38'6#&! j'M#5#+9! 3''$#+-%.'*!
.*3+#-6#/! M.%L! .*%#+-3%.'*&! T*! %L#! '%L#+! L-*/9! .(! '*#!
I#8.#5#/! %L#.+! $-+%*#+! %'! I#! 38'6#9! %L#! -,'1*%! '(!
3''$#+-%.'*! /./! *'%! .*3+#-6#! M.%L! .*%#+-3%.'*&! )*! -//.%.'*9!
$#'$8#!M#+#!8#66!$#+61-/#/!I7!-!$#+6'*!%L-%!%L#7!I#8.#5#/!
%'! I#! /.6%-*%! (+',! %L#,9! 3',$-+#/! %'! I#.*G! .*! %L#! 6-,#!
3.%7&! :86'9! $#'$8#! M#+#! ,'+#! 8.H#87! %'! G.5#! /#3#$%.5#!
Q$'6.%.5#S!$'+%+-7-86!-I'1%!%L#,6#85#6!%'!-!$-+%*#+!%L-%!%L#7!
I#8.#5#/!%'!I#!.*!-!/.6%-*%!3.%79!-6!'$$'6#/!%'!%L#!6-,#!3.%7&!!
;. -4-%F&. E%#B. 4A. &/2. 7&3!&2<@. B!7. &#. 722". 94E2. !.
/$"!%4&!34!%.#3.&#.B4%.&/2."#7&."#%2@I.(#D.B/2%.
;. 7!B. &/!&. ;. B!7. 7&!3&4%<. &#. 3!0E. $1. !. C$%0/. #A.
"#%[email protected].;.A29&.C!-.C20!$72.7/2.-4-%F&./!=2.!%@.
"#%2@. 7#. ;. <!=2. B/2%. 7/2. B#$9-. <4=25. (/2. 722"7.
94E2.!.132&&@.%402.1237#%5.
c'M!3'*6./#+!%L#!L.GL!/#3#$%.'*!63'+#6!%L-%!M#+#!+#3'+/#/!
.*! %L#! b"2! ('+! $-+%.3.$-*%6! .*! %L#! ".6%-*%! 3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*&!
WL#6#! 63'+#6! 61GG#6%! %L-%! $#'$8#! -+#! ,'+#! -$%! %'! $+#6#*%!
%L#,6#85#6!.*!%L#!I#6%!8.GL%9!%L+'1GL!/#3#$%.'*9!.(!%L#7!-+#!
.*%#+-3%.*G!M.%L!6',#'*#!ML'!%L#7!I#8.#5#!.6!/.6%-*%!(+',!
%L#,!3',$-+#/!%'!6',#'*#!ML'!.6!38'6#!.*!%L#!6-,#!3.%7&!
l#3-88! %L-%! L.GL! /#3#$%.'*! 63'+#6! -+.6#! (+',! +#6$'*6#6! '(!
k6%+'*G87!-G+##`!%'!V1#6%.'*6!613L!-6P!?/2.32!7#%.;.=#&2.47.
C20!$72. "@. =#&2. 0!%. "!E2. !. -4AA232%02&! W-H.*G! %L#6#! %M'!
(.*/.*G6! %'G#%L#+9! M#! .*%#+$+#%! %L#,! %'! ,#-*!%L-%!I'%L!%L#!
L.GL! (+#V1#*37! '(! 3''$#+-%.'*! Q-(%#+! 6.N! %+.-86! '(!
.*%#+-3%.'*S! -*/! .*(8-%#/! 6#8(?#5-81-%.'*6! .*! %L#! /.6%-*3#!
3'*/.%.'*!-+#!I'%L!#N-,$8#6!'(!M-*%.*G!%'!6##,!3L-+.%-I8#!
Q.&#&!L1,-*.%-+.-*S!-*/!$'6.%.5#!%'!6',#'*#!(-+!-M-7&!!!
WL#6#!+#618%6!M#+#!61+$+.6.*G!%'!169!#6$#3.-887!3'*6./#+.*G!
%L#! (-3%! %L-%! %L#! 6-,#! 5./#'! -*/! %#N%! ,#/.-! M#+#! 16#/! .*!
I'%L! 2-,#! -*/! ".6%-*%! 3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*6&! WL#! 3'*(#/#+-%#!
-$$#-+#/!%L#!6-,#!.*!%L#!5./#'!.,-G#9!-*/!M.%L!)R!M+'%#!
%L#!6-,#!,#66-G#6!%'!-88!61IU#3%6&!WL#!-,'1*%!'(!*#%M'+H!
/#8-7! M-6! *'! /.((#+#*%! I#%M##*! %L#! 2-,#! -*/! ".6%-*%! 3.%7!
3'*/.%.'*6&!Y#%!$#'$8#!+#G-+/#/!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!/.((#+#*%87&!
WL#7! 3'*6./#+#/! L#+! /.((#+#*%! #*'1GL! %'! 3L-*G#!L'M!%L#7!
3''$#+-%#/9! /#3#.5#/9! -*/! M#+#! $#+61-/#/! I7! L#+&! WL#6#!
#((#3%6! 3-**'%! I#! -%%+.I1%#/! %'! %L#! ,#/.-9! '+! %#3L*.3-8!
/.((#+#*3#69!I1%!+-%L#+!/1#!%'!6'3.-8!$#+3#$%.'*6&!
j'M#5#+9! -8%L'1GL! '1+! $+.6'*#+`6! /.8#,,-! /-%-! 61GG#6%!
%L-%! 3''$#+-%.'*! -,'*G! G#'G+-$L.3-887! +#,'%#! $-+%*#+6!
.*3+#-6#6! -3+'66! %+.-869! M#! M'*/#+! .(! .%! M'18/! $#+6.6%! '5#+!
%.,#&! l#8-%#/! +#6#-+3L! #N-,.*.*G! %+16%! -,'*G!
G#'G+-$L.3-887! /.6%+.I1%#/! M'+H! %#-,6! 61GG#6%6! %L-%!
/.6%+.I1%#/! %#-,6! ,-7! #NL.I.%! -! %#*/#*37! %'! V1.3H87! ('+,!
%+16%!I1%!%L-%!%L.6!%+16%!.6!#$L#,#+-8!ZE[&!)%!.6!1*38#-+!.(!%L#!
3''$#+-%.5#!I#L-5.'+!%L-%!-$$#-+6!.*!'1+!/-%-!.6!-*!#N-,$8#!
'(! ML-%! L-6! I##*! 3-88#/! mV1.3H! %+16%&n! p1+%L#+! +#6#-+3L! .6!
*##/#/!%'!38-+.(7!%L.6&!!
O.%L!+#G-+/!%'!3''$#+-%.'*!'*!%L#!$+.6'*#+`6!/.8#,,-!%-6H9!
M#! ('1*/! %L-%! $-+%.3.$-*%6! .*! %L#! ".6%-*%! 3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*!
M#+#! 8#66! 8.H#87! %'! %+16%! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! .*.%.-8879! 7#%! %+16%!
.*3+#-6#/! I7! 68.GL%87! '5#+! <^u! Q(+',! B>u! %'! >EuS!
I#%M##*!%L#!(.+6%!-*/!%L#!8-6%!%+.-8&!)*!-!M+-$?1$!.*%#+5.#M9!
'*#! $-+%.3.$-*%! .*! %L#! 5./#'! 3'*/.%.'*! /.63166#/! L.6!
+#-3%.'*6!-I'1%!%L#!/.6%-*%!3'*(#/#+-%#!.*!%L#6#!M'+/6P!
.;. &##E. M4525. -4-. %#&. 0##123!&2N. &/2. A437&. A2B. &4"27.
!%-.7/2.B!7.7"494%<.!.94&&92.!%-.;.&/#$</&.7/2.B!7.
<#%%!. &!E2. M%#&. 0##123!&2N. 4&. &##5. (#. ;. B!7. 94E2.
OPQD. ;*99. <4=2. /23. !. 0#$192. &/3#B7D. !%-. 722. B/!&.
7/2*7.94E25.;A.7/2.B!%&7.&#.E221.4&."#32.9!&235R.(#.;.
<!=2. 4&. #$&. M0##123!&2-N5. )/@S. L20!$72. ;. B!7%*&.
7$32. 4A. ;. B!%&2-. &#. 942. &#. /23. !%-. <4=2. /23. !. 94&&92.
A!E2.94E2D.O#/D.;*".<#4%<.&#.<4=2.4&.&#.@#$.&/47.&4"2.
C$&. &/2. %2H&. A2B. &4"27. ;*". <#4%<. &#. &!E2. 4&5R. L$&.
&/2%.7/2.<!=2.4&.!.&/43-.&4"2.&##D.7#.&/!&."!-2."2.
&3$7&./23."#325.(#D.;.J$7&.<!=2.4&.!995.K%-.;.%#&402-.
Interpretations
)*! %L.6! 6#3%.'*9! M#! $+'$'6#! -! (#M! .*%#+$+#%-%.'*6! '(! '1+!
(.*/.*G6&! a+'-/87! 6$#-H.*G9! M#! (.*/! %L-%! 6'3.-8! ./#*%.%7!
%L#'+7!-*/!6'3.-8!.,$-3%!%L#'+7!I#6%!3L-+-3%#+.X#!'1+!/-%-&!
O#! /+-M! '*! %L#6#! %M'! +#8-%#/! %L#'+.#6! I#3-16#! %L#7! I'%L!
1*/#+63'+#! %L#! #((#3%6! '(! $L76.3-8! $+'N.,.%7! '*! 6'3.-8!
.*%#+-3%.'*&! a#3-16#! .%! 61GG#6%6! %L-%! $#'$8#! #5-81-%#! %L#!
6H.886! '(! %L'6#! *#-+! %L#,! %'! I#! 61$#+.'+! %'! %L#! 6H.886! '(!
/.6%-*%! '%L#+69! 6'3.-8! ./#*%.%7! %L#'+7! L#8$6! 16! 1*/#+6%-*/!
ML7!$#'$8#!,.GL%!I#!,'+#!3'*5.*3#/!'(!%L#!#N$#+%.6#!'(!-!
$#+6'*! ML'! .6! *#-+! +-%L#+! %L-*! +#,'%#! -*/! (-+! -M-7! (+',!
%L#,&! 2'3.-8! .,$-3%! %L#'+7! 61GG#6%6! $#'$8#! -%! -! /.6%-*3#!
232
379
-+#! 8#66! -$%! %'! .*(81#*3#! '%L#+6`! .,$+#66.'*6! '(! %L#,&! O#!
16#!%L.6!(.*/.*G!%'!.*%#+$+#%!'1+!/#3#$%.'*!-*/!3''$#+-%.'*!
/-%-&!
-*/!$-+%.3.$-*%6`!(.*-8!+-*H.*G6!-+#!,'+#!38'6#87!3'++#8-%#/!
M.%L! %L#.+! .*.%.-8! +-*H.*G6! %L-*! M.%L! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#`6!
+-*H.*G6&!!
:!*-%1+-8!.*%#+$+#%-%.'*!'(!'1+!/-%-!.6!%L-%!I#.*G!.*!%L#!6-,#!
3.%7! M.%L! '%L#+6! $+','%#6! (##8.*G6! '(! 6.,.8-+.%7&! b#+L-$6!
%L#7! M#+#! ,'+#! $#+61-/#/! I79! 3''$#+-%#/! M.%L9! -*/!
/#3#.5#/! 8#669! %L#! 6-,#! 3.%7! 3'*(#/#+-%#! I#3-16#! %L#7!
6.,$87! (#8%! 6L#! M-6! 6.,.8-+! %'! %L#,&! :8%L'1GL! %L#+#!
3#+%-.*87!.6!6',#!5-8./.%7!%'!%L.6!.*%#+$+#%-%.'*9!M#!(.*/!%L-%!
.%! '5#+6.,$8.(.#6! %L#! .661#6&! "'#6! /.66.,.8-+.%7! M.%L! %L'6#!
(-+!(+',!16!3',$#8!16!%'!I#!/#3#$%.5#!-*/!1*3''$#+-%.5#\!
O#! %L.*H! *'%9! -*/! -8%L'1GL! M#! /'! (.*/! %L-%! +#-3%.'*6! %'!
/.6%-*%! $#+6'*6! %#*/! %'! I#! /#3#$%.5#! -*/! .*.%.-887!
1*3''$#+-%.5#9! '1+! V1#6%.'**-.+#! /-%-! /'! *'%! 61$$'+%! %L#!
%L#'+7! %L-%! $#'$8#! ML'! -+#! +#,'%#! (+',! 16! -+#! /.66.,.8-+&!
)*!+#6$'*6#!%'!%L#!V1#6%.'**-.+#!6%-%#,#*%!m;.A29&.&/!&.;./!-.
!. 9#&. 4%. 0#""#%. B4&/. &/2. 0#%A2-23!&2DR! M#! ('1*/! *'!
6.G*.(.3-*%!/.((#+#*3#!I#%M##*!61IU#3%6!('+!%L#!*#-+!-*/!(-+!
3'*/.%.'*6! *'+! ('+! %L#! ,#/.-! 16#/&! T(! 3'1+6#9! $#'$8#! ,-7!
3L-*G#!%L#.+!3+.%#+.-!ML#*!%L#7!#5-81-%#!3',,'*-8.%7!M.%L!
'%L#+6&! p'+! #N-,$8#9! ML#*! -*6M#+.*G! %L#! V1#6%.'**-.+#9!
%L#7!,-7!L-5#!(#8%!%L#7!L-/!,13L!.*!3',,'*9!-6!%L#7!M#+#!
6.,.8-+! -G#6&! a1%! ML#*! .%! 3',#6! %'! 3''$#+-%.*G! M.%L!
-*'%L#+9!%L#7!,-7!#5-81-%#!%L#!'%L#+`6!6.,.8-+.%7!%'!%L#,!.*!
-!3',$8#%#87!/.((#+#*%!M-7&!
p.*-8879!'1+!/+-M.*G!/-%-!6L'M!%L-%!$#'$8#!.*!%L#!2-,#!3.%7!
3'*/.%.'*!3'*5#7#/!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!%'!I#!m5#+7!*#-+n9!'(%#*!
.*! %L#! 6-,#! +'',! -6! %L#,&! WL.6! '331++#/! #5#*! %L'1GL!
$#'$8#!M#+#!%'8/!%L-%!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!M-6!.*!%L#!6-,#!%'M*&!
WL#6#! m5#+7! *#-+n! $'+%+-7-86! M#+#! ,-/#! 8#66! %L-*! L-8(! -6!
'(%#*!M.%L!$#'$8#!.*!%L#!".6%-*%!3.%7!3'*/.%.'*9!ML'!,'6%87!
/#$.3%#/! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! -6! I#.*G! -3+'66! %L#! *-%.'*&! WL.6!
#N-GG#+-%#/!38'6#*#66!.*!%L#!2-,#!3.%7!3'*/.%.'*!3'18/!I#!
.*%#+$+#%#/! %L-%! %L#! *#-+! 3'*(#/#+-%#! L-/! -! G+#-%#+! .,$-3%!
'*! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#&! :G-.*9! %L.6! .,$-3%! ,-*.(#6%#/!.%6#8(!.*!
%L#! ('+,! '(! .*3+#-6#/! $#+61-6.'*9! %+1%L(18*#66! -*/!
6',#ML-%!,'+#!.*.%.-8!M.88.*G*#66!%'!3''$#+-%#&!!
Social identity theory
:! 6#3'*/! $'66.I8#! #N$8-*-%.'*! ('+! '1+! +#618%6! ML.3L!
#N$-*/6! '*! %L#! m6.,.8-+.%7n! L7$'%L#6.6! .6! %L#! #3'8'G.3-8!
,'/#8! '(! 6'3.-8! ./#*%.%7! $+'$'6#/! I7! W-U(#8! Z@@[&! 2'3.-8!
./#*%.%7! %L#'+7! 61GG#6%6! %L-%! M#! -+#! 8#66! 8.H#87! %'! %+16%9!
3''$#+-%#! -*/! -%%+.I1%#! #N$#+%.6#! %'! .*/.5./1-86! ML'! -+#!
(1+%L#+! (+',! 16! 3',$-+#/! %'! %L'6#! ML'! -+#! *#-+&! )*! '1+!
V1#6%.'**-.+#9! 61IU#3%6! +#6$'*/#/! %L-%! %L#7! 3'*6./#+#/! %L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#! .*! %L#! 6-,#! 3.%7! %'! L-5#! 6.G*.(.3-*%87! ,'+#!
#N$#+%.6#!'*!%L#!61+5.5-8!%-6H!%L-*!%L'6#!.*!%L#!/.6%-*%!3.%7!
QpQD9!;=S!w!A&@<9!$x&^BS&!)*!'%L#+!M'+/69!61IU#3%6!-%%+.I1%#/!
#N$#+%.6#! .*! -! ,-**#+! 3'*6.6%#*%! M.%L! W-U(#8`6! ,'/#8&! )%! .6!
$'66.I8#! %L-%! 61IU#3%6! M#+#! ,'+#! $#+61-/#/! I7! %L#! *#-+!
3'*(#/#+-%#! I#3-16#! %L#7! (#8%! 6L#! L-/! ,'+#! #N$#+%.6#&! Y#%!
61IU#3%6! .*! %L#! *#-+! 3'*/.%.'*! /./! *'%! +#$'+%! .*! %L#!
V1#6%.'**-.+#!%L-%!%L#7!(#8%!%L#7!L-/!,'+#!.*!3',,'*!M.%L!
%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!%L-*!/./!61IU#3%6!.*!%L#!(-+!3'*/.%.'*&!WL169!
#,$.+.3-8! 61$$'+%! ('+! 6'3.-8! ./#*%.%7! %L#'+7! %'! #N$8-.*! '1+!
(.*/.*G6!.6!%#*%-%.5#9!-%!I#6%&!
Social impact theory
OL#*! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! M-6! *'%! -! 8'3-89! ML7! M#+#! 61IU#3%6!
,'+#!8.H#87!%'!.*(8-%#!%L#,6#85#6!%L+'1GL!/#3#$%.'*\!!WL.6!
.6! ML#+#! M#! +#%1+*! %'! 6'3.-8! .,$-3%! %L#'+7! ZDA[&! )(! $#'$8#!
.*%1.%.5#87! H*'M! %L#7! -+#! /.6-/5-*%-G#/! I7! /.6%-*3#! _! .&#&!
.88?#V1.$$#/! %'! .*(81#*3#! -! +#,'%#! $#+6'*! %'! ('+,! -!
(-5'+-I8#! .,-G#! '(! %L#,! _! %L#7! ,-7! 6%+#%3L! %L#! %+1%L! %'!
3',$#*6-%#&!)*!+#6$'*6#6!%'!'1+!61+5#79!61IU#3%6!3'*(.+,#/!
%L-%!.%!M-6!,'+#!8.H#87!%L-%!%L#7!M'18/!,##%!%L#!2-,#!3.%7!
$-+%.3.$-*%!Q.&#&!3'*(#/#+-%#S!.*!$#+6'*!6',#!/-7!3',$-+#/!
%'! %L#! ".6%-*%! 3.%7! $-+%.3.$-*%! QpQD9;ASwD^&=^9! $x&^^@S&!
WL.6!#N$#3%-%.'*!'(!,##%.*G!,-7!+#-661+#!61IU#3%6!%L-%!%L#7!
M.88!I#!-I8#!%'!#*L-*3#!'+!'%L#+M.6#!,'/.(7!%L#!.,-G#!%L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#! L'8/6! '(!%L#,!6L'18/!%L#!*##/!-+.6#&!O.%L!%L#!
3'*(#/#+-%#!G#'G+-$L.3-887!+#,'%#9!%L#+#!.6!8.%%8#!8.H#8.L''/!
'(!,##%.*G!L#+!.*!$#+6'*!-*/!%L#!.,-G#!$'+%+-7#/!,16%!I#!
(-5'+-I8#&!WL169!.%!,-7!I#!#-6.#+!%'!/#3#.5#!%L#!3'*(#/#+-%#!
ML#*! '*#! I#8.#5#6! 6L#! .6! +#,'%#&! T*! %L#! '%L#+! L-*/9! .(!
$#'$8#! I#8.#5#! %L#7! -+#! ,'+#! 8.H#87! %'! ,##%! %L#! $-+%*#+9!
%L#7!,-7!I#!8#66!8.H#87!%'!/#3#.5#!%L#,&!:(%#+!-889!.(!%L#7!/'!
,##%! #-3L! '%L#+! 6',#! /-79! %L#.+! /#3#$%.'*! M.88! I#! m('1*/!
'1%n&!!
Absence of media effects
:*!'$#*!V1#6%.'*!.6!ML7!M#!/./!*'%!(.*/!#((#3%6!'(!,#/.-!
('+! %L#! I#L-5.'+6! M#! #N-,.*#/&! O#! M#+#! .*.%.-887! V1.%#!
61+$+.6#/! %L-%! *'! #((#3%6! '(! %L#! /.((#+#*%! ,#/.-!Q5./#'!-*/!
)RS!#,#+G#/!ML.8#!M#!('1*/!#((#3%6!'(!$#+3#.5#/!/.6%-*3#&!
j#+#! M#! 3-1GL%! '1+6#85#6! ,-H.*G! %L#! 3',,'*9! 7#%!
.*/#(#*6.I8#! -661,$%.'*! %L-%! 5./#'! 6L'18/! $+'5./#! ,'+#!
'$$'+%1*.%7! ('+! $#+61-6.'*9! -*/! 6L'18/! #*G#*/#+! ,'+#!
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,'+#! 5.61-8! -*/! 5#+I-8! 31#6! (+',! -! $#+6'*! %L-*! M+.%%#*!
%#N%&!Y#%9!-6!2#88#*!Z<;[!/.63'5#+#/9!5./#'!/'#6!*'%!-$$#-+!
%'!$+'5./#!I#*#(.%6!.*!.*%#+-3%.'*!-I'5#!L.GL!V1-8.%7!-1/.'&!
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%L#! $+.6'*#+`6! /.8#,,-! G-,#! .6! 6.G*.(.3-*%87! G+#-%#+! ML#*!
3',,1*.3-%.'*! 5.-! 5'.3#! Q6$#-H#+$L'*#S! .6! #*-I8#/!
3',$-+#/!%'!%#N%!,#66-G.*G!Z;[!'1+!(.*/.*G6!.*/.3-%#!%L-%!.%!
,-7! *'%! I#! %#3L*'8'G7! .%6#8(9! I1%! +-%L#+! G#'G+-$L.3!
/.6%-*3#! I#%M##*! '*#6#8(! -*/! -! 3'88-I'+-%'+! %L-%! -((#3%6!
'*#`6!M.88.*G*#66!%'!3''$#+-%#&!!
2'3.-8! .,$-3%! %L#'+7! -86'! $+'5./#6! -! 3',$#88.*G!
.*%#+$+#%-%.'*! '(! '1+! $#+61-6.'*! /-%-&! l#6#-+3L! 6L'M6! %L-%!
M#!-+#!,'+#!-$%!%'!I#!$#+61-/#/!I7!$#'$8#!ML'!8.5#!38'6#!
%'! 16! ZDA[&! T1+! (.*/.*G6! '(! %L#! 6-,#! 3.%7! 3'*/.%.'*! -+#!
3'*6.6%#*%!M.%L!%L.6&!h5#*!M.%L!5./#'9!ML.3L!3',,1*.3-%#6!
+.3L! 5.61-8! .*('+,-%.'*9! %L#! 3'*(#/#+-%#! .6! 8#66! $#+61-6.5#!
%'! ! %L#! 61IU#3%! ML#*! 6L#! .6! G#'G+-$L.3-887! +#,'%#&! j#+!
-+G1,#*%6! .*! %L#! /#6#+%! 61+5.5-8! G-,#! -+#! 8#66! 3'*5.*3.*G!
233
380
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$-+%.3.$-*%6!.6!.++#8#5-*%&!
Limitations
T*#! 8.,.%-%.'*! '(! '1+! 6%1/7! .6! %L-%! M#! 16#/! -! (#,-8#!
3'*(#/#+-%#&! O#! /'! *'%! (##8! %L.6! $'6#6! -! 5-8./! 3'*3#+*9!
L'M#5#+9! I#3-16#! M#! /./! *'%! (.*/! -! G#*/#+! /.((#+#*3#!
-3+'66!-*7!'(!%L#!,#-61+#6&!
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M'18/! #*-I8#! -*! .*/.5./1-8! %'! ,'+#! #((#3%.5#87! $#+61-/#!
-*'%L#+!_!/1#!%'!%L#!.*3+#-6#!.*!*'*?5#+I-8!3'*5#+6-%.'*-8!
31#6!.*!5./#'!_!'1+!/-%-!(-.8!%'!61$$'+%!%L.6!L7$'%L#6.6&!
WL#! (-3%! %L-%! M#! 3'*/13%#/! '1+! +#6#-+3L! .*! %L#! 3'*%#N%! '(!
%L#! 8-I'+-%'+7! +-%L#+! %L-*! .*! -! 3'*%#N%! '(! %L#! M'+H$8-3#!
$+#6#*%6!-!G+#-%#+!3'*3#+*!('+!16&!0',$-+#/!%'!-!8-I'+-%'+7!
6#%%.*G9! -I6#*3#! '+! $+#6#*3#! '(! /#3#$%.'*9! %+16%! -*/!
$#+61-6.'*! -,'*G! -3V1-.*%-*3#6! .*! %L#! M'+H$8-3#! L-6!
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REFERENCES
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IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
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