Jose de San Martin and the Crossing of the Andes
Yamila LeBouton-Chediack
Junior Division
Historical Paper
Paper Length: 2499
Jose Francisco de San Martin Matorras (San Martin) was an Argentine general who
helped liberate modern-day Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish colonial rule, by devising
what would become the master plan for their continental liberty. This plan was developed from
San Martin’s experience with the Spanish, as well as with South American rebel General Manuel
Belgrano. San Martin had to explore novel ways to defeat the Spanish in battle, and develop
potential plans for the removal of the Spanish from South America. San Martin modified an old
revolutionary plan which suggested directly attacking Upper Peru (Minster) to instead crossing
the Andes and liberating Chile before sailing to the Viceroyalty of Lima and liberating Peru.
Since the first step in his master plan was to cross the Andes to liberate Chile, San Martin had to
explore and create possible routes through the Andes before he took his army across them.
San Martin’s early life experience was to influence his future decisions. He was born on
February 25, 1778 in Yapeyu, modern-day Corrientes, Argentina. He was the youngest of five
children, one daughter and four sons, born to Spaniards, Juan de San Martin y Gomez, and
Gregoria Matorras. Juan de San Martin was governor of Yapeyu at the time of Jose de San
Martin’s birth (New World Encyclopedia). In 1781, Juan de San Martin y Gomez was transferred
to Buenos Aires, and the whole family came with him. San Martin lived in Buenos Aires with his
father, mother, three brothers and one sister until his father was transferred to Spain in 1785, and
the whole family moved to Spain. Immediately upon arrival in Spain, the four boys enrolled in
the Real Seminario de Nobles, a military school in Madrid, Spain (New World Encyclopedia) in
1785. San Martin’s enrollment in the Real Seminario de Nobles was important to South
American independence because he learned about all of the Spanish tactics’ strengths and
weaknesses. After living in both Spain and the modern area of Argentina, then known as the
Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata (Spain), San Martin developed an early awareness and
connection to the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata and its need to be free from the control of
Spain. This awareness motivated his future choices, and propelled him to join the Viceroyalty of
the Rio de La Plata rebels to help them win their war for independence.
His training in Spain was to be the precursor of San Martin’s successful military career.
While in school San Martin learned Spanish military tactics and strategies that helped him
understand the Spanish better, and win the South American revolutions. San Martin finished his
military education in 1789, at eleven years of age, at which point he began his military career as
a cadet in the Murica infantry regiment. During his time in the Regiment of Murica, San Martin
participated in several campaigns in Africa, including Oran which was against the Moors during
1791 (New World Encyclopedia; Bushnell). San Martin was an active participant in many
battles. By the age of 19, San Martin was serving in the Spanish navy. The exposure to being
involved in both the Spanish army and navy allowed San Martin to exchange both information
and an interesting perspective into the operations, military philosophies, tactics, and strategies of
the Spanish (Minster).
San Martin was a very skilled and loyal soldier. To the Spanish, it seemed very unlikely
he would defect and join the South American rebels because of his previous loyalty to the
Spanish crown. However, in early 1812, at the age of 34, and after 23 years of loyal service, San
Martin left the Spanish military. He boarded the British frigate George Canning in Cadiz and
sailed to the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata. His defection from Spain to the Viceroyalty of
the Rio de La Plata’s rebels after twenty years of loyal service to the Spanish crown stunned
many people and caused speculation. “His motives remain unclear, but may have had to do with
San Martin's ties to the Masons, many of whom were pro-Independence.” (Minster) He was the
highest ranking Spanish officer to defect, and the Spanish were not happy. Considering San
Martin was a very talented young man and soldier (New World Encyclopedia), the Spanish lost a
lot when he joined the rebels. Now, instead of having San Martin's brains working for them, the
Spanish would have to try to outwit him. Everything San Martin learned during his years serving
under the Spanish crown would help him win the three South American revolutions he led (Jose
de San Martin Biography).
When San Martin arrived in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata aboard the George
Canning, in March of 1812 (New World Encyclopedia), the South American rebels were
skeptical of San Martin’s devotion to the revolution because he had been a high-ranking Spanish
officer (Minster). Therefore, San Martin was forced to gain the South American officials' trust,
by demonstrating his loyalty to the independence movement and his ability soon after his arrival.
In February 1813, Colonel San Martin defeated a relatively small Spanish force that had
been harassing settlements along the Parana River. This battle, which came to be known as the
Battle of San Lorenzo, was won by surprising the Spanish troops as they were disembarking
from their ships (New World Encyclopedia). San Martin hid his troops, horses, and supplies in a
convent along the river, training and preparing them until the Spanish started disembarking from
their ships. He then ordered his troops to attack, and they fought the Battle of San Lorenzo
(Benielli); however, it was more of an ambush than an actual battle. During this battle, Colonel
San Martin's horse was shot dead, trapping San Martin underneath. He easily could have died
right there. However, a sergeant by the name of Juan Bautista Cabral helped San Martin get out
from under his horse. Cabral died from his wounds after the battle (New World Encyclopedia).
San Martin and Cabral are still considered heroes of the Battle of San Lorenzo by Argentinians.
The following excerpt is from a song about the Battle of San Lorenzo depicting Cabral as a
soldado heroico, or heroic soldier (Benielli).
“La Marcha De San Lorenzo”
The March of San Lorenzo
Cabral, soldado heroico,
cubriéndose de gloria,
cual precio a la victoria,
su vida rinde, haciéndose inmortal.
Y allí, salvo su arrojo,
la libertad naciente
Cabral, heroic soldier,
covering himself in glory,
as the price of victory,
he gives his life, making himself immortal.
And there, his courage saved
the nascent liberty
de medio continente.
¡Honor, honor al gran Cabral! (Benielli)
of half a continent.
Honor, honor to the great Cabral!
This relatively small victory made a huge impact on the morale of the rebel forces. The
Battle of San Lorenzo in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata’s Revolution could be compared
to the Battle of Trenton in the American Revolution because this victory was one of the first
victories for the rebels since they defended Buenos Aires from the British in 1806 and 1807
(BBC) before San Martin arrived. However, that was before the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La
Plata was fighting for freedom from Spain.
In 1813 the Army of the North, under the command of General Manuel Belgrano, lost
two battles against the Spaniards: Vilcapugio on October 1, 1813, and Ayohuma, on November
14, 1813. By then Belgrano and San Martin had developed a great friendship, and they were
exchanging information and experiences about the war for freedom. Later in November,
Belgrano called on San Martin to help him reorganize the Army of the North (Belgrano).
“You should not only fight this war with guns, but also with opinions...
you should not let exotic opinions or men that do not know the country
they stand on influence you... conserve the flag I left you...” (Belgrano)
San Martin went to Tucuman where he met with Belgrano, and took over the army in
January 1814. Through merciless training and drilling, San Martin transformed it into a
formidable fighting force (Minster). Later that year, under the pretense of being ill (Bushnell),
San Martin retreated to Cordoba, and from there to Mendoza, where he was appointed Governor
of Cuyo in 1814 (10 De Agosto). By this time, San Martin had decided to abandon the plan to
attack colonial Peru from the south by land. He felt that this would lead to almost certain defeat
and/or devastating losses. San Martin's new plan had two steps: 1) cross the Andes to liberate
southern Viceroyalty of Lima (the area of modern-day Chile) 2) liberate northern Viceroyalty of
Lima (the area of modern-day Peru) from the southwest by sea (Minster).
As the Governor of Cuyo, San Martin organized the Army of the Andes thanks to funding
and other resources he could obtain through being governor. At that time, he made an alliance
with Chilean General Bernando O’Higgins to gather all necessary resources for the Army of the
Andes.
On July 9, 1816, an assembly representing most of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata
met in San Miguel de Tucumán and declared the country independent under the name the United
Provinces of the Río de la Plata. Today, Argentinians call their Independence Day, “El Nueve De
Julio,” which translates directly to “The Ninth of July” (Spain).
Between January 18 and February 8, 1817, General San Martin led the 5,000 men of the
Army of the Andes through the Andes mountains into the Viceroyalty of Lima as part of his
great plan to force the Spanish to leave the continent once and for all. He split the Army of the
Andes into “two main columns and four minor ones” (New World Encyclopedia). Each column
would take a separate path, which were kept secret to ensure victory. One main column began
its journey through the Uspallata pass on January 18, under the command of General Las Heras.
The other main column began its journey through the Los Patos pass on January 19. The
columns reunited on February 8 at San Andres de Tartaro. By the time they reunited, both
columns had been involved in minor skirmishes; Las Heras had fought one battle in Porterillos,
and San Martin had fought two battles: Achupallas and Las Coimas (New World Encyclopedia).
San Martin's ability to lead the Army of the Andes through defiles, chasms, and passes often
higher than 10,000 feet above sea level, earned him high ranking along with Napoleon and
Hannibal. By keeping the locations in which his troops would pass a secret, San Martin
successfully forced the Spanish to divide its army to attempt to defend several passes through the
Andes. Therefore, on February 12, 1817, the Army of the Andes won the first battle for Chilean
independence in the Battle of Chacabuco. On April 5, 1818, he won the Battle of Maipu, a battle
that settled Chile’s independence (Bushnell).
During the following years, San Martin returned to Buenos Aires, Argentina. There he
obtained monetary resources to continue his campaign towards Peru’s liberation. In early 1820,
he returned to Chile. With the help of Admiral Lord Thomas Cochrane, they organized the 4,500
men to go to Peru by sea as another part of San Martin's great plan to drive the Spanish out. The
4,500 men included soldiers from both the Army of the Andes and Chile's army. On August 20,
1820, with 24 ships, they cast off from Valparaiso, Chile, to Peru. The 24 navy ships included 8
war ships and 16 transport ships crewed by 1,600 sailors (El Almirante). They arrived and
attacked the Viceroyalty of Lima, winning the battles from the sea. During the next year San
Martin stayed in Peru helping with the organization of the new country, and controlling the last
attacks of the Spaniards by land. Peru declared its independence on July 28, 1821.
After Peru declared independence, San Martin returned to Argentina in 1823. However,
his wife, Maria de los Remedios de Escalada, had died near Buenos Aires in 1823 a few months
before San Martin's arrival (Biografia). Also, by the time San Martin returned to Argentina, the
country was being torn apart by a civil war in which San Martin did not want to take sides. San
Martin took his daughter, Mercedes, and moved to Europe the next year (Instituto Nacional
Sanmartiniano).
During his time in Europe, he moved from London, England to Brussels, Belgium, to
Paris, France, and finally to Boulogne-Sur-Mer, France. In 1825, San Martin composed a list of
12 guidelines for Mercedes to live by. The first was to “Humanize the character and make it
sensible...” and the last was to “Inspire love for your Native country and for Liberty” (De San
Martin). These guidelines show that San Martin wanted his daughter to be humane, love, and be
loyal to her native country and liberty. On December 13, 1832, Mercedes married Mariano
Balcarce. Together, they gave San Martin two granddaughters who died with no children
(Instituto Nacional Sanmartiniano).
Jose de San Martin died August 17, 1850 in Boulogne-Sur-Mer, Franceat the age of 72.
While Mercedes was alive, San Martin's remains were in a mausoleum in Brunoy, France.
However, when Mercedes died in 1880, following San Martin's will his remains were brought to
Buenos Aires Cathedral, where they are today (New World Encyclopedia).
During the years South American colonies were fighting for independence, the political
situations in Europe were unstable. England had established a parliamentary government and just
lost a very long and costly war to keep its thirteen American colonies. Napoleon Bonaparte, the
French conqueror, was building his empire in Europe across many countries including Spain, and
setting his relatives on those countries’ thrones. The Spanish king, Fernando VII, was trying to
regain control of Spain from Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte, and keep his South
American colonies as well. San Martin lived during the right time in the history of South
America because he was able to meet his life goal of liberating Spain’s South American colonies.
The fact that his contemporary, Simon Bolivar the liberator of Venezuela, Colombia, and
Ecuador, had similar life goals as San Martin made it impossible for Spain to keep its South
American colonies (The Saylor Foundation).
San Martin is considered a national hero in Argentina, and there are many statues
throughout the Americas. He is honored as a great military leader who was not afraid to explore
new methods of fighting a battle, or new ways to win a war. He is revered for all of his
encounters with the Spanish where his successful campaigns exchanged the notion of freedom
from Spain with over half the continent of South America (Luzzatti and Segundo; Kaplan 9;
Mesenas and Frank 11; Minster). San Martin's endeavors changed the face of South America.
What was the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata became the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata,
which eventually became the modern nations of Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia, and Paraguay
(Spain).
Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources:
Benielli, Carlos J., comp. "La Marcha De San Lorenzo." Ed. Cayetano A. Silva. Web.
<http://www.me.gov.ar/efeme/17deagosto/cansanloren.html>. 10 Feb. 2016
This source gave me a sense of San Martin’s cleverness. It also gave me good
information on how the Battle of San Lorenzo was fought.
Belgrano, Manuel. "Carta De Belgrano a San Martín." - Taringa! Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.taringa.net/post/info/15050678/Carta-de-Belgrano-a-SanMartin.html>.
This is the letter that General Don Manuel Belgrano sent to General Don Jose de San
Martin, asking him for help reorganizing the Army of the North.
De San Martin, Jose. "Máximas Redactadas Por El General San Martín Para Su Hija
Mercedes." Máximas Redactadas Por El General San Martín Para Su Hija Mercedes.
Web. 4 Feb. 2016.
From this source, I gathered that San Martin had very high expectations for his daughter.
This is important and relevant because it reflects the fact that San Martin wanted
Mercedes to be a compassionate person.
Luzzatti, Arturo, and Segundo M. Argarañáz. "Himno Al General San Martín." Himno
Al General San Martín. Web. 01 Feb. 2016
This primary source confirms that San Martin was and still is considered a hero in
Argentina. This is an anthem dedicated to the memory of San Martin.
Secondary Sources:
"10 De Agosto. San Martín Es Nombrado Gobernador Intendente De Cuyo."
Mendoza.edu. Web. 15 Feb. 2016.
<http://www.mendoza.edu.ar/contenidosdigitales/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=765:10-de-agosto-nombramiento-de-sanmartin-como-gobernador-intendente-de-cuyo>.
From this source, I learned when San Martin became governor of Cuyo. This is important
because San Martin used his contacts as governor to gather the resources needed to form
the Army of the Andes.
"BBC NEWS | UK | Magazine | Britain's 'forgotten' Invasion of Argentina." BBC News.
BBC, 2006. Web. 03 Apr. 2016.
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4779479.stm>.
On this website I found the years of the British invasions of Buenos Aires, as well as a
vague mention of Argentina's first government in 1810.
"Biografía Del Libertador José De San Martín." Biografía Del Libertador José De San
Martín. Web. 02 Feb. 2016.
From this source I learned a lot about San Martin's quest to liberate Peru and his return to
Europe.
"Biografía De Remedios De Escalada Nombre De La Esposa De San Martin."
HISTORIA UNIVERSALARGENTINA Y DE LA CIENCIA BIOGRAFAS. Web. 04
Feb. 2016.
From this site, I learned a lot about Maria de los Remedios de Escalas de San Martin and
Merceditas, San Martin and Remedios' daughter.
Bushnell, David. "Jose De San Martin." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia
Britannica. Web. 03 Apr. 2016. <http://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-deSan-Martin>.
This website had a long paragraph on San Martin's crossing of the Andes, and the years
of his excursions in Africa as well as a quote.
“El Almirante Cochrane Al Mando De La Escuadra Chilena.” Armada.cl. Web. 02 Feb.
2016.
From this site, I learned the number of men that San Martin took on the expedition to
liberate Peru.
"Instituto Nacional Sanmartiniano." Instituto Nacional Sanmartiniano. Web. 15 Feb.
2016. <http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/documentos/documento015.php>
Here, I learned a lot about San Martin's daughter, Mercedes, and San Martin's life in
Europe, which marked the last years of San Martin’s life but not his legacy.
“Jose de San Martin Biography Military Leader (1778-1850).” Web. 14 Oct. 2015
<http://www.biography.com/people/josé-de-san-martín-37154>
This gave me the years that San Martin was active in each of the countries’ revolutions.
"José De San Martín." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004, "San Martín, José De."
The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed.. 2016, and "San Martín, José De." World
Encyclopedia. 2005. "José De San Martín." Encyclopedia.com. HighBeam Research,
2004. Web. 01 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Jose_de_San_Martin.aspx.>
On this website, I found information about San Martin's involvement in the Spanish
military and about his liberation of both Chile and Peru.
“Jose de San Martin.” New World Encyclopedia, .27 Jul 2013, 20:17 UTC. 20 Nov 2015,
19:25 <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart
%C3%Adn>
Here I learned San Martin’s parents’ names, where he studied, and a lot about his service
in the Spanish military.
Kaplan, Leslie. “The Silvery Land.” A Primary Source Guide to Argentina. New York:
Rosen Group, 2005. 9. Print. 20 Oct. 2015
From this short children’s book, I gleaned that San Martin is considered a national hero in
Argentina.
"Las Invasiones Inglesas En El Río De La Plata." La Escuela Digital. Web. 15 Feb. 2016.
<http://www.escueladigital.com.uy/historia/colonizacion/inv_inglesas.htm>.
This site gave me a lot of information on the English invasions of Spain's South
American colonies.
Mesenas, Geraldine, and Nicole Frank. “History.” Welcome to Argentina. Milwaukee:
Gareth Stevens Pub., 2001. 11. Print. 20 Oct. 2015
San Martin is regarded as a national hero, and there are many statues of him throughout
Argentina.
Minster, Christopher. “Who Liberated Argentina from the Spanish?” About.com
Education. Web. 29 Oct. 2015
<http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/independenceinargentina/a/BiographyOf-Jose-De-San-Martin10.htm>
This source gave me a very brief overview of Jose de San Martin’s birth through his
return to Argentina. It provided more detail after his return to Argentina about all the
battles in which he participated and their importance to South America’s independence.
“Road to Becoming a Nation.” World Book. 2015 ed. Vol. 1. Chicago: World Book,
2015. 656-657. Print. 20 Oct. 2015
This encyclopedia gave me a very brief overview of his military career in the Argentine
revolution.
"Select From Two Adventure Options." The Explorers Passage. Web. 03 Apr. 2016.
<https://explorerspassage.com/adventures/crossing-of-the-andes/>.
This site gave me the date that San Martin started his crossing of the Andes, and the name
of the pass he used to cross.
"Spain Argentina Chile Peru Independence Wars 1814-1824." Spain Argentina Chile Peru
Independence Wars 1814-1824. Web. 31 Mar. 2016.
<https://www.onwar.com/aced/chrono/c1800s/yr10/fsanmartin1814.htm>.
This website gave me extensive information about the specifics in the war, although not a
whole lot about general concepts.
The Saylor Foundation. "Simón Bolívar and José De San Martin." Web. 5 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/HIST303-4.3.2-Bolivarand-
SanMartin-FINAL.pdf>.
This website provided information about the situations in Europe during the years of the
“Spanish American” revolutions.
Wittekind, Erika. “History: From Colony to Republic.” Argentina. Edina: Abdo, 2012.
45-50. Print. 20 Oct. 2015
From this book, I confirmed that San Martin led Argentina’s independence movement.