Congress of Vienna
Topic: Reorganization
of
Europe
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Introduction
It is September of 1814. For the past ten years, Europe has been divided by war and has
faced terrible destruction. Power has shifted; alliances have been gained and lost as France’s
emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, led his troops on a seemingly endless warpath through the European
continent. In Napoleon’s violent quest for absolute power, one thing has become abundantly clear:
the organization of European states cannot remain the same. Actions must be taken to redistribute
land and power. Measures must be taken to keep the authority of national leaders in check. No
nation should again be able to hold power such as Napoleon. Pancontinental war instigated by a
single country must remain in the past.
Just months after Napoleon was forced to give up his throne and live in exile in Elba, the
nations of Europe have taken on a monumental task. They have agreed to convene in Vienna to
determine the future of Europe. As the representatives sent to the Congress of Vienna, you will be
instrumental in defining the geographical and political landscape of Europe and its colonies.
Delegates must be aware of their own nation’s situation, and use this knowledge to make agreements
and compromises with other nations that will determine the fate of Europe. While it is important to
understand the historical context in which the Congress is working, the powers granted to it are
fairly broad. It will be able to redefine borders, create new countries, and restrict or expand trade, in
order to make Europe a more stable place. Of course, there is always the specter of tensions
between the great powers, threatening to plunge the continent back into war. There is no formal
structure for this unprecedented international cooperation, and it will be up to the delegates
themselves to keep the peace.
The ultimate goal of the Congress is the formation of a treaty, a single overarching
document, which will determine the course of a future Europe. It is important to bear in mind that
this treaty will only be binding to the nations that ratify it. Therefore, it is important that any
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solution be inclusive, since the success or failure of the Congress will depend not only on the
creativeness of a solution, but its enforceability. At the negotiating table, delegates will have virtually
unrestricted power to propose ideas and take actions that could change the course of European
history and make a stable, peaceful Europe a reality. Whether or not they will use this power for the
greater good or for their own nation’s self-interest is yet to be determined.
There are many different issues that must be addressed, and none of them can be considered
without also looking at how they intertwine with the vast network of politics, royalty, and ideology
that thread throughout the continent. For the delegates in Vienna, the road to peace will not be easy,
and success will not be a guarantee, but this endeavor must be undertaken to resurrect order in
Europe after decades of war. The destiny of the great powers, the lesser powers, and all the souls of
Europe will be decided by the events of the Congress of Vienna.
History
By any account, the Congress of Vienna began a little under two centuries ago. PreNapoleonic Europe was complex, with hundreds of very small states and kingdoms recognized as
sovereign, even alongside the larger states and empires that will be sitting down in Vienna. The basis
of this state system is the Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648. This agreement brought to an end the
Eighty Years war, fought between the Spanish and the Dutch, as well as ending the German Phase
of the Thirty Years War.1 The overarching result of the agreement was the first formal articulation of
state sovereignty. From 1648 on, Europe would be a continent of states, in which states, not the
Holy See, would have the ultimate political authority. The peace agreement also established the
1. “Peace of Westphalia,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed November 11, 2015,
http://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Westphalia
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precedent of diplomatic congress,2 a feature of the state system that, a little under 200 years later, is
still providing legitimacy for the Congress of Vienna.
The political result of this agreement was the addition of territory to a number of the
member states, primarily Sweden, France and their allies at the time.3 Sweden was given almost sole
control over the Baltic Sea while France was able to establish a firm frontier west of the Rhine River.
Also important were the establishments of the United Provinces of the Netherlands and the Swiss
Confederation. Even the Holy Roman Empire was affected. The peace stunted the empire's
territorial ambitions in the protestant north of Germany, reducing the Holy Roman Empire to a
shadow of its former self. The peace treaty also led to the establishment of Germany as the “battle
ground” of European diplomacy in the subsequent years. Most importantly, the peace of Westphalia
established the fact that Europe was divided and territorial claims and sovereign rights were serious
and would be backed by force if necessary.
The event that triggered recent developments in European statecraft, however, was the
French Revolution, which occurred from 1787-1799 and reached its climax in 1789. The causes are
numerous, but the most pertinent was the collapse of the feudal structure in Western Europe.4
This collapse meant that peasants’ standards of living were improving along with their
prospects for gaining land and acquiring the rights reserved for full landowners. This, combined
with the rapid population boom that came as a result of better sanitation and increased standard of
living, put a huge strain on food and other necessities as well as consumer products. This led to
discontent among the people, which merged with the new ideas of the Enlightenment and prodded
the populace to action.
2 . “The Principles of the State System,” University of Nevada Las Vegas, accessed November 13, 2015,
https://faculty.unlv.edu/gbrown/westernciv/wc201/wciv2c10/wciv2c10lsec2.html
3. “Peace of Westphalia.”
4. “French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed November 11, 2015,
http://www.britannica.com/event/French-revolutionary-wars
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The rising bourgeois class that resented being held separate from the established elites rose
up, joining forces with the discontented peasantry looking for change and building on the
revolutionary fervor that began after France entered the American Revolution. This uprising tore
France apart, eventually leading to unrest and terrible violence as the lower classes began to seize
power. The “National Constituent Assembly” as they called themselves, became the political group
of those rising up against the established old guard. Espousing the values of liberty, equality, and
brotherhood, the new revolutionary government of France would execute their King and declare
war on the remaining sovereigns of Europe.5 The French revolutionary government proposed the
radical destruction of the system that the Peace of Westphalia had helped build, and although the
revolution has ended, its ideas will not die easily.
As the war dragged on, France itself became politically unstable and ripe for authoritarian
opportunists. Napoleon Bonaparte, a little known artillery officer in the French Army, eventually
seized control and crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804.6 Following his rise to power
Napoleon set out to spread the ideals of the French revolution while at the same time establishing
himself as the supreme leader of France, solidifying absolute control for himself. With renewed
vigor, Napoleon set out to finally win the extended war France was engaged in, with the rest of the
European powers organized against him.
Napoleon’s armies enjoyed renewed success in battling their continental foes, although the
British retained naval superiority. As a leader, Napoleon was aggressive and sprang to confrontation
whenever challenged, especially when attempting to protect his “Continental System” that sought to
exclude Britain from European trade. The Duke of Wellington famously used this aggression and
desire for decisive victory against Napoleon in the Peninsular Campaign. The Duke slowly fought
French forces in Spain, tiring out the French soldiers. Finally, Napoleon recalled many of the troops
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
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in order to focus fully on his invasion of Russia, ceding victory to the Duke. However, Napoleon’s
invasion of Russia proved to be a fatal error.
The Russian generals, M.B. Barclay de Tolly and P.I. Bagration responded to this invasion by
simply withdrawing their forces deeper and deeper into Russia until winter, burning Moscow to the
ground when Napoleon reached it. Stranded deep in Russia without supply chains or a city to loot,
Napoleon ordered a retreat. It was then, traveling back along the same badly ravaged route, that the
Russians attacked the French leading to 500,000 French casualties and the loss of respect and fear
that Napoleon has worked so hard to cultivate. It was only a matter of time until the unified powers
of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain forced Napoleon to sue for peace.
After the defeat, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, just off the coast of Tuscany. As
it stands, he has been given control of the island and has been allowed to retain his title as
Emperor.7 Europe is finally at peace, but the question remains; what will happen now that Napoleon
is out of the picture?
Current Situation
The most difficult question faced by the Congress remains the allocation of territory in
Europe after the havoc of the Napoleonic wars. The question being posed is complex, and there will
be no simple answers. Deciding which person or royal families have a rightful claim over a piece of
land is only part of the equation. The territories the Congress will decide on carry vast strategic
importance, and the decision of who is to receive them will have far-reaching impacts on the
stability of Europe at large. The Congress will consider territorial disputes in three main regions:
7. Ibid.
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Italy
In 1802, Napoleon secured his control over the Republic of Italy when he became its
president. However, he did not act much like a president: he intended on making sure that his sons
would be the future rulers and did not summon the Italian congress at any point during his rule. To
solidify this absolute control, Napoleon officially renamed it the Kingdom of Italy in 1804, with
himself crowned King, after two years of running it under the facade of a Republic.8 Napoleon,
however, saw Italy largely as a territory of France. He kept troops stationed there and wanted to
control the region’s future.
While the Kingdom of Italy at first only contained Northern parts of Italy, Napoleon quickly
moved to take greater control. After Pope Pius VII refuses to annul his brother’s marriage,
Napoleon invaded Rome and added it to his Italian kingdom. At around the same time, he was able
to drive the ruler of the Kingdom of Naples to Sicily and place his brother-in-law in his place.
Similarly, he also forced the King of Sardinia and his family into exile. Although the Kingdom of
Italy was technically only in the North, in reality Napoleon controlled almost the entire Italian
Peninsula. Italy, as it had been known before the Napoleonic wars, was destroyed.
On the one hand, Napoleon’s conquest of Italy serves to demonstrate the inherent weakness
of the Italian political structure. Italy, as a region, has been a collection of small principalities since
the demise of Charlemagne’s empire, and as a result, it was an easy conquest for Napoleon. On the
other hand, Napoleon became one of the first men in a long time to be crowned King of Italy, and
although the title was largely meaningless, his forceful unification of Italy into a single territory has
caused some residents of the peninsula to interpret what “Italian” means in a new light.
8. “Issues Relevant to U.S. Foreign Diplomacy: Unification of Italian States,” U.S. Department of State Office
of the Historian, accessed November 9, 2015, https://history.state.gov/countries/issues/italian-unification
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Italy will have representatives at the Congress in Naples and the Papal States, but for the
region, the largest questions about territory focus on the north. Austria, seeking an Adriatic port and
compensation for the presumed loss of Belgium, is demanding it be allowed to annex the island of
Venice along with a large portion of Northern Italy.9 The Congress is tasked with deciding whether
or not this annexation should be allowed to proceed, and in making that decision, it must consider
the greater effects it will have on the balance of European power. Like many of the proposed
territorial changes on the table for the Congress, the Venetian question will not be decided by
Venice or even other Italians, but by the collective decision of the European powers.
There are also other important decisions to make regarding the north of Italy. Before
Napoleon, relatives of the Austrian Habsburgs ruled many of the principalities in the west, and it is
possible that returning the Habsburgs to power there can be used as a bargaining chip. Even further
west, the Genoans have organized themselves into a new and independent republic, but in order to
last, they must get approval from the Congress, and many nations with seats at the table covet their
land.
Of course, there is always the distant possibility of a unified Italy emerging from the
Congress of Vienna. After Napoleon, new ideas about what being “Italian” means have led to a
rising sentiment that the smaller states of Italy should be united. However, this would take
considerable diplomatic force to accomplish. Italian unification is not currently perceived as being in
the interest of any of the great powers, and tricky questions about the role of the Pope and Rome in
a unified Italy have not been resolved.
9. “Congress of Vienna,” Encyclopedia.com, accessed November 10, 2015,
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Congress_of_Vienna.aspx
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Eastern Europe
Following the Russo-Turkish War, which ended in 1812, Russia gained a foothold in the
Balkans including a warm-water port on the Black Sea, via their annexation of Bessarabia. This
territorial gain both minimized the Ottoman buffer zone between the Austrian and Russian empires,
and put Russian territorial control between Austria and the Black Sea along the Dniester River.
Another outcome of the war, were Russian Imperial rights to use the Danube for merchant shipping
and trading, which would allow Russian goods to bypass the Austrian Empire in reaching Western
Europe.
This treaty was ratified the day before the French invasion of Russia. This campaign, despite
being known as the Second Polish War, had the aim of forcing Tsar Alexander I of Russia to cease
trading with British merchants and embrace the Continental System, which was a re-structuring of
continental Europe intended to prevent trade between Great Britain and the continent at large.
With the failure of this campaign and the defeat of Napoleon, Russia has gained more effective
means of trade, and an emboldened territorial claim over Poland.
Concurrent with these conflicts, Russia was battling with the Kingdom of Sweden, a conflict
that arose over Sweden’s rejection of Napoleon’s Continental System. King Gustav IV Adolf of
Sweden, who viewed Napoleon as the Anti-Christ, immediately rejected this. Thus, Russia invaded
the Swedish Kingdom, leading to a rejection of Swedish rule within occupied Finland in favor of
limited autonomy under Russian rule.
The largest issue in Eastern Europe will be the Polish region, which Russia claims in its
entirety. Poland itself has been an independent country in some form or another since the
introduction of Christianity to Europe. However, the past few centuries have seen Polish power
wane, and the state had even ceased to exist in the years leading up to the Napoleonic Wars. The
destruction of Poland has largely been due to the ambitions of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, which all
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compete for power in the region. Napoleon reestablished the Polish state as the Grand Duchy of
Warsaw, and once again, the question of Polish independence falls before the rest of Europe. The
Poles want independence, but the demands of Russia and the desires of Europe’s great powers may
outweigh this desire.
The other major issue in Eastern Europe is the issue of Finish rule. Finland has traditionally
been a part of Sweden, but due to Sweden’s policies during the war, Finland has fallen under
Russian control. Russia and Sweden have traditionally been rivals, so war is not out of the question,
butRussia is now much more powerful than Sweden, and a fight may not be in the best interests of
the Swedes. Finland could very well be an easy decision to make for the Congress, but it may be
used as a bargaining chip in other negotiations.
Western Europe
Western Europe presents possibly the most demanding issue for the Congress, as it involves
rebalancing the entire European power structure.
Foremost among these territories is Saxony, a medium-sized independent German
Kingdom. Prussia is demanding that it be allowed to annex Saxony since it needs to be stronger to
balance Europe. The King of Saxony, as expected, has opposed these demands as being without
basis.10 The Saxon question will determine whether the Congress chooses to re-establish traditional
European order, or create an unprecedented new reality on the continent.
Of nearly equal import in balancing the great powers is question of the Rhineland. The right
bank of the Rhine consisted of hundreds of small German princedoms before the Napoleonic Wars,
but Napoleon’s deposition of these princes has left much of that land unclaimed and abandoned.11
Situated between France and Prussia, both states would like to see the Rhineland granted to them in
10. M. De Pradt, The Congress of Vienna, (London: 1816), 91-96.
11. “French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.”
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order to increase their own power base. However, many other European nations are wary of
awarding the Rhineland to any great power, and call for a buffer state to be created. The Rhineland
is a rich economic area, and the Rhine River is of great economic importance, so the strategic value
of the Rhineland should not be lost on the Congress.
Further west, in the Low Countries, the debate revolves around the status of the former
Austrian Netherlands or “Belgium.” This largely Catholic territory belonged to Austria before the
war, but after French conquest, is appears that Austria has no interest in regaining this territory.12
Both the French and the Dutch, organized into the United Provinces in the north, have designs on
the territory. It might be possible to split the territory, give it to one side in its entirety, or proclaim it
as a new state.
Bloc Positions
Coalition vs. Lesser Powers
Coalition Powers (Russia, Prussia, Austria and the United Kingdom)
These four nations form the coalition which joined to defeat Napoleonic France.
They see themselves as the four most powerful and influential nations in Europe at this time, and as
a result, they hold themselves above the other powers at the Congress of Vienna. This coalition
believes that they have the right to determine the fate of Europe with little external input, and that
their goals should take precedence over the goals of weaker powers. As a result, these four will try to
control debate, even if that means holding negotiations separate from the rest of the delegates.
However, they must manage to do this without upsetting the other delegates to the point of refusing
to ratify the treaty.
12. De Pradt, The Congress of Vienna.
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Lesser Powers (France, Spain, and smaller states)
The bloc of lesser powers is comprised of all remaining delegates, led by those from France
and Spain. These two believe they should be among the greater powers coalition, but have formed
this bloc of lesser powers due to their exclusion. The remainder of this bloc is made up of smaller
nations who do not want their fates determined by the whims of four large nations. The lesser
powers prefer open negotiation and agreements that find a consensus among the entire body. As
such, these powers will seek to force the inclusion of smaller voices before reaching a continentwide conclusion.
State Sovereignty vs. Balance of Power
State Sovereignty Bloc
This bloc of nations believes that, due to their own personal strategic interests, it is beneficial
to protect the smaller European states from the territorial ambitions of larger ones. Some states, like
Saxony, are being directly targeted for annexation by members of the conference. Other small states
do not face a direct threat, but could potentially face one in the future due to their size. Austria and
France, two larger states within this bloc, already stand among the most powerful states in Europe.
The expansion of regional powers, like that of Prussia, would only serve to weaken them and make
their interests more difficult to protect.
States within this bloc will typically oppose the annexation of Saxony to Prussia, the
consolidation of Italy or Germany, the annexation of Poland by Russia, or the expansion of the
Netherlands. However, these distinctions are not absolute, and states may deviate from this if the
right opportunity presents itself.
Balance of Powers Bloc
This bloc is made up of nations who believe the importance of state sovereignty is second to
a balance of powers for the security of Europe. Though they do hold sovereignty in high regard,
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security is necessary to avoid repeating domination of the European continent by a traditional
power. As such, radical territorial shifts are deemed necessary by the bloc to create a balance of
Great Powers who can police one another effectively, rather than just maintaining the power of
Austria and France.
Questions To Consider
1. Is it better for Europe if Italy remains disunited, or it is possible to accept a united Italy
without disrupting the stability of the continent?
2. Would an Austrian annexation of Venetia benefit the greater European balance of power?
3. Should Genoa be allowed to remain an independent republic, or be incorporated into
another state?
4. What is the role of the Holy See in post-Napoleonic Italy?
5. Do Italian states have the authority to dictate Italy’s new structure, or does that power lie
with the great powers?
6. Should Poland remain independent, and if so in what capacity?
7. Is a Russian annexation of Poland in the interests of Europe as a whole?
8. Should Prussia or Austria be given land to help counter the threat of a dominant Russia?
9. Should Finland remain under Russian rule, and if not, who will rule Finland?
10. How can Eastern Europe be restructured to be more stable and less likely to incite violence?
11. Should Prussia be allowed to annex Saxony, and if so, should the King of Saxony receive
compensation?
12. What arrangement in the Rhineland will best promote European stability?
13. Should Belgium be incorporated into the United Provinces, and if not, who will rule
Belgium?
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14. How can France be revived as a weight in the balance of power without risking more French
wars of conquest?
15. Should Britain play an active role in securing Western European stability or, as an island
nation, withdraw from continental affairs?
Recommended Sources
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Congress of Vienna.” Accessed November 11, 2015
http://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Vienna
Great source for accessing a historical overview about the Congress of Vienna, not
too specific, but great for general information and content
U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. Accessed November 11, 2015.
https://history.state.gov/
Great source for looking at the topic from a U.S. perspective.
Encyclopedica.com. “Congress of Vienna.” Accessed November 11, 2015.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Congress_of_Vienna.aspx
Another source that provides a useful overview and background on the topic.
Bibliography
Encyclopedica.com. “Congress of Vienna.” Accessed November 11, 2015.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Congress_of_Vienna.aspx
De Pradt, M. “The Congress of Vienna.” London, 1816.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. "French Revolution: Causes, Facts, & Summary.” Accessed
November 11, 2015 http://www.britannica.com/event/French-Revolution
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Encyclopedia Britannica Online. "French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: European History."
Accessed November 11, 2015. http://www.britannica.com/event/French-revolutionarywars
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. “Peace of Westphalia: European History.” Accessed November 11,
2015. http://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Westphalia
U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. “Issues Relevant to U.S. Foreign Diplomacy:
Unification of Italian States.” Accessed November 9, 2015.
https://history.state.gov/countries/issues/italian-unification
History Today. "The Congress of Vienna: A Peace for the Strong." Accessed November 11, 2015.
http://www.historytoday.com/stella-ghervas/congress-vienna-peace-strong
University of Navada Las Vegas. “The Principles of the State System.” Accessed November 13,
2015. https://faculty.unlv.edu/gbrown/westernciv/wc201/wciv2c10/wciv2c10lsec2.html