The Emergence of Democratic Ideology
Author(s): R. Brock
Source: Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 40, No. 2 (1991), pp. 160-169
Published by: Franz Steiner Verlag
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THE EMERGENCEOF DEMOCRATICIDEOLOGY
It has frequentlybeen statedthat ancientGreece producedno democratic
politicaltheory.'If we mean by this that we possess no treatise,no systematic
and detailed written theory of democracy,this is true. This is not to say,
however,that there was no democraticideology or democraticthoughton a
less articulatedlevel, nor that democratsmade no attemptto publicise and
promotesuch ideas and the practicesand institutionswhich embodiedthem.
In the politically polarisedatmosphereof the later fifth century,we would
expect a propagandabattle;politicalimageryand languageprovideda ready
means of pursuingit, and key tenets of political belief could be effectively
encapsulatedin wordsor slogans.Moreover,such languagewouldbe likelyto
circulatemorewidely,and so be moreinfluential,than any treatise.Studiesof
politicalslogansand languageto date have had moreto say aboutaristocrats
and oligarchsthan democrats,2while politicalimagerysimilarlyseems at first
sightto be under-usedby democrats.My objecthereis firstto outlinethe types
of propagandawhich democratsneglectedand the reasonsfor theirrejection,
and then to describethe principalalternativewaysin whichdemocratspresented theirideology.
A greatdeal of fifth-centurypoliticalimageryis not surprisinglyconcerned
with constitutionsotherthandemocracy:tragedy,for example,beingset in the
mythicalpast in which kings were the norm, is very largelyconcemed with
monarchy.Comedy, again, normallytakes a backgroundof democracyfor
granted,and does littleeitherto extol or criticiseit. Instead,it focusseson the
individual,generally the politician. Sometimesthe images are parodies of
establishedimages for the ruler,as shepherdor defender(e.g. Ar. Eq. 255-6,
I E. g., recently,N. LorauxTheInventionof Athens(London1986)173-80.
2 The following is a selection of relevant books and articles:A. W. H. Adkins Merit and
(Oxford1960)and Moralvaluesandpoliticalbehaviourin ancientGreece(London
responsibility
1972);W. R. Connor Thenew politiciansof fifth-centuryAthens(Princeton1971);W. Donlan
"Changesand shifts in the meaning of demosin the literatureof the archaicperiod"(PP 25
[1970]381f.),'The origin of KctX6gKdyQ06q"(AJP94 [1973]365f.), "Socialvocabularyand its
relationto politicalpropagandain fifth-centuryAthens"(QUCC 27 [1978]95f.) and Thearistocratic ideal in ancient Greece(Lawrence1980)esp. 120-30, 145-6; K. J. Dover Greekpopular
morality(Oxford1974)41-5 and 'The portrayalof moralevaluationin Greekpoetry"(JHS 103
and its advocatesin archaicGreece"(GR 19[19721
[1983135f.);P. A. L. Greenhalgh"Aristocracy
Krieges
190f.)esp. 196f.;G. GrossmannPolitischeSchlagworteraus d. Zeit d. Peloponnesischen
(Zurich1950);R. A. Neil TheKnightsof Arstophanes(Cambridge1909)AppendixlI; M. Ost1969);G. E. M. de Ste.Croix
wald Nomosand thebeginningsof theAtheniandemocracy(Oxford
The origins of the PeloponnesianWar(London 1972)358-9; G. Vlastos"Isonomia"(AJP 74
in J. Mau & E. G. Schmidt (edd.) Isonomia(Berlin
[1953]337f.) and "'Iaovopia ,tOXunTxK"
1964)If.
Historia, Band XL/2 (1991)
0 Franz Steiner Verlag Stuttgart
The Emergenceof DemocraticIdeology
161
Pax 686-7), sometimesthey guy a politicalslogan such as Cleon's apparent
referenceto himself as '"watchdogof the people";here Aristophanesconcentrates on the less welcome canine traitsof stealing,barkingand biting, and
distortsCleon the watchdoginto Cerberusthe hound of hell;3 a similarcase is
the claim of politiciansto be "loversof the people",satirisedby presentinga
personified Demos on stage, not only a figure unlikely to inspire romantic
fervour,but an tpbejLvo; older than his tpacYrxtto boot.4
More constructiveimages representthe politicianin variousforms of domesticservice,describedas tctaic, tntiTpono;or nurse.5Such images,which
derive from a comparisonbetween the domestic and political otKoVoI.iCt
not only
(oitcKv and &tOKstv are regularlyused of politicaladministration6)
imply an expectationof competentadministrationand a positionof trust,but
usually suggest derelictionof duty and betrayalof trust: the image of the
nurse,for example,is alwaysused negatively.
Imageryapplied favourablyto the demos is hardto find. In the Eumenides
(775, 883, 1010)Aeschylusapplies to the people of Athensthe epithetnokXtcwhich is elsewhereused of patrondeities or eponymousheroes,and
cyoDXog
in the Persaerefersto them as the walls of the city (349), though this idea is
something of a commonplace(Alc. frr. 112,426; Thuc. 7.77.7). Early in the
fourthcenturya newly enfranchisedcitizencould referin courtto the Athenian demos as his father(L. 13.91).However,such favourableimagesare more
than offset by others which liken the emotional and inconstantassemblyto
raging fire, surgingsea or howling wind.7Abuse of the audience is a stock
element in comedy, so comparisonof the demos to sheep (Ar. Vesp.32-4
cp. 955), cuckoos (Ach. 598) and bustards (Com. Adesp. fr.47 K) is not
surprising,though it is worthy of note that, as with the characterisationof
Demos in Knightsas a ratherdim and credulousold man(esp. 40f.,cp. 754-5),
the criticismrefersspecificallyto theirsusceptibilityto the wiles of politicians.
Similarly,the image of the chariotof state (Ar. Eq. 1109,EccL.466 cp. P1.Pit.
3 Watchdog: Eq. 1017-9, 1023-4, 1031-4, Vesp.902f. Cerberus: Eq. 1030, Pax 313, PI.Com. fr.
236 KA; n. b. Kapxap6Mouv of Cleon: Vesp. 1031 = Pax 754. The original slogan: D.25.40,
Thphr. Char. 29, Plut. Dem. 23.
4 Lover of the Demos: Eq. 1341-2 cp. 732-4, 1163; the original (?): Thuc. 2.43.1 n.b. Connor
(n. 2) 96f. Another possible case is the reference to ycpovtaycoycTv in the parodies of S. fr. 487
(Peleus) at Eq. 1099 and Com. Adesp. fr. 11 K; the word is rare (otherwise found only at S. 0. C.
348). Plutarch cites the comic fragment twice (Mor. 807 A, Nic. 2.3), both times a propos of
Cleon, who is also involved in the Aristophanic context, which leads one to wonder whether he
had made some unguarded remark.
5Tcaldig:Ar. Eq. 946-9, 959 cp. Lys. 493-5, Eccl. 210-2, 600; titpo7Eo;: Eq. 212, 426, 949,
1098, 1259, Pax 686; nurse: Eq. 716-8 cp. Arist. Rhet. 1407a 8-10 and n. b. related images in Ar.
Vesp.712, fr. 699 KA.
6 E.g. oitKlv: S. 0. C 1534-5, E. Hipp. 486, H. F 1365, Thuc. 2.37.1, 3.37.3, 8.67.1, D. 23.139,
24.31, 25.20, 59.115; &LOLKCtV:Ar. Eccl. 305, Thuc. 8.21, Isoc. 10.37, 11.17,P1. Men. 73a, Grg. 520e,
R. 600d, Lg. 714a, D. 1.22, 4.10, 19.136, 58.30, Aeschin. 1.153.
7 Fire and wind: E. Or. 696-701 cp. Hec. 606-8; water: Hdt. 3.81.2, Ar. Lys. 170.
162
R. BROCK
266e) assumesthat the demos needs to be held in check by the directionof a
skilledleader.
The absence of democraticpolitical imageryis the more surprisinggiven
that there are areas of Athens' activitieswhich one would expect to have
producedsuch imagery.Athens owed her empireto her maritimepower,yet
we do not find images equivalentto "all pulling together",although the
triremeis a paradigmof communaleffort.A similarlacuna is the absenceof
any image drawnfromthe hoplite phalanx,the interdependenceand equality
of individualsin which is already stressedby Tyrtaeusand Callinus.True,
there seems to have been a degreeof upper-classprejudiceagainstthe navy,8
and there were certain inequalitiesof pay and status among rowers,9but
conversely,such an image did not requireabsoluteequality,and given wideand
spreadparticipationin the navy,generalpublicpridein its achievements"'
the obvious suitabilityof the image, its absence needs more accountingfor.
Likewise,thoughtheremay have been linksbetweenhoplitearmsand oligarchic opinions,11with at least a third of Athenianadult males on the hoplite
registersthis is at best a partialexplanation.
A more comprehensiveexplanationfor such deficiencies is that suitable
areas of imagery had to a great extent been pre-emptedby earlierwriters
representingdifferentideologies. Maritimepoliticalimageryhad gone off in
two differentdirections:the ship of state came to representthe unity of the
polis, parallelingthe developmentof the polis as a communityin the late 7th
and the 6th century,while elsewhereuse of such imagerycentredincreasingly
The image of the helmsman,like those of the charioteer
on the helmsman."2
(whichis almostits inverse)'3and the doctor,tendsto justifythe positionof the
leader,be he king, noble or politician,by the implicationof wise skill, opposing the lone expertto the undifferentiatedmasses.'4In the militaryfield stress
8 The idea of the VaUrLK6; 6XXo; appears already in E. Hec.608-8, 1.A. 914.
9 Inequalities: W. W. Tarn JHS 25 (1905) 142n. 14; J. S. Morrison & R. T. Williams Greek
oared ships 90}-322 B. C. (Cambridge 1968) 269-71; pay: Thuc. 6.31.3; E Ar. Ran. 1074.
10Participation: Plut. Cimon 11.2-4, Per. 11.4,ps.-Xen. Ath. Pol. 1.19-20; pride in navy: Ar. Ach.
162-3, Thuc. 1.49.1.
11Thuc. 8.65.3, 97.1 with A. W. Gomme, A. Andrewes & K. J. Dover A Historical Commentary
on Thucydides (Oxford 1981) Vol. V ad locc.; [Arist.] Ath. Pol. 29.5, 33.1; Xen. H. G. 2.3.48.
12 Ship of state: Archil. fr. 105; AIc. fr. 6; Thgn. 671f.; Hdt. 6.109.5; helmsman: Thgn. 675,
855-6; Sol. fr. 15W; Pi. P. 1.86, 10.72; A. Pers.656, Th.2-3,62-4; S. 0. T 922-3, Ant. 994; E. Supp.
473-4, 879-80; modern discussions: (e.g.) D. van Nes Die maritime Bildersprache des Aischylos
(Groningen 1963); most recently, B. Gentili Poetry and its public in ancient Greece (Baltimore
1988) ch. 11.
13 The image of the helmsman is applied to driving in [Hom.J Vers.Her. 16, Bacch. 5.47, E.
Hipp. 1224, Tr. Adesp. fr. 443b K-S, P1. Thg. 123c, that of the driver to the helmsman in Pollux
1.98; both images are applied to the trainer by Pindar (N. 6.66, 1.4.78) and to the chorus-leader
by Alcman (1.92-4).
14 N. b. J. Jouanna Ktema3 (1978) 77f., M. H. Miller Thephilosopherin Plato'sStatesman(The
Hague 1980) 87-101.
The Emergenceof DemocraticIdeology
163
also tended to fall on the champion or on the general, who was after all
necessaryeven to the hoplite army. Again, the body politic, like the ship of
state, focusses on the city as a whole - a developmentwhich the personification of 85,o; and t6ktg encouraged- and the commonestimage is of the
sicknessof stasis.'5Imagesfor individualsmightstill be appliedto politicians,
but the communal view of the city would tend to place each citizen in a
subordinatepositionas dutifulchild of the cityor obedientservantof the laws.
Anotherareawherewe can see thatdemocratshad been anticipatedby the
time they came to present themselves is the use of moral terminologyto
denote class and/or politicalalignment.In thistechnique,whichcan be traced
rightback to Homer and is in full swing by the time of Theognis,aristocrats
are, in their view and that of their poets, 6yaOot, xpratoi, 6qtctvou;, PCXKacoi K6yaOoi and &pta-uot,while their opponents are
tioug, I3k-XtiCFoi,
KcaKOL,
novrlpoi, Xsipougand paoXot(and in the view of the 'Old Oligarch'
as well [ps.-Xen.Ath. Pol.I.9D.16How effectivesuch propaganda
9CCtv%tu_vot
was is hardto estimate:certainlythe idea thatthose denoted as KCaKOtsimply
accepted it with humble deference makes little allowance for basic human
vanity,and when the sausage-sellerin Knightsavowsthathe is a bad sortwith
no good deeds on his conscience (184-6) the effect is clearly humorous.
Perhapsthe intentionwas principallyto reinforcearistocratic/oligarchicsolidarityin the face of increasingencroachmenton theirprerogativesby the base
masses;certainlythe phenomenonbecomesmuch morepronouncedin Theognis, who is preoccupiedwith such matters.'7
15H. Janne in Meanges F. Cumont(Bruxelles1936)280f.; n. b. in particularthe ellipse at E.
H. F. 542-3 and the lexicographersHesychius(vocoov. otaa6.lov) and PoIlux(8.152vooctv
t,ti ToO 0opUPaE0at.
Kai Tapdcraw0at).
16 See n. 2 for some moderndiscussions.There is still scope for a comprehensiveaccountof
this phenomenon, but for present purposes it is sufficient to establish its existence and
long-standingoperation,to which end I appendhere a selectionof examples.Homer:Xtpi;/
6ya06;
Od. 15.324 cp. II. 1.248; KaKc6;A/cx0X6 Od. 8.553, 22.415, 23.66;
aK6; Od. 4.64, 14.56,
21.324; etX6;Ac/l0X6;Hes. op. 214.Theognis:KaK6; some 45 times, 6yatO6 x35, tLo6; x20,
ULMX6
xlS; see e. g. 53-62, 101-12,183-92;more interestingare otiup6; (65), XpiotRo; (406)
and &Xpla0TO;
(865). Solon: KaK6;/6ya06g
13.33, 15.1; KaK6;/ta0.6; 34.9, 8ct6;/6ya06;
13.39.Pindar:dya06; (e. g. P 2.81,3.71,10.71)and t0b6; (N. 4.95, L.3.7) used alone. Comedy:
for Aristophanessee Neil and de Ste. Croix (n. 2) and cp. Eup. frr. 129, 192.166,346 KA; P1.
Com. frr. 182,202 KA; Fr. Com. Dub. 362.5 Austin.Tragedy:S. fr. 84 (Aleadai)cp. fr. 88 with
A. C. Pearson The Fragmentsof Sophocles(Cambridge1917)p. 48; E. Akc.194,602, Supp.424,
Ion 598, 637, Or.930, 944, frr. 8, 362.28-9, 644, 1050.Prose authors:KMM6;K&yaO6;Thuc.
4.40.2,8.48.6,Antiphon 1.14,Lys. 12.86cp. 6v6payacOicaOat
Thuc.2.63.2,3.40.4;6yaQ6; Hdt.
3.82.3, 8.41.1,ps.-Xen Ath. Pol. 1.6; KaK6; Hdt. 3.142.5,ps.-Xen.3.10, Andoc. 2.1, Lys. 19.15,
EmpedoclesB4; Xtp(ov/6tcivwv Thuc. 3.65.2,6.53.2;XLp.ovps.-Xen.1.4,3.10,Andoc. 4.40,
Lys. 1.2,10.23;7Eovip6;/XP'q0T6g
ps.-Xen.1.1,4,6,7,14,19;
ps.-Xen.1.5,14,3.10,
PEXTiov/-W40Tou;
Thuc. 8.47.2,Hell. Oxy. 17.1(n. b. 6.2-3); nov7jp6gThuc.6.89.5,8.47.2,73.3,ps.-Xen.1.5,PHeid.
182(M. Gigante Maia9 [1957]68f.) fr. aS; for a comprehensiveregisterof such terminology,see
E. C. Welskopf(ed.) Soziale Typenbegriffe
(Berlin 1981-5)vols. I & II.
17 And for Athenianoligarchs,especiallyafter462, such
linguisticretaliationmighthave gone
164
R. BROCK
At any rate,propagandaof this sortis by its naturehardto combat.Specific
claimsto excellenceby aristocratscould be subjectedto criticalscrutiny:thus
we find considerabledebatein the later5th centuryas to the meritsof noble
birth,particularlyin Euripides.'8Likewisewhathad been advertisedas virtues
could be reassessedas vices: aw(ppoa6vrjcould be representedas inertia,
6npaytoacsvuras uselessness.'9Simplemoralassessments(good/bad, useful/
useless)are more intractable,and a directchallengewould be liableto lead to
unprofitableexchangesof "Yes I am","No you'renot".Thereare hintsof an
attemptto explore one possible line of criticismby defining the quality or
applicationof excellence: an oratorcan call himself Xpic;6xg ... ?i5 t)4uai
(Andoc.2.26),XpIaT6g . . n6pit'Tl tnlOo T6 64tftEpOV(Lys.20.2 cp. 13.2)or
... .tcpi Tiv ~tpct?pav t6Xtv (Lys. in POxy. 1606. 141-2),usages
PEXTkOV
T(V
which recallthe formula&i 'p 6yaccO6;iig/iept rfv t6ktV/T6V 9OV
f1
'A0nvaicovin honorificdecrees.20Sarcasmwas a possibilitytoo, as in referenKczyaOoi"and allegations that drinking and
ces to "the so-called KaCXOi
fornicatingwere the typical activitiesof the Xp'llaToi,Kckoi K6y(OOiand
It was, in other words, possible to retortthat handsome is as
ycVV65C,C.2'
handsomedoes.
An alternativecourse,however,was to sidestepthe problemby proposinga
different division between 6Xiyoi or (tXaaCovcg on the one hand and 6
81RO5,T6 iknWo;, ol iXiovC;, T6 noXX6vand oi ivteg on the other.22
Such slogans served to identify democracywith the interestof the whole
people and city while brandingoligarchyas factional:the argumentis put
most explicitly by Athenagorasin Thuc. 6.39.1 tyO &t (pprt np6Tox tv
YO(xOat,
6XtyapXitxv&t ppog. Such a developmentwas
51Rov 46mxav6vo
encouragedby the fact that the rise of democracywas accompaniedby the
developmentof personificationof the city and the demos. In Solon's poems
there are alreadysigns of the demos actingas a unit (6.1,9.4), as the city does
in Simonides(fr. 15W),and by the time of Aeschylus'Supplices the developsome way to mitigatingthe impotencein practicalpoliticsto which the coup rumoursof 457
(Thuc.1.107.6,Plut. Cim.17.5)are an isolatedexception(see also below).
18 Electra passim and frr. 52, 336, 345, 495 (n. b. V. di Benedetto Euripide: teatro e societd
[Forino1971]ch. 9); Euripidesis of coursereflectingcurrentsophisticdebate:AntiphonB 2,44,
LycophronB 4; W. K. C. Guthrie TheSophists(Cambridge1971)152-5.
19 Thuc. 1.68.1,2.40.2; L. Carter The Quiet Athenian (Oxford 1986) is a study of &itpaycqoal5vq
- see esp. 26-8.
(Oxford 1988)70.11,85.6-7,
20 E.g. R. Meiggs& D. M. Lewis GreekHistoricalInscriptions2
91.254; n. b. also the joke versionsin Ar. Eq.764, 873-4, 1208.
Thuc. 8.48.6cp. 4.40.2and A. W. Gomme CQ n. s. 3 (1953)65f.; drinking
21 KacXoiKd*ya0Oi:
&c.:Ar. Vesp.80, 1256,Ran.738-40;cp. the use of iaX(; in Hdt.and Ar. of the rich:Hdt.5.30.1,
77.2, 6.91.1, 7.156.2, Ar. Vesp.288, Pax639.
22 This strategyis clearly reflectedin Thuc. e.g. 6Miyot/ntXf0o;4.22.2;6xiyot/6fto;
3.39.6,
2.37.1;6i ounpon6dtat/6kiyot 3.82.1;6kiyot/noto oi 6.38.4,
47.2,8.66.5;6Xiyou;/WXtiovccg
8.97.2; xT6itXov, Totg nJcL/Tr6 ZXaacYrov, ToT; 6Xiyot; 4.86.4.
The Emergenceof DemocraticIdeology
165
ment is complete,withboth the city and demos seen as fully characterisedand
virtuallyinterchangeableentities.23Such personificationis frequentthereafter
in the "politicalplays" of Sophocles and Euripides24and its firm establishment is also illustratedby the comic presentationof Demos on stage by
Aristophanes(Knights),Eupolis (fr.346KA) and Plato Comicus (fr.201KA),
and by a referenceto the portraitof Demos paintedby Parrhasius(Pln. NH
35.69).Politicalslogansreflectedthis developmentby speakingof individuals
as loyal and friendlyor, conversely,hostileto the demos or city.25
This put the boot on the other foot: the oligarchscould identifythe demos
with the poor and call it an 6xXog,26but while this no doubt relievedtheir
feelingsit did not answerthe case. In due coursethey respondedby positively
embracingthe conceptof being few, but not untilthe end of the fifthcentury.27
Certainlyit does not seem that they found any effective way of meetingthe
democratson theirown ground:this numericalor proportionalterminologyis
acceptedas partof the ground-rulesin Herodotus'Persiandebateand, though
found in narrativeand in speeches by democratsin Thucydides,never forms
partof an attackon democracythere.
Ideologicalslogans are anotherprominentfeatureof the period,especially
in prose, and there are indicationsthattheiruse became more pronouncedas
the century wore on: to take one sample, 6XtyapX;a and its cognates are
found 5 times in Herodotus,26 times in Thucydides,and 5iqtoKpatia and
cognates 3 times in Herodotusand 22 times in Thucydides.That this is not
simply a reflection of differentsubject matteris suggested by Thucydides'
analysis of civil strife during the PeloponnesianWar, especially when he
speaksof "oi... tv Tats n6XEcyt7tpocT6v-Tcg gcmu 6v6gicToq tK&tEpOt
KCati
aO4DpodptCYTOKpaTiag
MITPEpctO;D,
RXfOoUgT?6ICYovoR.tia;
7EOX1TtKJ
vog npo-rtR'ac"
(3.82.2).
The implicationof this passage is that this debate was being conductedin
terms of abstractnouns, and here again I believe that democracyhad taken
the lead. A decisive point is markedby the speech of Otanes in Herodotus'
23City:273,358, 775, 1010;demos:396,488, 624 cp.485; n. b. referencesto T6 5'gtOV 370,699
and T6 KOtV6V518.
24E.g.
61fos: E. Supp.351, 406, 418, 442, Or.696, 702-3; nkf0os: S. 0. C. 66, E. Hec. 866,
Supp.237; n6k,t: S. 0. C.432, 440, 525, 913,E. Hcld.503, 1012,Supp.375, 394, Or.49, 437.
25 5vo
r it6nXrt Andoc. 3.34, Thuc. 6.36.1; the opposite Thuc. 6.24.4;
d5voUg TO nx^
t
Lys.13.1,10,14.10,18.8,20.2,25.7,31.18;the oppositeLys. 12.49,18.6,8; 6VvoUgTri 5i'jl Ar. Eq.
748, 873-4, Lys. 20.17,Andoc. 4.16; ibgiv Ef5vougLys. 13.93,20.8,9,27.Cp. cig 14Ld ... R1 Ct
ppOVODVTC;(Andoc. 2.4), 8uo1cvCi5
...
t
kt6
6
(Andoc. 2.3), Vvoo0VTCg gttv (Lys. 13.13),
also Andoc.4.8,16,Lys.20.19,20,26.4,Isoc.7.57,Ar. Vesp.413,473, Dissoi LogoiDK907.6 and in
generalConnor(n. 2) 99f.
26e.g. E. Hec.605, 607, 868, Hipp.986, 989, Supp.411,cp. I. A. 914,Thuc. 4.28.3,6.63.2,89.5,
7.8.2, 8.48.3,72.2, 86.5, 92.11,P1. Plt. 304d1, Grg.455a5, 502al, c9, R. 494a9, 565e4, Lg. 707e3,
722b7,LSJs.v. txko; 1 2.
27 See R. Brock"Athenianoligarchs:the
numbersgame"JHS 109(1989)160-4.
166
R. BROCK
Persiandebate (3.80). As Kagan28points out, this is the first time that the
breakdownof a constitutionis discussed not in terms of the quality of the
ruler(s)but of the natureof power: "He goes on to explainthe cause for the
lawlessness: it is the nature of monarchical power itself...
Otanes. . . realizes
that all men are liable to such weakness and that not envy but unchecked
power createshybris."(cp. 66: "tyrannyby its verynaturecorrupts").The rest
of the debatereinforcesa distinctionbetweentwo modes of politicalthought:
both Megabyzusand Dariusbeg the questionof the natureof aristocracyand
monarchyby insistingon the characterof the ruler(s).Megabyzus'argument
TOU5tow &piaTOw
goes as follows: ficlg 8t& 6vpov -iX(av-rv
6ptXirxV
&vsa6A?COc,
Kai
OCT5tuoi
TOUTOOtt
6rj
T6
tv
TOSlOncpt0)LHE?v
KpaTog
7yap
&ptiTOV 6t &v5pV OIKO'g iptGTaP3ouXcFarXyiveaOct (3.81.3),and Darius' praiseof monarchyis similarlyfounded: 6v5p6;yctp&v6g-Tot &ptiTOO
ou5&va6itvov &v pc*vii] (3.82.2).Herodotus'subsequentnarrativefurther
underminesthis stance by revealing that in this case, at least, the &vip
6ptaTOgis the one whose clever servantcan manipulatea farcicalselection
procedure,ratherthan the one chosen by lot or popular vote, as Otanes
expects (3.83.2).Otanes,on the other hand, stressesthe theoreticalcharacter
and essential featuresof democracy- ikovojiic, iarjyopiac,use of the lot,
accountabilityand inclusiveness: ikt1os &6 apxov RpOTatAv oivvo1cL
&'paT
8 TOOtO)VTOV6 g0oUvctpXog
K6lXXtCTOV 9XCI, icJovojttTV,
JLVLVTOV
g v 6pXa5 6pXp-t,6nt0uvov
notUtotot5Uv-66p
RaTxa
LtCtg
tnLvTa
EST6
LoUVapXi11V
T6
bt 6pXiv EXit, 0ouXc6J)V YV6rV g?T?uvrng
TO
noXX6 ZVt T6 n6VTa
tV
yap
6tLCtVXlOo;g
KOtV6V &vWptpEt. Ti0cjxc
(3.80.6).
of the
This divergenceof approachin politicalpropagandais characteristic
later fifth century.Oligarchs,for their part,lay stresson the virtuesresulting
fromtheirstyle of governmentand the vices to which democracywould lead:
6KOXWiac
on the one hand co)(ppocybvijand 6ivoRia, on the other L)Pptg,
and, more generally,novippia.19 Such an approachis quite understandable:
the claim of aristocratsor oligarchsto rule was based on superiorcharacter
(natureand nurture)and so their propagandais inevitablytied to their own
self-image. We have already seen how vulnerablesuch a stance is to ad
hominemattacks;equallytheirclothes could be stolen by democrats.Phrynichus (Thuc. 8.48) argues in effect that the demos is less hybristicthan the
28 The GreatDialogue.Historyof GreekPoliticalThoughtfrom Homerto Polybius(London
1965)89-90, referringbackto Vlastos'article"Isonomia"(n. 2).
29aoppoa5vq Thuc. 1.84.3,3.37.3-4, 62.3, 65.3, 82.8, 8.53.3, 64.5, H. North Sophrosyne
(Ithaca, N.Y. 1966) 102, 111-3, 142-5; cu'vo,icA Hdt. 1.65.2, 66.1, Thuc. 8.64.5; 6Kokaaict
Thuc.
3.37.3,81.2,6.89.5;novqpia Thuc. 6.89.5,8.47.2,73.3, ps.-Xen.Ath.Pol. 1.5,E. Supp.243, 424;
iIptSCritiasDK88 A13,Hdt.3.81,the latterunderminedby Otanes'priorclaimat 3.80.2-4;the
argumentthat conscious60pts is preferableto the unconscioussort seems perverselyelitist(cp.
Thuc. 8.48,below).
The Emergenceof DemocraticIdeology
167
oligarchs,and conservativedemocratsmightlay claim to the title of 4ptatoKcpicta for Cleisthenic democracy (P1. Mx. 238cd, Isoc. 12.131).A similar
developmentis the personalitycult of the "GreatAthenianStatesmen"(Themistocles, Aristides, Miltiades and Pericles)which is reflected in Eupolis'
Demoi and attackedby Plato in the Gorgias(n.b. Dodds ad 502dl0f. and
515b6f.).Again,if aristocratstriedto resttheirclaimto ruleon superiorskill,as
their political images imply (above), democratscould retortthat democracy
gave every opportunityfor the participationof the talented (E. Supp. 440,
Thuc. 2.37.1,6.39.1).
Democracy,on the otherhand, insistedon its own theoreticalbasis, whose
fundamentaltenets were equality,legality,freedom and community.Sometimes equality is advanced absolutely as a virtue of democracy;30at other
timesequalityis combinedwith one of the otherdemocraticidealsto formone
of the democraticslogans: equalityand the rule of law give iaovopi&1 and
equalityand freedomgive imyyopia.32Freedomtoutcourtis also advancedas
a virtueof democracy,and means particularlyfreedom from being ruled by
others,33while the rule of law is pointed up by the personificationof v6Ro;.34
The ideal of community,statedby Athenagorasin his dictumthat5ftlog is the
name of the whole, oligarchyof a part (Thuc. 6.39.1,above) is expressedby
Kotvo; and relatedwords,and by the phrasetg R.ov. T6 KOIV6Vrefersto
the state35and always expressesan idea of unity; ?.g pttcov likewiseimplies
the public and visible nature of democraticgovernment,particularlyin the
assembly,and the universalaccessibilityof informationand ideas, in contrast
30Thuc.2.37.1,39.5, 6.39.1,8.89.2,Lys. 2.56, E. Supp.408, 432, 441 n.b. the relatedpraiseof
'Ia6rrj as a cosmic principlein Pho.535f. G. A. Gilli Originidell' eguaglianza(Turin 1988);
W. Lenhauer"Das griechischeGleichheitsdenkenzwischen Aristokratieund Demokratie"in
W. Schulleret al., DemokratieundArchitektur(Munich1989).In this contextone might note a
significantgroupof Iao-namesin the fifth and fourthcenturies(PA = J. KirchnerProsopographia Attica[Berlin1901-3]):'laooiKll (PA 7712,Cimon'swife), 'Icr6voRos(PA 7719-20,Andoc.
1.15),'Ia68TjRoq
(7710-1,Lys. fr. 125), IoapXog(PA 7685-6), 'IGoTLstlr (7721,Andoc. 1.71)though against these one should also note the Orthagoridtyrantof Sicyon 'I1a6&tpos(if he
existed - A. Griffin Sikyon [Oxford 1982140f.) and a handful of late fifth-century'ApIaTOKp6T%pes (PA 1892-6). Outside Attica the Lexiconof GreekPersonalNames(Oxford 1987)
vol. 1addsan Isagorason Lesbos,an Isagoras,two or threeIsagoresesand an Isodikoson Thasos,
and an Isodemoson Euboea.
31
iaovopia
E. Supp. 430f., Hdt. 3.80.6, 83.1, 142.3, 5.37.2 (cp. icaoKpaTia in 5.92al), Thuc.
3.82.8,6.38.5cp. 2.37.1.
32 icrryopia E. Supp.435-41, Hdt. 5.78;cp. Eup.fr. 316KA,ps.-XenAth.PoL1.12.
33 E. Supp.353,405, 438; K. Raaflaub"ZumFreiheitsbegriffder Griechen"in Soziale Typenbegriffe(n. 16) IV 180f.,esp. 245-73 and Die Entdeckungder Freiheit(Munich 1989).n.b. the
non-activeformationof 8%WoKparTCa0cEt,even when used actively.
34 Hdt. 7.104.4,Anonymuslamblichi DK89 6.1 (cp. referencesto the vote of the demos as an
activepower:Lys. 1.36,Andoc. 1.9).
35T6 KOLv6v Ant. 3.2.3, Andoc. 2.3 cp. Ant. 5.81, Andoc. 4.1; A. Supp. 518 cp. 700; other
Kotv-words:Andoc.2.1,4.13,Lys.2.62.
168
R. BROCK
to oligarchic secretiveness.36
One can see the consequences of this more direct promotion of democracy
in the way that it is reflected in literature. Its virtues are not praised through
imagery nor by allusive references to oi ao(poi or (wppocYuvr, but are
directly presented: the scenarios of the Supplices of Aeschylus and Euripides
and Aeschylus' Eumenides include democratic elements - kings who are
obliged to consult their assemblies (which then pass decrees), popular courts,
subjection to law. As the numerous references above to his speech indicate,
Theseus in Euripides' Supplices justifies democracy by a direct appeal to its
theoretical basis and its ideology, just as Otanes advances his case by reference
to its characteristic institutions. Indeed, so far from requiring the assistance of
imagery, democracy and its institutions can themselves be used for literary
effect.37Accountability is a central tenet of democracy ;38 thus when Xerxes is
described as ou'X 65itrn5ouvog,t6X? (A. Pers. 213) it reinforces the contrast
between the systems of government in Persia and Athens which Aeschylus
wishes to make. The same term is used of the divine tyrant Zeus (P. V. 324),
and when Clytemnestra tells a servant to carry out her orders og6;ru%tvC
(Cho. 715) it accentuates her own freedom from any check. Eupolis offers a
humorous version when he refers to the judges in the dramatic contests as
(fr. 239KA [1H6%tg]).
6V6pc; XOYLoTCai -TV 6nco0VroV
xopov
The firm establishment of democratic slogans is made clear by the satire of
comedy. 5rlloTtK6g originally implies a belief in equality as a democratic
virtue, but in comedy it comes to indicate equality run rampant, as in proposals of equal sexual opportunity for all.39 Similarly, alongside normal references to democracy we find appeals to Demokratia which are little more than
expressions of dissatisfaction with the current situation (Ar. Ach. 618, Av.
1570), or which are designed to reinforce the claims of self-interest (Ecd. 945,
Plut. 949, the latter part of an extended satire [900-50] on the sycophant's
claim to be the perfect democratic citizen). In the same vein is Euripides' claim
that his having made every charactera speaking role was &1p.oKpaTtK6v
(Ran. 948-52).4
Faced with such firmly established principles of argument, opponents of
democracy were forced to meet its supporters on their own terms. Some
36 Hdt.3.80.2,142.3,4.161.3,7.164.1,E. Supp.438-9, Andoc.2.4,Ar. Eccl.602;J.-P.VernantLes
originesde la penseegrecque(Paris1975)46f., 125f.
37Thefifth-centurypersonificationof AThioKpaTia developedin the fourthcenturyinto cult
(A. E. RaubitschekHesperia31 [1962]238f.),a clearsign of its entrenchment.
in
38Hdt. 3.80.6,citedabove.The subjectis discussedat lengthby J. T. RobertsAccountability
Atheniangovernment(London1982).
39 For the originalcoloursee Thuc. 6.28.2,Lys.25.23,Isoc. 18.48;parodyversionsin Ar. Eccl.
631,Philemonfr. 3KA cp. Ar. Nub.205, Eccl.411,Eubulusfr. 72K-A.
40 Aristophanes'claim to have demonstrateddemocracyto the allies is perhapsalso ironic
(Ach.642); cp. fr. IIOKAfor a silly argumentbasedon the idea that fair sharesare democratic.
The Emergenceof DemocraticIdeology
169
oligarchsattemptedto take over the term ioovoiaa and use it to distinguish
constitutional oligarchy from 8vwaTE'io (Thuc. 3.62.3, 4.78.3), legalistically a
plausibleargument,but implyingequalityonly of the lowest common denominator;its very infrequencysuggeststhat the ploy was not a success. Other
criticsfastened on the lot; in severalpassagesof the early fourth centurywe
find the argumentthatthe lot is not &jqoxWbtK
at all, becauseit is just as likely
to select an enemy of democracyas a friend.4'The very weaknessesof these
responses,and their purelyreactivecharacter,is some measureof the march
which the democratshad stolen on theiropponents.More successfulwas the
adoptionof the democraticploy of re-definition,this time of abstractnouns in
a new partialsense.41a
At the beginningof this discussion I noted that we possess no treatiseon
democraticpoliticaltheory;Lorauxsuggeststhatthis derivesfrom a difference between writing as typical of oligarchic apragmones and the essential
oralityof democracy,and this idea is attractive.42
One might go further,and
suggestthat it was pride in the practicalfunctioningof democracywhich lay
behind its presentationin dramaand the exploitationof its emotional resonances by dramatists,and that the daily evidence of a systemactuallyin use
minimisedthe need for theoreticaljustifications.However,the frequencyof
allusions to the characteristicvirtues and ideas of democracy alluded to
above43imply that the Athenianswere perfectlycapable of justifyingdemocracyin theoreticalterms.Indeed, in theirconcentrationon abstractnouns to
the exclusion of personalitiesthey may be said to have arrivedat the beginnings of abstractpoliticaltheory.44
The Universityof Leeds
41 Praiseof the lot: Hdt. 3.80.6n.b. Andoc 1.96,E. Hcld.36 and
R Brock
referencesto Ku't4og in S. frr.
288, 404. Critics:Xen. Mem. 1.2.9,Isoc. 7.23, Dissoi LogoiDK90 7.5. 1 am not convincedthat
gLta64 was a partof democraticideology(pace Loraux(n. 1) 175;her only source[on p. 1811is
ps.-Xen.Ath.Pol., not an entirely reliable witness),though of course it facilitateddemocratic
participation;the frequentoligarchicattackson it are thereforedifferentin character.
41a Especiallyfreedom: K. Raaflaub"Democracy,Oligarchyand the Concept of the 'Free
Citizen' in Late Fifth-CenturyAthens"(Political Theory11 [1983]517f.- and equality:F. D.
Harvey"Twoconceptsof equality"(C&M26 [1965]101f.).
42The question is discussed in detail by R. Thomas Oral traditionand writtenrecordin
classicalAthens(Cambridge1989)ch. 1.
43 For which see also Table2 in Loraux(n. 1) 181.
44 My thanks are due to audiencesin Columbus,Oxford and St. Andrews for assistingthe
developmentof this paper by their helpful comments; I am particularlygratefulto Oswyn
Murrayfor his criticismsof the penultimateversion and to Prof. K. Raaflaubfor subsequent
suggestions.