Additional Readings
Module: The Teaching & Learning of
English as a Foreign Language
Analysing Language
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/methodology/analysing.shtml
Steve Darn, Izmir University of Economics, Turkey
In a previous article, I emphasised the importance of checking understanding in the
process of teaching new structures and lexis, particularly through the use of concept
questions. Checking understanding generally follows the isolation of new language which
has been presented in context, analysed and fully explained. It is this analysis and
explanation stage which is the focus here.





A framework for analysis
Form and phonology
Function and meaning
Register and appropriacy
Post analysis
A framework for analysis
The teacher may present language inductively through a text, a situation, through a task,
or simply asks learners to 'notice' lexis. Alternatively a deductive approach may be used
whereby the learners are given the rules and asked to apply them in using the language.
In either case the learners need to fully understand the language before they begin to
practise it in guided activities, or produce it together with other 'known' language.
Teachers also need a framework within which to analyse language for planning purposes.
Five aspects of the language need to be considered:
 Form - the arrangement of the language, any rules which govern it, and any
special difficulties which it presents.
 Phonology - sounds, word stress, features of connected speech, sentence stress,
intonation and rhythm, all of which help learners understand spoken English and
make their own speech more natural, comprehensible and meaningful.
 Function - the purpose(s) for which the language is to be used and the contexts in
which it is used, by whom and in which situations.
1


Meaning - the message that the speaker intends to convey, which may vary
according to the context, particularly if a structure can be used to perform more
than one function.
Register and appropriacy - when and with whom it is appropriate to use the
language
You can use this form when preparing your lessons to ensure that you thoroughly analyse
the language items
Form and phonology
There has been a recent revival in paying attention to form. Research suggests that a lack
of focus on form may lead to fossilised errors, while the consideration of lexical items
and 'chunks' has led to a consciousness-raising approach to form, involving noticing
language presented in context, and not necessarily associated with practice.
Whether presenting language traditionally or using a consciousness-raising approach, and
whether the language is being presented for the first time or for revision, the following
should be considered:








Part(s) of speech. Lexis is often made up of more than one component. Multiword verbs, for example, may comprise a verb, a preposition and a particle (get
on with). There may be important collocations.
Spelling (note differences between UK and US spellings)
Regularity / irregularity (past tense verbs).
Word order and structures which follow (transitive verbs, verb plus infinitive
or gerund)
Pronunciation (contractions, question forms, tag questions)
The written form and the spoken form. It is now recognised that there is a
'written grammar' and a 'spoken grammar', involving significant differences in
some language, particularly functional items. Both forms need to be considered,
and conventional rules reconsidered. (He said it was his birthday the following
day / he says it's his birthday tomorrow).
The concept. Is the concept clear and concrete, or vague and abstract? Is the
concept the same in the mother tongue, and is the language used to express it
similar? Sometimes it is necessary to teach the concept before looking at the
language (the present perfect).
Potential problems. There may be complexities of form (I should have had my
hair cut), pronunciation (depending on the learners' first language), or confusion
of form and meaning between similar structures (didn't need to/needn't have, be
used to/get used to). There may also be confusion caused by similarities with
items in the mother tongue (false friends).
2
Function and meaning
The fact that there is not a one-to-one match between form and function is the main
reason for presenting language in context. On the one hand, a function (such as
comparing, inviting, asking for permission) may be expressed by a number of different
structures, as in these suggestions:
Why don't we watch a film?
Let's watch a film
Shall we watch a film?
We could watch a film
On the other hand, a structure my have a number of different functions;
I can play tennis (ability)
Can I open the window? (asking for permission)
Can you pass the salt? (request)
The form-function relationship is further complicated by meaning, which can only be
deduced from context. In isolation, the question 'Do you play cards?' could either mean
'Can you play cards?', or 'Would you like a game of cards?' depending on the situation.
Finally, careful consideration should be given to rules which govern form in relation to
use and meaning. There are often exceptions to rules, but rules are also often overgeneralised and may be misleading. A balance needs to be achieved between
generalisation and complexity, bearing in mind level and context.
Register and appropriacy
Particularly in the case of functional language, the analysis of target items also involves
analysis of the situation and relationship between speakers (appropriacy) which in turn
may govern the choice of language according to level of formality (register). This form of
analysis involves three main factors:



Setting (place and time)
Participants and relationship
Speaker's intention (function)
Again, it is possible to look at a single item (in this case 'would' expressing different
functions:
Would you like another drink? (social situation, offer)
I'd get the green one if I were you (shopping, friends, advice)
Granny would always tell us bedtime stories (family, past habits/nostalgia)
Would you by any chance be available next week? (work, making an appointment)
Alternatively, there may be several structures or variations on a structure used to express
the same function, the choice of register being governed by social distance.
Is it OK if I open the window?
Can I open the window?
3
Could I open the window, please?
Would you mind if I opened the window?
Probably the most useful underlying concept here is that of 'social distance', i.e. the
further apart the speakers are socially, the higher the required level of formality.
Post analysis
Analysing language is the first step for the teacher in the process of presentation. The
analysis of the target language will then guide decisions made about other aspects of
presentation:
 The approach - inductive or deductive, and how much can be elicited. A testteach-test approach may be appropriate at higher levels where there may be partial
knowledge of a structure, for revision purposes. The teacher may wish to compare
and / or contrast structures, or may merely want students to 'notice' new language.
 How much to present - a single structure, a number of structures for one
function, a number of functions of one form. Questions and responses in
functional / situational dialogues. Level is important here.
 The context - through visuals, mime, realia or brief anecdotes, through a text,
through a dialogue, or through a task.
 Checking understanding - concept questions and time lines where appropriate.
 Drilling the target language - what kind of drills to use, and how much is
necessary.
 Explanation of form and visual highlighting - what to put on the board.
This article published: 24th August, 2006
Further Reading
Rosemary Aitken - Teaching Tenses (revised edition), ELB 2002.
Gower, Phillips and Walter -Teaching Practice Handbook, Heinemann 1995.
Scott Thornbury - How to Teach Grammar, Longman 1999.
George Yule - Analysing English Grammar, OUP 1998.
4
Do ‘they’ have to learn grammar?
By: Jason Geyser
Introduction:
During the past century or so, the focus of classroom instruction and the practice of
language teaching have shifted depending on prevailing, customary methodologies and
theoretical foundations of language teaching and learning. This has provided us with both
interesting and varied interpretations of how best to teach a foreign language. Over the
past few decades there has been a change of focus from an emphasis on language forms
to more functional language within a communicative context. Initially, as mentioned by
Brown (2000), the adoption of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in the 1980s
and 1990s witnessed a significant loss of focus on the forms of language. This approach
introduced ‘real-life’ communication, characterized by authentic materials, true-to-life
simulation and meaningful tasks. Learners were given a clear reason for communicating
in the form of role plays and simulations. Accuracy of the language was seen to be of less
importance than fluency and communicating successfully. The Communicative approach
highlighted the importance of functional language as opposed to focusing specifically on
grammar and vocabulary as was done in the past.
This was in stark contrast to the earlier traditional methods such as the Grammar
Translation Method with its focus on vocabulary and grammar. This method did very
little to encourage a learner’s communicative ability in the foreign language and is
synonymous with memorizing and regurgitating countless and tedious lists of grammar
rules and vocabulary. Brown (2001) explains that despite the obvious shortcomings,
Grammar Translation still remains extremely popular even today and cites a few reasons
for this apparent popularity. This method requires that teachers possess few specialized
skills and grammar tests are easy to formulate and design and also easy to mark
objectively. Another reason for its popularity is that many standardized tests of foreign
languages do not test communicative abilities, so many students have little motivation to
go beyond the immediate needs of grammar rules and translations. Richards and Rodgers
(1986) note that the Grammar Translation Method has no supporters and that it is not
based in any theory nor is there any justification for it.
With the general acceptance of Communicative Language Teaching as the most
recognized, contemporary approach to language teaching, the question of the place of
grammar or what has been termed form-focused instruction seemed uncertain within the
curriculum. Spada (1997: 73) defines form-focused instruction (FFI) rather simplistically
yet relevant to our purposes as, ‘any pedagogical effort which is used to draw the
learners’ attention to language form either implicitly or explicitly.’ Brown (2000)
distinguishes between the two different approaches to form as implied in Spada’s
definition. Firstly, there is the implicit reference to form which includes what Richard
Schmidt (1990) refers to as noticing (where the learner pays attention to certain linguistic
features in input) and consciousness raising (including forms into communicative tasks).
Closely tied to implicit reference to form, noticing and consciousness raising is
5
discovering language. Secondly, there is the explicit discussion of rules and curriculum
based on sequenced grammatical categories. The current universally held view is that
some form-focused instruction is indeed important
within the communicative
framework, including explicit reference to rules as well as noticing and consciousness
raising. We will consider these approaches to form in further detail in subsequent sections
of this essay.
Brown (2001) states that grammatical competence is an important component of
communicative competence. He goes on to describe organizational competence as a
complex set of rules which govern both sentences (grammar) and how we link these
sentences together (discourse). It is this organizational competence which is seen as
necessary for communication and to ensure that the language used is not disorganized
and muddled. Diane Larsen-Freeman (1991) points out that although grammar provides
us with the form or structures of language, these are inconsequential or meaningless
without, at the same time, considering semantics (meaning) and pragmatics (meaning
assigned given the context). These three aspects are interconnected and each is dependent
on the other. It is in this light that it should become overwhelmingly clear that grammar is
not irrelevant and that it is both important and needed within a CLT framework.
In further exploring the question, ‘Do ‘they’ have to learn grammar?’ we will begin with
a focus of attention on: the implicit reference to form and the explicit reference to
form within the context of the communicative approach and the generally held belief that
some form-focused instruction is indeed important within such a context. This will be
followed by an examination of the role of grammar in language teaching and how to
teach grammar. It is these subsequent issues which are also important when considering
the importance attached to the teaching of grammar and which cannot be divorced from
any discussion of whether learners have to learn grammar.
Implicit reference to form
Earlier interpretations of CLT advocated an ‘indirect’ approach, which promoted
incidental learning or an implicit reference to form. Harmer (2001) raises the issue of
whether traditional language teaching techniques such as drills, repetition and controlled
practice of language items have any benefit to the language learner at all. Some linguists,
as mentioned by David Nunan (2004), believed that an explicit focus on form and
grammatical structures was unnecessary and that the acquisition of a second language
would develop almost automatically if learners focused on meaning while completing
tasks. Krashen (1982) divided language learning into ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’
prompting the notion that ‘language learning would take care of itself. He claimed that
language which is acquired subconsciously is instantly available when we require it and
can be readily used in spontaneous conversation. This is in contrast to language (grammar
and vocabulary) which is learned and which is not available for spontaneous use. Krashen
further stated that successful second language acquisition was dependent on the language
input received by learners and whether this language was understood and received in a
relaxing and conducive learning environment. A further attack on what we will refer to as
6
the traditional forms of language teaching was launched by Willis (1996: 48) who
described as a misleading notion, the idea that drilling or controlled practice of a
particular item would lead to the acquisition of that item or the mastery of the grammar.
Krashen considered the explicit teaching of grammar as merely language appreciation.
Krashen’s claims were questioned as it is not possible to ascertain whether a person’s
language has been ‘learnt’ or ‘acquired.’ Furthermore, his suggestion that ‘learnt’
language could never be ‘acquired’ language was observably false as stated by Rod Ellis
(1982) who maintained that communicative activities were the catalyst which transferred
language from the ‘learnt’ to the ‘acquired.’ Skehan (1998: 12) responded by suggesting
that Krashen’s views ‘have been influential within second language education and have
had considerable impact on the nature of pedagogic provision. Not surprisingly,
therefore, they have been subjected to searching criticism, and it would now seem that the
claims that were made cannot be substantiated.’ Although controlled practice may not
lead to the mastery of grammar, as expounded by Willis (1996), Harmer (2001) however
ascertains that it may encourage motor skills in oral production and may provide learner
motivation. Harmer (2001) refers to the considerable ease at which children
subconsciously acquire language as opposed to adults. Even though teachers avoid
teaching grammar to children as experience shows that it has little effect; form-focused
instruction for adults is seen as both useful and desirable.
A premise which is closely related to the idea of incidental learning or implicit reference
to form is often referred to as consciousness raising. It would seem that the majority of
researchers today are advocates of consciousness raising as a means of facilitating second
language acquisition. This is based on the concept that if repetition and controlled
practice do not work as well as they should then the teacher should attempt to make the
learners ‘aware’ of the language instead of actually teaching it. It is this proposed
awareness which is thought to aid acquisition of the language so that when learners need
it, they can produce the language both accurately and fluently. Consciousness raising
aims to teach the learner how to learn and take responsibility for their own learning.
There are various techniques available to raise awareness with many of these focusing on
the relationship between form and function. Willis (1996) offers a list of consciousness
raising techniques including cross language exploration and reference training amongst
others which are beneficial to the learner. Consciousness raising adopts an organic view
of teaching, thereby rejecting the linear view that suggests that once something has been
taught it has been learned (Nunan 1991: 149). Furthermore, consciousness raising
encourages learners to form their own hypotheses about the language, by linking and
associating language that they have already acquired with the new.
The term ‘noticing’ as coined by Robert Schmidt (1990) refers to the idea that unless a
student notices new language and is hence able to process it, there is little likelihood of
them learning the language. Batstone (1996) refers to noticing as the ‘intake of grammar
as a result of learners paying conscious attention to the input.’ Van Pattern (1996) notes
that it is the kind of input received that would appear to be crucial to noticing. Schmidt
adds that foreign language learners will notice new language constructs if they are
regularly exposed to them or they are noticeable in some way. It is important to recognize
7
that learners will need to have attained a certain level in order to notice various language
constructs. Schmidt further adds that some people will be able to process input more
effectively and therefore will be more adept to noticing. Moreover, this ability to notice
will be affected by the learner’s readiness to attend to certain language at the time.
Furthermore, it is suggested that very difficult and unfamiliar tasks will also affect a
learner’s ability to notice.
This emphasis on consciousness raising and noticing suggests that instead of teaching a
language item, the teacher should encourage students to notice it when it arises so that it
is subsequently processed and learnt (Harmer 2001). Even though the language may have
been noticed, this does not necessarily mean that it has been acquired or learnt or that it
can be used immediately or spontaneously. This may require further processing time or
structuring on the part of the learner.
Another school of thought interconnected with implicit reference to form and the
concepts of consciousness raising and noticing, is that of discovering language. Lewis
(1986: 165) suggests that this conceptual understanding is arrived at through a process of
exploration and thereby leading to true understanding. It is widely accepted that the
things which we discover ourselves are more effectively taken in than those things that
we are taught. Harmer (2001) outlines the practical implications of this particular view
whereby instead of teaching learners a linguistic item; teachers expose learners to
examples of it, allowing them to figure out how it is used. This also encourages students
to become more autonomous learners. Discovery learning may not however be suitable
for all learners or cultures, nor is it certain whether it works well with all items of
grammar. A further problem which might arise is that if a language item is too difficult or
complex, learners may find it difficult to make meaningful analysis of it on their own.
Explicit reference to form
As already mentioned, the current universally held view is that some form-focused
instruction is indeed important within the communicative framework. This includes both
implicit and explicit reference to rules. Having dealt with implicit reference to form in the
previous section, we will now consider explicit reference to form.
In our earlier discussion on implicit reference to form, David Nunun (2004) mentioned
that some linguists believed that an explicit focus on form and grammatical structures
was unnecessary and that the acquisition of a second language would develop almost
automatically if learners focused on meaning while completing tasks. Nunan further
proclaims that this focus on content at the expense of attention to form, has come under
increasing challenge in recent years resulting in a widespread acceptance that form has a
place in the classroom. This has sparked debate as to the extend to which grammar should
be included in the curriculum. Some argue that a focus on form should only be an
incidental activity within the communicative language classroom while others believe
that there should be an explicit reference to form. Littlewood (1981) makes a distinction
between a weak and a strong interpretation of Communicative Language Teaching, where
8
the strong interpretation avoids a focus on form and the weak interpretation recognizes
the need for such a focus. Littlewood, in his support of the weak interpretation, argues
that a number of skills need to be considered:




Learners must attain a high degree of linguistic competence so that it can be used
spontaneously and flexibly in order to convey the intended message.
A learner should distinguish between form learnt and the communicative
functions which these forms perform.
Learners must develop both language skills and strategies for communicating in
real situations using feedback to check success and using different language when
faced with failure.
Learners must recognize the different social meanings of language forms, thereby
using accepted forms for different circumstances and avoiding offensive or
inappropriate ones.
Unlike earlier interpretations of CLT which advocated an ‘indirect’ approach, Brown
(2001), like Littlewood, is in favour of the ‘direct’ approach with a more effective
application of CLT principles that sequences and structures tasks for learners, offering
the best possible intervention to assist learners in language acquisition. This earlier
interpretation of CLT led to its own set of problems with little attention being given to the
importance of form as teachers strived to present authentic, meaningful language in the
communicative classroom. As noted by Brown (2001) we simply moved from one
extreme to another where vocabulary and grammar took center stage with little regard to
language forms, to vocabulary and grammar teaching being given very little attention.
He further adds that we now seem to have a new gained respect for the place of teaching
form in the interactive classroom which allows the teacher to find better techniques for
presenting vocabulary and grammar in the communicative classroom. Dianne Larsen
Freeman (1997) cites Pienemann (1984) who demonstrated that learners that received
explicit grammar instruction progressed at a much more impressive rate than those
learners that were not exposed to such explicit instruction. Although it was noted that
only a small number of subjects were involved in this study; if corroborated would
provide evidence that teaching grammar is beneficial as opposed to allowing grammar to
be acquired implicitly.
Krashen’s (1982) recommendation that the teaching of grammar be abandoned faced
another problem as many learners and parents in different countries are convinced that
learning grammar rules are of value and central in acquiring a second language. In
Taiwan, for example, learners and parents alike will often complain to educational
institutions if teachers are perceived not to be teaching sufficient grammar. Harmer
(2001) adds that the Communicative approach, with its emphasis on pair and group work
and minimal intervention by the teacher may in fact offend educational traditions that it
initially aimed to displace. In Taiwan, tests are viewed as being incredibly important and
surprisingly a high percentage of students either like or expect tests. In a society which is
performance driven (and tests results are seen to reflect this) much of the motivation for
completing a language course, is to score well in the test. Failure to score well in a test is
seen as a ‘loss of face’ and in some instances a failure on the part of the educational
9
institution or teacher. This highlights an important issue, touched upon in the
introduction, regarding standardized tests of a foreign language. As many of these tests
such as the TOEFL do not test communicative abilities, students have a desire to learn
grammar rules in the classroom in preparation for these tests.
Further research by Swain (1985) reveals that learners in immersion classrooms that have
been exposed to ample target language continue to make many grammatical errors. This
observation would therefore seem to disclaim the notion of forms being acquired
incidentally. The idea that Communicative Language Teaching with its implementation
of fluency-based activities would develop communicative competence and linguistic
competence did not always occur. It was soon realized that CLT programmes which
applied extensive use of authentic materials, witnessed learners who often developed
fluency at the expense of accuracy. This situation resulted in learners who were
competent communicators but who had a poor command of grammatical structures. It is
important that fluency should not be encouraged at the expense of unambiguous and clear
communication.
The role of grammar in language teaching
Following our discussion of the two different approaches to form-focused instruction in
the communicative context, we will now explore the role of grammar in Communicative
Language Teaching. Larsen- Freeman (1997) adds that grammar is often misunderstood
and that this misconception is perpetuated by the idea that grammar is simply an
assortment of arbitrary rules concerning static structures. She further questions the claims
that learners will in fact acquire structures on their own and that they do not have to be
taught. Consequently, Larsen-Freeman believes that communicative and proficiencybased teaching approaches may indeed limit grammar. Brown (2001) notes that there
should be no question as to whether we should teach grammar to adults and offers the
following grammar-focusing techniques:





Grammar should be included in communicative contexts
Grammar should play a positive role in communicative goals
Grammar should attempt to encourage accuracy within a fluent communicative
environment
Grammar should not confuse learners with complex terminology
Grammar should be intrinsically motivating and interesting
Marianne Celce-Murcia (1991) provided a number of variables which will assist in
determining the role of grammar in language teaching. The first variable is that of age.
Young children are seen to benefit from a focus on form if it is incidental and offered
through indirect error treatment. Older children may benefit from simple generalizations
and concrete illustrations. Adults, on the other hand, are able to improve their
communicative abilities through grammar instruction as they have developed abstract
thought. The second variable which concerns us is that of proficiency level. Too much
focus on grammar at the beginner level will restrict acquisition of fluency skills. At the
advanced level, it is suggested that grammar is less likely to interrupt communicative
10
fluency. It is uncertain as to whether grammar is more important and is dependent on the
level of accuracy already attained. The next variable concerns the educational
background of the learner. Those learners with little or no formal educational
background may struggle understanding and grasping complex grammatical terminology.
Educated students however are cognitively more receptive to grammar focus. The fourth
variable refers to language skills and the idea that grammar focus is more effective in
improving writing skills as opposed to the other skills. Another variable, as proposed by
Celce-Murcia, is that of register. Informal contexts (writing an email) have fewer
demands on grammatical accuracy as opposed to more formal contexts (talking to a
teacher). The final variable relates to the needs and goals of the learners. Those learners
who are learning a foreign language in order to pursue professional goals will need to
focus on formal accuracy more so than those at survival level.
Brown (2001) emphasizes that these variables should be viewed simply as general
guidelines when deciding on whether grammatical focus is required in the classroom.
How to teach grammar
Many of the differences in the adoption of past methods and approaches to language
teaching have stemmed from the importance and role of grammar within these contexts.
Having firmly established the importance form-focused instruction and the fact that most
professionals would pay credence to this importance, there are differences in opinion as
to the sort of instruction that should be available to learners. Brown (2001) refers to four
important issues which are central to this prevailing professional debate. The first of these
questions in this ongoing discussion is whether there should be an inductive or
deductive approach to presenting grammar. With the inductive approach, language
forms are practiced and the learners induce the rules for themselves. The deductive
approach, on the other hand, advocates the presentation of grammar rules by the teacher
followed by practice of language examples to which the rules apply. Brown notes that the
inductive approach is more appropriate in most cases for a number of reasons:




It follows the process of natural language acquisition, with rules being grasped
subconsciously
It is consistent with the notion of interlanguage development with learners
acquiring rules at different rates
It provides learners with a communicative sense of the language before being
confronted with complicated grammatical explanations
It creates intrinsic motivation with learners attempting to discover the rules for
themselves
In the previous section, we referred to Marianne Celce-Murcia’s (1991) suggestion that
young children seem to benefit from an inductive approach to grammar. It is further
mentioned by Brown (2001) that sometimes a deductive approach or a blend of the two is
required. This is evident when teaching adults as a deductive approach may serve to
11
improve their communicative abilities due to the fact that they have developed abstract
thought.
The next question raised is whether we should focus on grammatical explanations in
the CLT classroom. We should avoid confusing learners with reference to complex
grammatical explanations and terminology. Brown (2001) offers a few simple guidelines
when providing grammatical explanations to your learners:






Explanations should be short and simple
Use visual stimuli and graphical depictions
Illustrate by using clear and unambiguous examples
Consider the cognitive styles of your learners remembering that analytical
learners find it easier dealing with grammatical explanations compared to holistic
learners
Do not concern your learners with ‘exceptions’ to rules
If a student asks about a grammar point that you are unsure of, tell them that you
will get further clarification and ‘shed some light’ on the language item during
your next meeting. This will give you an opportunity to do some relevant
research. The teacher’s books are often extremely useful in assisting the teacher
explain and understand certain grammar points.
This brings us to the question of whether grammar should be taught independently
and in separate classes. Research and CLT practice would suggest that grammar be
included in a general language course and as a component of communicative competence
instead of approaching it as a separate skill. Teaching grammar separately may prove
useful when teaching intermediate to advanced learners, where a certain degree of
fluency is already apparent. The conditions for such grammar teaching are outlined by
Brown (2001) as follows:





The grammar course should be integrated into the overall curriculum
The curriculum determines the content of the grammar course
Grammar is contextualized in meaningful language use
The grammar course is designed to deal with specific problems the learners may
have encountered in the curriculum
Assessing the success of such grammar courses should be evident from the
learners’ performance outside of the grammar class and not by grammar tests
The final question, relevant to the issue of what kind of instruction that should be
available to learners, is whether teachers should in fact correct grammatical errors.
Although evidence shows that overt correction of grammar does little to improve
language, there is evidence which demonstrates that certain attention and treatment of
grammar errors does have an effect. Vigil and Oller’s (1976) feedback model implies that
cognitive feedback should be optimal in order to prove effective. An excess of negative
cognitive feedback (interruptions and corrections) may stifle a learner’s attempts at
communication. At the other end of the scale, an excess of positive feedback (little
12
correction) may reinforce errors and could eventually lead to the fossilization of such
errors. It is important therefore to evaluate when and how to deal with errors in the
classroom environment. Hendrickson (1980) suggested that teachers attempt to
differentiate between global and local errors. A local error does not usually have to be
corrected as the message is clear and correction may impede the flow of communication.
Global errors, on the other hand, need to be corrected as the message is incomprehensible
as it is. The crux of this issue is that teachers should avoid overcorrecting learners’
attempts at productive communication, even though students generally expect errors to be
corrected in the classroom. The language teacher should attempt to find an optimum
medium between overt correction and ignoring errors.
Conclusion
During our examination of the place of grammar within the context of the communicative
approach, it is reasonable to conclude that grammar is certainly not irrelevant and is
indeed important within a CLT framework. Our discussion of the two approaches to
form-focused instruction would indicate and support the universally held view that some
form-focused instruction is necessary. Although it is difficult to generalize the diverse
findings promulgated by research on form-focused instruction, it may however be fair to
make a number of deductions as illustrated by Brown (2001). Research suggests that
form-focused instruction may in fact improve a learner’s level of attainment, but that the
practices followed by earlier methods such as the Grammar Translation Method are not
justified. The treatment of grammar errors and attention to language forms are clearly
most effective when integrated into a communicative, learner-centered curriculum and
least effective when the correction of errors takes central dominance in the classroom.
There has been few research studies undertaken which enable us to determine at what
stages learners are more disposed than others to internalize form-focused instruction. In
our preceding discussion on the role of grammar in language teaching, Marianne CelceMurcia (1991) determined that young children gain from a focus on form especially if it
is incidental. Adults, however, are able to benefit from grammar instruction. Furthermore,
it is suggested in the course of this essay and a study by Lightbrown and Spada (1990)
that a teacher should refrain from interrupting learners while they are in the process of
attempting to communicate. In line with this finding, Tomasello and Herron (1989) have
found evidence which supports the notion that it is best to offer corrective feedback after
a communicative task.
Our in depth discussion of the implicit and explicit references to form provided us with
some interesting arguments which highlighted the advantages of both approaches when
considering a variety of potential contexts. DeKeyser’s (1995) findings suggested that
explicit instruction was more suited to the easier stated grammar rules and implicit
instruction was best suited to conveying the more complex rules. What is more, the
extensive research on learner characteristic, styles and strategies clearly reinforces the
conclusion that some learners benefit more than others from form-focused instruction.
These variables include: age, proficiency level, educational background, language skills,
13
register, and the needs and goals of the learner (Celce-Murcia 1991). In addition,
analytical learners find it easier to process grammatical explanations compared to holistic
learners.
In conclusion, it could be said that ‘they’ do have to learn grammar in the communicative
context, although this focus on form may be realized either implicitly or explicitly. Even
though there is ongoing discussion and differences in opinion on the sort of instruction to
be employed in teaching grammar, most professionals would agree on the importance of
teaching grammar in the communicative context. Dianne Larsen- Freeman (1997) aptly
sums it up by saying that, ‘if the goals of language instruction include teaching students
to use grammar accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately, then a compelling case can
be made for teaching grammar. Instead of viewing grammar as a static system of
arbitrary rules, it should be seen as a rational, dynamic system that is comprised of
structures characterized by the three dimensions of form, meaning and use,’
References
Batstone, R. 1996. Key Concepts in ELT: Noticing. ELT Journal Vol. 50/3. Oxford
University Press.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Addison
Wesley Longman, Inc – fourth edition.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc – second edition.
Celce-Murcia, 1991a. Grammar pedagogy in second and foreign language teaching.
TESOL Quarterly 25: 459-80.
Celce-Murcia, 1991b. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Second
Edition. New York: Newbury House.
DeKeyser, Robert. 1995. Learning L2 grammar rules: An experiment with a miniature
linguistic system. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17: 379-410.
Geyser, J. Peter. 2006. English to the World: Teaching Methodology Made Easy. August
Publishing.
Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education
Limited.
Hendrickson, James M. 1980. Error correction in foreign language teaching: Recent
theory, research, and practice. In Croft, Kenneth (Ed.), Readings on English as a Second
Language. Second Edition. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop.
14
Krashen, S and Terrell. 1982. The Natural Approach. Pearson Education Ltd.
Larsen-Freeman, Dianne. 1997. Grammar and Its Teaching: Challenging the Myths.
Online Resources: Digests.
Lightbrown, Patsy and Spada, Nina. 1993. Focus-on-form and corrective feedback in
communicative language teaching: Effects on second language learning. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition 12: 429-448.
Littlewood, W. 1981. Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. 1991. Language Teaching Methodology. Prentice Hall.
Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press.
Pienemann, M. 1984. Psychological constraints in the teachability of languages. Studies
in Second Language Acquisition 6: 186-214.
Richards, J and Rodgers, T. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R. 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied
Linguistics 11/2.
Skehan, P. 1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford University Press.
Swain, M. 1985. A critical look at the communicative approach. ELT Journal 39/1 and in
Rossner and Bolitho (eds).
Tomasello, Michael and Herron, Carol. 1989. Feedback for language transfer errors: The
garden path technique. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 15: 385-395.
Vigil, Neddy A and Oller, John W. 1976. Rule fossilization: A tentative model. Language
Learning 26: 281-95.
15
Teaching vocabulary: theory and practice
By: Jason Geyser
Introduction
Currently, communicative language teaching (CLT) is generally accepted as the
recognized approach in language teaching. This approach explores ‘real-life’
communication, characterized by authentic material, true-to-life, simulation and
meaningful tasks. Although difficult to offer a definition of CLT; for the sake of
simplicity and for the purposes of this essay, it is broadly based on the aforementioned
and interconnected characteristics. As mentioned by Brown (2000), approaches to CLT in
the 1980s and 1990’s witnessed a significant loss of focus on the lexical forms of
language. This was in stark contrast to the earlier traditional methods of language
teaching with its focus on vocabulary lists, definitions and oral drills. Unfortunately,
teachers in their quest to become facilitators in the communicative classroom
underplayed the importance of teaching and learning vocabulary. This importance of
vocabulary in the development of language curricula was revived in part by Michael
Lewis’s Lexical Approach and other approaches which incorporated vocabulary into
communicative tasks. This revival of teaching vocabulary however was not viewed as a
means of memorizing lists of words but as a process of internalizing words in meaningful
contexts. In further exploring the teaching of vocabulary we will consider both the
theoretical and practical issues in presenting lexical forms. This will include, among
others, the meaning of words; the relationship between words; grammatical
considerations; the spelling and pronunciation of words; the style of words; the
consideration of specific and structural errors and remembering vocabulary.
It is important to remember that vocabulary is essential to convey meaning. A learner
cannot convey all that much without grammar, but cannot convey anything without the
use of vocabulary. A tourist visiting an English Speaking country will be able to
effectively communicate a request for directions by merely saying to a person ‘train!’ or
‘station!’ A tourist with limited vocabulary yet with a good command of language
structures will have difficulty getting their message across by saying ‘I’m looking for
the…..’ and not finding the correct word. It is estimated that the average native speaker
uses approximately five thousand words in everyday speech. Keeping this in mind, it is
important to remember that your students will not need to produce every word they learn
or hear. Some of them, they will just need to recognize. We therefore distinguish between
productive vocabulary which is that vocabulary that we tend to use on a daily basis and
receptive vocabulary which refers to vocabulary that we understand yet do not use
ourselves. Selecting what to teach based on frequency and usefulness to your particular
students is therefore essential. Once you have chosen what to teach, the next steps are to
consider what students need to about the lexical items and how you can teach them. As
mentioned in the introductory paragraph, there are a number of linguistic considerations
which one should keep in mind when presenting linguistic items.
16
Meaning of words
To begin with, we will consider the theoretical and practical issues in presenting the
meaning of words. The meaning of words is not as clear cut as we might assume.
Different languages may interpret the meanings of words in different ways. Certain
words in a given language may have no direct translation in another language. Other
words may carry powerful feelings and emotions which are lost in translation. When
presenting a new vocabulary item to one’s students there are important questions that one
might consider such as: what does it mean? ; do the students know other words which
will help them understand the meaning of the target item? ; does the word have more than
one meaning? ; what does the item not mean? ; does the item have a limited range of
meaning? ; in what context might one find the item? ; are there any connotations
associated with the item? ; after presenting the item how can one check understanding?
The meaning of words may be presented to one’s students in a number of ways. We will
consider the use of visual stimuli, miming and gestures, verbal means and peer tutoring.
The use of visual stimuli such as flashcards, photos, whiteboard drawings or relia (the
real thing) all assist in creating an association between the word and the visual stimulus,
and ultimately assist students with the recall of these particular linguistic items. A quick
line-drawing on the white board (‘stick-man’ type) could convey the meaning quickly
and offer some measurement of amusement to the students on witnessing one’s more
creative side. One may also find it extremely useful to demonstrate meaning by use of
mime or gestures.
Another means of conveying meaning of a linguistic item is by verbal means which may
involve a simple translation of the word into the mother tongue, a simple definition or
example, the use of concept questions or ascertaining meaning from context. The simple
translation of a word may bring about its own set of problems. As words seem to ‘live’
within their own particular language there often is not a direct translation for a word or
phrase, there is only an ‘equivalent’, sometimes not even that. Another problem which
might arise if students translate words and one does not speak their language, is that one
will not know if they have in fact understood or if they have translated it correctly. One
possible solution to this problem is to encourage students to guess the meaning of words
they do not know (in context) or to ask each other for help or to find the meaning in a
monolingual dictionary instead. A further aspect of conveying meaning by verbal means
is by offering simple definitions or examples. Long, drawn out explanations of the
meaning of a word may lead to confusion and it may therefore prove useful to illustrate
the meaning by using an example or by personalizing the particular item. An explanation
may however be appropriate in order to save time and to not compromise the initial focus
of the lesson. One may find that dictionary definitions are too difficult and complicated
for the learners. It may therefore be appropriate to paraphrase for the learners, giving
them an example sentence containing the word so they can see how it is used. A
prototypical example may be used to clarify meaning such as using the prototypical
example of a pigeon, dove or eagle to define the word ‘bird’.
17
Concept questions are close-ended verbal queries, demanding ‘Yes, No’ answers and are
useful in eliciting from the learners certain assumptions not clearly apparent to the
learner. This can be illustrated in the following example: The man had a terrible day! In
order to convey the meaning of the word terrible with the use of concept questions, the
exchange may take the following form:
Teacher: Did the man have a good day?
Students: No!
Teacher: Did the man have a bad day?
Students: Yes!
Teacher: So, the man had a……..
Students: Terrible day!
One of the most useful and powerful ways of conveying meaning is by considering
meaning in context. This could be meaning within a written text, audio clip, video or a
play. It is often possible to conclude or guess the intended meaning of a word or phrase
by considering the context in which it is being used. We will consider three different
examples of context clues in determining meaning in context. The first context clue
relates to how certain key words and phrases in a sentence point to the meaning of a word
or phrase for example, Climbing mountains, being in tall buildings and crossing high
bridges frighten me because I suffer from acrophobia. The underlined words in this
example suggest a fear of heights which is referred to as ‘acrophobia’. The second
context clue relates to sentences that use comparison or contrast between words,
suggesting that a word may mean the same (a synonym) or the opposite (an antonym) of
another word for example, One of our cats is very courageous and loves adventure; the
other is timorous. The way the sentence is written suggests that ‘timorous’ means the
opposite of courageous – and it does. Timorous means ‘fearful, faint-hearted.’ The third
context clue relates to words or phrases that follow a word closely and seem to re-name
or define it for example, Bonsai, the art of growing trees in small pots, is well known in
Japan. Quite simply, ‘bonsai’ is defined in the phrase which follows the word.
Encouraging students to deduce the meaning of words or phrases through the context in
which they see or hear them, will assist them in becoming independent learners.
A further verbal means of establishing meaning is through the use of dictionaries.
Students should be encouraged to purchase monolingual, English-English dictionaries
and taught how to use them properly and effectively. Students at the beginner level may
however find the monolingual dictionary too difficult as the language used in the
definitions may be too advanced and difficult to understand. These students may very
well rely on their bilingual or electronic translation dictionaries. From about the
intermediate level, students should be encouraged to use monolingual dictionaries.
Students should refer to their dictionaries whenever appropriate during the lesson, except
where such use would interfere with a communicative activity. Students should first
however, as already mentioned, attempt to guess the meaning from the context where
possible. Dictionaries are important as they make the student less reliant on the teacher
for explanations and make them more independent and responsible learners. Encourage
students to choose a dictionary which includes the phonemic translation which will assist
them in their pronunciation. Stress marks will also enable the student to tell which part of
the word to stress. Example sentences, usually written in italics, will demonstrate how a
18
word is used in context. Some learner dictionaries may even include pictures and
illustrations. In order to students confident with dictionary work and begin to appreciate
just how useful one can be, it is suggested that one give them some words to look up and
then discuss these in pairs. The use of different dictionaries will also give students the
opportunity to develop a preference. One could ask students to look up some confusing
words and ask them to find out the difference between them (e.g. ‘job’ and ‘work’ in the
sentences ‘ I enjoy my job / I enjoy my work’ – the nouns ‘job’ and ‘work’ have similar
meanings although there is a difference). Alternatively, one could ask students to look up
words which are difficult to pronounce such as ‘thorough.’ In order to find the correct
pronunciation using the phonemic chart and the phonemic spelling provided in the
dictionary.
The meaning of words may also be presented by making use of peer tutoring, where
students are divided into pairs or small groups and encouraged to explain the meanings of
words they do not know to each other. This may prove extremely useful as research
shows that students retain more of what they attempt to teach others than what they
experience directly themselves. It is important to ensure that students are explaining the
meaning of words in English and are not merely translating into their mother tongue.
It is essential to remember that once one has presented the meaning of linguistic items to
one’s students, it is important to check understanding. One may very well encounter
passive learners who are very content with allowing the teacher do all the work for them
without taking an active role in their own learning process. These students often ‘switch
off’ and do not attempt to remember anything. It is therefore important to create an
environment in which students can actively learn, take risks, practice new skills and
develop self-confidence.
Relationship between words
So far, in our discussion of the theoretical and practical issues in presenting lexical forms,
we have considered the meaning of words. The relationships between lexical items are
extremely useful in assisting an initial understanding of the words and as a key to
remembering and recording them. The meaning of words is often clearest when they are
seen in relation to other words. A word may, for example, typically occur with other
word (e.g. depend on). This is known as collocation. Harmer (2001: 21) refers to lexical
phrases or ‘language chunks’ and notes that these phrases are often ‘memorized strings of
speech.’ He goes on to give an example of the word ironic and how it is typically used in
the phrase It is ironic that….. It is this combination of words in larger chunks which leads
Harmer to believe that referring to vocabulary exclusively in terms of words is
insufficient in accounting for the different meanings available to users. Words used in
combination have their own meaning separate from the individual words themselves for
example, put off or dead tired.
Words often have an opposite (antonym) or a synonym (of similar meaning) which may
provide clarity or meaning to a particular lexical item. For example, the word ‘terrible’
19
may be explained to students as the opposite of ‘good’ or as having a similar meaning to
‘bad.’ It is also important to consider whether these meanings are exact or whether they
are loose. Looking at this example, it may be more correct to define the word ‘terrible’ as
‘very bad.’
Another relationship which you may consider is whether there are a set of words
associated with which the particular lexical item might be presented (e.g. boiling, hot,
warm etc.). Furthermore, are there any other words which sound the same (homonyms)
or are spelt the same that might cause confusion?
Grammatical considerations
In addition to exploring the theoretical and practical issues of presenting the meaning of
words and the relationship between words, we will now focus on the grammatical
considerations. When looking at individual items, one may consider how these individual
words interact with each other (grammar / syntax). This may prompt one to think about
what part of speech the lexical item is that you wish to present to your students such as a
verb or adjective. Once it is known what part of speech a word is, we can determine how
it is used in a sentence. Clarification of the part of speech will help learners avoid
confusion as certain words may either be classified as nouns or adjectives for example.
Furthermore, one might consider whether it is possible that other verb tenses may be
formed from it and do students know these for example: adding – ing to walk to form the
continuous form - walking? ; is the item irregular in any way (e.g. in the past, plural)? ;
has one considered whether the item is a countable (apple + s – apples) or an
uncountable (money –money) noun? ; can a prefix or suffix be used with the lexical item
(happy + un – unhappy / create + tion – creation)?
Spelling and pronunciation of words
The spelling and pronunciation of words is important in terms of avoiding ambiguity and
possible confusion in meaning. Assisting students in improving their pronunciation is
very important. There really is very little point in students learning a new word, learning
what it means and how to use it in a sentence, if no one understands them when they say
it because their pronunciation is poor. A learner’s pronunciation should be: intelligible
and unambiguous; good enough to satisfy their personal and examination goals.
Pronunciation encompasses the individual sounds, stress and intonation. One should
remember that students may have difficulties with either aspect of phonology for a
variety of reasons.
It is important to note that various sounds may not in fact exist in the student’s native
language; two sounds may not be differentiated in their native tongue and groupings of
sounds or clusters may appear to be very strange. Each language has its own set of
20
sounds which exist in a particular relationship to one another. The symbols representing
the different sounds of English are taken from the International Phonetic Alphabet. The
English language consists of forty-four sounds. It is these same symbols which are found
in most learner dictionaries and which assist learners in finding the pronunciation of
words for themselves. The phonemic symbols generally refer to British English and the
symbols may be modified to cater for different accents. The phonemic chart is designed
for permanent display at the front of the classroom so that it may be referred to during
any lesson. The phonemic chart can be used for all levels helping teachers to develop a
certain awareness of pronunciation and enabling teachers to respond to the pronunciation
needs of their learners. The phonemic chart can be further utilized in conjunction with
pronunciation materials from a course book. It is also extremely useful for a teacher to
know which sounds used in English do not occur in the native languages of their students,
such as the th in the words bath and bathe. In addition, many English language learners
will have trouble with the English /r/. For second language learners, unfamiliar sounds
may be some of the hardest to pronounce.
Another aspect of pronunciation is word stress. The meaning of words are often
differentiated solely by stress (e.g. decade / decayed). Stressed syllables in English are
usually louder and are often pronounced at a higher pitch than other syllables. A syllable
can be described as a group of sounds that are pronounced together. Syllables which are
stressed have a clear vowel whereas the vowel in an unstressed syllable is usually shorter
and reduced to /ә/. It is therefore important to explain to one’s students that in order to
pronounce a word correctly, they must learn where the stress goes. All vowels listed in
the phonemic chart can occur as full vowels. Stressed syllables always include a full
vowel. Reduced vowels include /ә/ in father and /I/ in music. The most common
unstressed vowel is /ә/. The stress pattern in English is not predictable although there are
rules which may help students decide where to place the stress for example: most nouns
and adjectives are stresses on the first syllable e.g.
□ ▫
modern (n)
□ ▫
friendly (adj)
We have looked at the term stress referring to the stressed syllable in individual words.
However, when a particular word is used in a sentence, these syllables may or may not be
stressed. This is essentially the difference between word stress vs. sentence stress.
Sentences usually have one main stress, and often a few secondary ones. It is this stress
that highlights those content carrying words (usually: nouns, verbs, adjectives). Look at
the following sentence and take note of the underlined stressed syllables:
Ana’s going to fly to Africa on Thursday.
Now, in this example, the speaker’s intended meaning will determine which syllable
carries the most stress. There is also a difference in the pronunciation of the the word to
when it is said on its own and when it is said in the above sentence (/tu:/ vs. /tə/).
Unstressed words in English are often pronounced in a “weak” manner, using short vowel
21
signs (/ə/). This is the most common weak vowel sound and the most common sound in
the English language. It is commonly referred to as the schwa. These weak forms are an
important part of everyday speech and it is important to make learners aware of them. A
large number of words can have a ‘full’ and a ‘weak’ form:
She can / kən / swim faster than I can. / kæn /
weak
full
It is important to explain to one’s students that meaning is often conveyed by stress for
example:
I drive a silver Porsche. In this sentence, the speaker stresses the word silver and it is
clear that that the colour is the important information that is being conveyed. The driver
clearly wants people to know that his/her Porsche is silver and not red.
I drive a silver Porsche. In this sentence, the speaker stresses the word Porsche and it is
clear that it the model which is the important information being conveyed. The driver
clearly wants people to know that he/she drives a Porsche and not a Toyota.
Intonation is used to convey meaning and can be considered the most significant aspect
of pronunciation. The tone (the rise and fall of the voice) or intonation used by a speaker
does not only convey meaning but may also tell us a lot about the speaker’s attitude or
mood. Intonation may also change depending on the particular situation or person.
Intonation begins at a stress in a sentence and may either rise, fall or be flat. Students
often speak English with a flat intonation, which can sound boring or may in some
instances sound rude or offensive. Look at the following greeting and the effect the
intonation has on the attitude conveyed:
Rise
Flat
Fall
Hi
Hi
Hi
(Pleasant Surprise)
(Indifference)
(Cold, lack of interest)
Students often experience problems with intonation for a number of reasons. As
mentioned earlier, students often speak with a flat intonation as their mother tongue may
have a narrower range. Students may also lack the confidence to mimic the various sound
patterns in the classroom environment as they think that they sound funny. In many
instances students simply don’t hear the various sound patterns and need to train their
ears to pick up the subtle differences in sound. Students are often more concerned with
what needs to be said rather than how to actually say it. These problems can be overcome
with the application of a number of pronunciation exercises, activities and limited
drilling.
One should try and remember that spelling is often very difficult for students studying
English because of the lack of correlation between the sound of a word and how it is
actually spelt. This is more than often, not that obvious! A single sound or phoneme may
22
often have a variety of different spellings (e.g. saw, door, sore, four). Furthermore, the
same spelling may also have a variety of different sounds (or, word). In this case, when
one finds students working with different phonemes, one should attempt to draw their
attention to the various different spellings and pronunciations of those phonemes. There
are also various exercises which students can attempt in order to discover different
spelling rules (e.g. ceiling / thief - rule: ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after ‘c’). When students
discover new words you can also go on further to ask them any other words that they
might know with a similar spelling or sound.
Remember to teach your students the most important spelling rule of all: When in doubt,
ask or look it up! But ask first –it’s quicker!
Another issue which further confuses the language learner is the fact that there are
differences between the spelling and pronunciation of British English and American
English (e.g. colour / color). To assist students in this matter, it may be a good idea to get
students to choose British English or American English and to focus on the spelling of
the English they have chosen. Extensive reading is another very important way in which
students can improve their spelling.
Style of words
When looking at a particular lexical item, you might want to consider whether the item is
formal or colloquial (characteristic of informal spoken language). In short, style is to do
with variations in formality. Style can be divided into the following useful categories:
CASUAL
INFORMAL
FORMAL
FROZEN
Coming to the dance then?
Would you like to go to the dance?
You are cordially invited to attend the dance this evening.
PLEASE PURCHASE DANCE TICKETS AT THE COUNTER.
Frozen style is the name that has been given to things like public notices which are
universally recognized wherever you go in an English Speaking country. Furthermore,
you might consider whether the word job is specific, relating to a particular sector,
profession or occupation (e.g. software, hardware)? Another consideration is whether
there are any differences between the words used in British and American English (e.g.
pavement/ sidewalk).
Considering specific lexical and structural errors
It is strongly recommended that teachers attempt to find out as much as possible about
the typical linguistic difficulties that their students may face when learning English. This
will enable the teacher to better understand the specific needs of their students and is a
useful starting point for addressing these needs. This may however be more difficult in a
23
multilingual classroom. Refer to the typical lexical and structural errors of Malay
Speakers (Malaysian):
Lexical / Structural Errors
Noun Groups
o Singular / plural –s
o Countable vs. uncountable nouns
o Possessive’s – omission of the ‘s
o Word building (choosing affixes)
Prepositions
o General confusion
Adjectives / Adverbs
o -ed added / omitted
o -ly added / omitted
o -Confusion with very / much /more
Verbs
o Omission of endings (-s/-ed/-ing)
o Omission of ‘be’ / unnecessary addition
e.g. I am go… / He was been…
o Formation and use of tenses
o Continuous vs. simple forms
o Active vs. passive use
Clause and Sentence
o Word order in direct questions
o Tag questions (isn’t it?)
o Omission of object e.g. I like.
o Lack of use of relative pronoun
o Overuse of complex forms at lower
levels / the reverse at higher levels
Choice and Range of Lexis
o Outdated items e.g. spectacles vs.
glasses
o Often over formal
o Style is mixed e.g. I have 2 siblings and
4 kids
o Abbreviated forms
Remembering Vocabulary
In the course of this essay, we have so far focused on the theoretical and practical issues
related to the presentation of lexical forms. We will now concentrate on how one assists
one’s learners in remembering the vocabulary they have learnt. Research suggests that
unless we use the information that is stored regularly, it will slowly disappear from our
memory. You as a teacher therefore need to provide your students with the necessary
tools to improve their retrieval ability. It can therefore be said, that by giving the students
opportunities to revise vocabulary in the classroom they will be better able to remember.
Students often write new vocabulary items in their exercise books or specially designated
vocabulary note books. These lists are often not looked at again and prove to be a waste
of time. It is therefore a good idea to help students record new vocabulary learned in such
a manner as to allow easy recall. Learning a set or category is often easier for students to
learn and remember than learning seemingly unrelated words in a list. Students could be
encouraged to create word spiders (word maps) or tables where relationships between
24
different words are visually presented in a diagrammatic format. Students could be left to
decide for themselves where the new words fit on the plan. Refer to the example of a
word spider / word map below:
Other ideas that one may want to point out to one’s students are the benefits of adding
things like:
 the phonemic transcription in order to aid them with pronunciation
 simple definitions or components of meaning,
 example sentences where the particular item occurs
 antonyms
One could also give one’s students a piece of paper with several blocks on it. Their
vocabulary words go in the upper left corner of each block, with a short definition in the
box directly below. In the upper second block goes an antonym of the vocabulary word,
and in the lower second block, a drawing of the definition of the word. The third lower
block is reserved for the phonemic script. The fourth lower block is where the student
writes a sentence using the word (in context). Refer to the example below:
25
Conclusion
During the course of this essay we have explored the teaching of vocabulary with specific
consideration of both the theoretical and practical issues in presenting lexical forms. We
have looked at the meaning of words; the relationship between words; grammatical
considerations; the spelling and pronunciation of words; the style of words; the
consideration of specific and structural errors and remembering vocabulary. With the
acceptance of Communicative Language Teaching as the accepted norm with regard to
current teaching methods, vocabulary was no longer viewed as a means of memorizing
lists of words but as a process of internalizing words in meaningful contexts. This, as
mentioned earlier, led to its own problem with little attention being given to the
importance of vocabulary as teachers strived to present authentic, meaningful language in
the communicative classroom. As noted by Brown (2001) we simply moved from one
extreme to another where vocabulary and grammar took center stage with little regard to
language forms, to vocabulary teaching being given very little attention. He further adds
that we now seem to have a new gained respect for the place of vocabulary teaching in
the interactive classroom which allows the teacher to find better techniques for presenting
vocabulary in the communicative classroom.
The theoretical and practical issues in presenting lexical forms are extremely complex
and require the teacher to consider many aspects. It may however not be practical to
consider all aspects in the course of a lesson without detracting from the central focus of
the activity. It is therefore important for the teacher to decide whether a particular lexical
item be dealt with briefly or whether it may deserve further attention in a subsequent
lesson. Whatever the circumstances and the decision of the teacher, it is important to note
that vocabulary should be presented in a meaningful context.
26
References
Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc – second edition.
Geyser, J. Peter. 2006. English to the World: Teaching Methodology Made Easy. August
Publishing.
Geyser, J. Peter. 2006. English to the World: Teaching Writing Made Easy. August
Publishing.
Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education
Limited.
27
Dictionaries
From ICALwiki
A Dictionary is an alphabetical list of words with their meanings. Some dictionaries may
also include the etymology of the word, examples of usage, pronunciation (either using
the IPA or some other system) and cultural notes. Dictionaries for learners will often
include pictures as well.
Dictionaries in the Classroom
There are two main types of dictionaries found in ELT: English-English and Bilingual.
The former is in English only. It may be written specifically for learners of English or
native speakers, for example. The latter is written for translation with English alongside
another language often offering a straight 1:1 translation of words.
The use of English-English or Bilingual dictionaries will depend on your view of using
the MT in the classroom.
Practical Usage
Most teachers will assume that students understand how to use a dictionary. However,
many students will not understand nor will they have ever been taught how to use a
dictionary.
So, perhaps the first step if you want to use a dictionary in the classroom is a simple
lesson on how to use a dictionary. Then, you must be sure the dictionary is of the right
level and complexity for your class. There are simple Picture Dictionaries which are
excellent teaching aids for beginners but all but useless for advanced students; likewise a
high level Learners Dictionary may well be too difficult for a beginner to use.
However, as long as the dictionary is of the right level and is well written, it is a very
useful learning tool for the classroom and students should be encouraged to use it.
28
Choosing a Dictionary
There are dictionaries and there are dictionaries. Choosing the right one depends on the
reason you will be using it.
Here's a quick checklist:
How old is the dictionary?
Check the copyright to make sure it's up to date. Have a look to see if it contains
relatively new words such as ADSL, broadband or viral marketing.
Can you understand the definitions?
Before buying, check a word definition against several dictionaries to see which one you
can understand the best. Is the definition in plain English or do you need to look up words
in the definition to understand it? Are there examples of usage? Does it offer variations of
the word (e.g. verb, adjective and noun forms?)
Importantly, check out the pronunciation guide; can you understand it easily?
Who is it for?
If the dictionary is going to be used in class it's often wise to select a Learner's Dictionary
written specifically for foreign learners of English. The explanations there are often
easily understood and more obscure words are omitted.
29
Timelines
From ICALwiki
Timelines are a teaching aid we use to help explain how different tenses are used. They
are a visual representation of the passage of time.
This is an empty timeline:
Here, the timeline shows an event in the past (last night) and can be used to explain the
Past Simple:
Last night we ate curry.
For explaining continuous tenses, we tend to use a wiggly line:
Next month he is making a film.
Timeline Activities
Life Timelines
An interesting activity for the classroom is getting the students to prepare a Life
Timeline. Ideally the teacher should prepare their own timeline first as an example and to
encourage the students with their timelines.
30
This is an abbreviated version. It contains both serious and frivolous items.
There are different ways of exploiting this idea.
1) Students prepare their own timelines. They are all anonymous; the teacher collects
them and hands out one at random to a student who reads it out: In 1984 this person went
to Spain; in 1988 they were living in Seoul; next year they are going to France on
holiday, etc with the rest of the class trying to guess who it is.
2) Students interview and prepare timelines for each other. When were you born? When
did you go to university? How long have you been married? When are you going to
graduate?
Timeline Conversion
Using an timeline (historical ones are useful here) students can convert between them and
written texts. For example, give the students a timeline of the highlights of space
exploration. From this they must write a narrative based on that timeline:
In 1957 Sputnik 1 was launched. It was the first man-made object in space...
Alternatively, give the students a written text and ask them to read it for comprehension
and then prepare a timeline based on the salient facts in that text.
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Timelines"
31
Video in the Classroom
From ICALwiki
Video
This article is on how to use a video in the classroom. It describes the basic technique so
that you - and your students - make the most of this valuable resource. (Note that this also
applies to DVDs.)
Before the Lesson
Make sure the video is set up in the right place and ready to roll. Make sure the
equipment is set up and functioning properly. You don't want to start the lesson then
spend ten minutes to discover the plug doesn't fit the socket.
Before you Start
Introduce the subject. Don't just wade in with the video, but set the scene. This might
mean a quick discussion on the subject or perhaps going over some vocabulary the
students are likely to encounter and have problems with.
One idea is to write up the words you encounter on the board and then use these with the
class in trying to guess what will happen in the video.
Playing the Video
Don't turn on the video and sit at the back of the classroom yawning. You should make
the video as interactive as possible. That means stop and start it almost scene by scene.
Check for understanding and use prediction to find out what's going to happen next.
Begin by getting the students to look for specific things in the video. For example, "What
kind of shop does the man work in?" or "How many people are in the car." Then, when
the video is playing, freeze frame it after each question could be answered and check that
the students have understood what's going on.
32
Stop the video at crucial story points in the action and check for understanding.
After the first viewing you can ask some general comprehension questions to see what
else the students have understood.
Variations on a Theme







Try stopping the video after a pertinent piece of dialogue and ask the students
what they think will be said next.
Turn the sound down and see if the students can work out some rough dialogue.
Turn the picture off (cover the screen) and play the sound; students work out what
the visuals are all about.
Dictation. Instead of you speaking and the students writing, the actor speaks and
while you pause the video, the students write the dialogue down.
Half the students watch the video with no sound. Half listen to the sound with no
picture. They meet in the middle to piece together the whole thing.
Half the students watch the first half of the video and half the students watch the
second half. They meet in the middle to piece together the whole thing.
Half the students listen to the video with their back to the screen. Each has a
partner who explains to them what is happening (as the teacher pauses after each
scene).
After the Event




Cloze Tests using the dialogue from the video.
Cartoon bubbles (if you can, from screen captures) which the students fill with
dialog to match a particular moment from the video.
Interviews. Several students play the characters in the video and other students
interview them. If it's a well known video film students can also "play" the actors,
e.g. "My name's Brad Pitt and this is my latest movie."
Role Plays. The students can practice scenes from the video either using genuine
dialogue or their own version.
Freer Discussion Topics



Was the video good? How was the acting? What about the settings and locations?
Was the plot believable? What happened to the characters after the end of the
video? Why did a character behave in a certain way?
Which character do the students identify with? What would the students have
done in a similar situation?
Retrieved "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Video_in_the_Classroom"
33
Phonetics
From ICALwiki
Phonetics is the branch of linguistics which studies the sounds of speech and they way in
which they are interpreted. Contrast this with Phonology which is the study of the sound
system of a language.
Phonetics looks at the way in which sounds are produced (the position of the tongue, the
lips, etc) and the way in which sounds are perceived (i.e. the way in which the ear works)
and interpreted by the brain.
Pronunciation
In practical terms, phonetics deals with pronunciation of English. There is, of course, no
single pronunciation which is correct but instead a number of variations: British English,
American English, Australian English and so on. Some differences between these
variants are due to pronunciation but others are due to grammatical differences.
Alongside the pronunciation of different sounds in English is word stress, that is which
syllable is stressed in a word and sentence stress and intonation.
The IPA
Of critical importance in the study of phonetics is the use of the IPA or International
Phonetic Alphabet. Knowledge of this will enable anyone to pronounce English
accurately and also explain to others how to pronounce English accurately.
There are numerous reasons to use the IPA including:



having a standard from which to teach
allowing students to use their dictionaries more effectively
giving the teacher a shortcut reference to explain to students certain sounds
Selective Sounds
Teachers can be selective in which sounds they teach and focus on. For example, the
most common sound in English is the schwa which is represented thus: /ə/ (similar to a
reversed and upside-down letter 'e'). If the students learn this symbol only it will help
with their pronunciation of numerous words: taken, medium, brother and so on.
34
Teaching the Past Continuous
From ICALwiki
This is a simple way of practicing the Past Continuous. I've used it several times with my
(small) classes and it provides a method of practice where students can see the use of the
tense.
1. Prepare a large sheet of paper; in the middle draw (or photocopy/paste) a picture of a
row of houses. Around the edge of the paper paste pictures of different people involved in
different household activities, e.g. washing, brushing teeth, watching tv, etc.
2. Explain to the students that the time frame is yesterday evening and this is what was
happening in the street. Begin yourself by pointing to the first and second characters and
saying, "While Jane was playing the piano, her mother was cleaning the house."
The next student must then say, "While her mother was cleaning the house, next door Mr.
Jones was watching television."
And round it goes.
A further exercise can be used to contrast the use of the past continuous with the past
simple. Point to the first picture and show a possible interruption: "While Jane was
playing the piano, her friend knocked at the door."
35
Language Functions
From ICALwiki
When we talk about Language Functions, we are talking about the reason we use a
language.
At its most basic, the function of language is communication; we use language to give
and receive messages between ourselves.
We can break this down into Language Functions. When we communicate with language
we can:













compare and contrast
make a complaint
express love or anger
persuade someone
give advice
ask for something
ask for something politely
hide the truth (lie)
warn
give information
explain a process
apportion blame
avoid saying anything
and so on.
Each language function can be associated with certain grammatical forms. For example,
when we are being polite we often use modal verbs:
Might I borrow your pen?
Compare this to when the language function is one of demanding:
Give me your pen!
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Functions"
36
Vocabulary
From ICALwiki
A game of Scrabble
The Vocabulary is the collection of words in a language.
Size & Origin
In English there are estimated to be roughly 1,000,000 words in the language; this is a
huge increase on the 50,000 words available in Old English. These words are generally
derived from one of several main sources:




Germanic (including Old English and Old Norse, back through Proto-IndoEuropean) for common pronouns, basic family relationships, common animals
and verbs
Latin for more formal and scientific words which are regarded as more educated
French (which is itself derived from Latin) for legal and other terms
Greek for medical and political terms
The reason for the large numbers of words in the vocabulary is partly due to the ability of
English to easily import new words. Thus there are approximate synonyms such as come
or arrive the former from a Germanic origin, the latter from a Latin origin. However, they
are not exact synonyms as they offer a subtle difference in meaning and flavour.
Of the most common words in English, almost all are Germanic in origin.
Personal Vocabulary
Part of the problem in assessing how many words there are in a language and how many
an individual knows is the differing opinions of what constitutes a word.
Is, for example, the verb walk the same as the noun walk? Is the verb walk the same as
walks or walking or walked?
37
Looking at personal vocabulary it is estimated that




Shakespeare had a vocabulary of between 18,000 - 25,000 words
A good college graduate has a vocabulary of 40,000 words
A school leaver will have roughly 16,000 words
The average vocabulary is 20,000 words
Interestingly, however, although the average vocabulary is 20,000 words, most people
use about 2,000 words for 90% of the time (especially in spoken communication).
For learners



Beginner: < 2,000
Intermediate: ~ 5,000
Advanced: ~ 10,000
Determining Word Frequency (a list of words ranked according to popularity of use) is
usually achieved by counting words in a corpus. The difficulty here is that depending on
which corpus is used the word list varies.
Active vs Passive Vocabulary
Active vocabulary comprises the words which a person uses regularly in their everyday
speech or writing. Typically, however, they will have a much larger Passive vocabulary.
These are words which a person may understand but which they will not use when
speaking or writing. It is common, in addition, for written vocabulary is larger than
spoken vocabulary.
For example, a native speaker will likely be able to read and understand:
The inequity in the distribution of wealth in Australia is yet another indicator of
Australia's lack of egalitarianism. In 1995, 20% of the Australian population owned
72.2% of Australia's wealth with the top 50% owning 92.1%. Such a significant skew in
the distribution of wealth indicates that, at least in terms of economics, there is an
established class system in Australia. McGregor argues that Australian society can be
categorised into three levels: the Upper, Middle and Working classes. In addition, it has
been shown that most Australians continue to remain in the class into which they were
born despite arguments about the ease of social mobility in Australian society. The issue
of class and its inherent inequity, however, is further compounded by factors such as race
and gender within and across these class divisions.
However, when asked to say what they have read, a person may well paraphrase it as:
Australia isn't equal and this is shown by the wealth in the country not being shared out
equally. In 1995 20% of the people owned over 70% of the wealth and the top few owned
over 90%. This difference shows there is a class system at work when it comes to money.
38
There is an Upper, Middle and Working class and most Australians don't move out of the
class where they were born even thought they talk about how easy it is to move between
classes. But as well as money there's also class issues when it comes to sex and race.
Divisions
As well as the vocabulary being divided grammatical into Parts of Speech, there are
major divisions which can be made within the vocabulary itself:




basic words (see above, about 2,000 words take care of most of our needs)
slang
jargon
technical or scientific words
39
Participles
From ICALwiki
A Participle is a verb form. In English there are two participles


Present Participle
Past Participle
The Present Participle
The present participle ends in -ing




walking
talking
eating
sleeping
We use the present participle to form the Continuous Tenses:
He is sleeping.
They were laughing.
It can also be used as an adjective or a noun in some cases.
The Past Participle
The past participle usually ends in -ed


walked
talked
Irregular verbs have different irregular formations


ate
slept
The past participle is used to form the Perfect Tenses:
He have walked these hills many times.
He has slept for 18 hours!
The past participle can sometimes be used as a noun.
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Participles"
40
Gerunds
From ICALwiki
Sometimes we need to use a verb as the subject or object of a sentence. In this case we
can use the gerund.
We make the gerund by adding -ing to the base form of the verb. The gerund has exactly
the same form as the present participle of the verb:
Walking keeps me fit.
I like fishing.
In different grammars gerunds are also known as verbal nouns or -ing forms. For all
intents and purposes, these have the same meaning.
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Gerunds"
41
Modal Verbs
From ICALwiki
There are not many modal verbs: can, could, dare*, need*, may, might, must, shall,
should, will, would. There are also modal constructions: be able to, ought to, be allowed
to.
They always come first in a verb formation, before other auxiliaries and the main verb:
{modal} + [auxiliary] + {main verb}
N.B. Modal verbs do not take a final -s for the third person singular. The verb which
follows is always in the infinitive form:
He might be...
They should stay...
She could have...
We can use them with the -ing form to show continuous modality:
{modal} + {be} + {-ing}
He might be working late.
They should be coming soon.
He must be having a party.
We can use them with the past participle to show past modality:
{modal} + {have} + {past participle}
He might have been working late.
They should have seen him.
He must have gone away.
We can use be able to, be allowed to and have [got] to after modals:
{modal} + {phrase}
I will be able to...
She might not be allowed to...
They should have to...
Note that we do not use these in continuous forms.
42
We use modal verbs to show...
what we think or feel about a situation:
They should not have gone.
They might have been working hard.
ability to do something:
They can't speak fluently.
He could beat the record easily.
necessity:
He must stop.
They should stop.
possibility:
He could be there.
They might not win.
*DARE is regarded as a marginal modal verb because of its restricted usage - either in
negative polarity or in the idiomatic "I dare say..." form. However, both structurally and
semantically it does function within the system of modality, although in a limited way.
NEED can be used as an ordinary verb, meaning "must have" e.g. I need a new coat. But
in British English, NEED can also be used as a modal verb, e.g. You needn't pay for my
dinner. In this case, there is no "s" with the 3rd person singular, and questions and
negatives are made without "do" e.g. Need we re ally go now?
43
Collocation
From ICALwiki
Collocation is the way in which words are associated with and are used together with
other words.
For example, we use the verb complain with the preposition about rather than for:
I wish to complain about the service in this hotel.
* I wish to complain for the service in this hotel.
All words collocate to a certain extent. Like people, they tend to come together into the
same groups again and again and they stand out when they are not in their usual place
and surrounded by strangers.
There are no rules with collocation and learning which word goes where is a matter of
reading and absorbing. It can often be useful to have students look at collocations when
learning a new word in order not only to learn the meaning of the word, but also where it
collocates. The system of finding how and where words collocate is called
concordancing.
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Collocation"
44
Intonation
From ICALwiki
Pitch variation in the utterance “Will you have marmalade or jam?”
In linguistic terms intonation is the system of rising and falling levels, as well as
variations in pitch sequences, within speech.
In simpler terms intonation is a melody that belongs to an entire sentence.
Intonation is about how we say things, rather than what we say. Intonation helps us
understand the expressions and thoughts that go with words and it helps communication.
Incorrect intonation can cause misunderstandings, loss of interest in what is being said or
even taking offence at what is being said!
English language learners should be made aware of the importance of intonation and how
it can improve their speaking and listening.
Activity
Explain that in English you have to give stress to certain words to deliver certain
meanings. Go through a brain storming session to elicit some of the feelings we can
convey through the appropriate intonation: disappointment, excitement, anger, surprise,
happiness, annoyance, boredom, indifference, and so on.
Put on the board a simple A - B dialogue and get the students to read it out loud in a
fairly neutral tone.
A:
Hi, how are you?
B:
Fine, thanks. And you?
A:
Very good. What are you up to these days?
B:
Not much, but I’m always running around.
45
A:
I see. Well...I’ve got to go now. See you.
B:
Yes, see you...bye!
A:
Goodbye.
Get your students to repeat this mini dialogue over and over in a neutral tone. It should
almost become a mantra! Then have them practice in pairs, still keeping a neutral tone.
Have ready some index cards where you have briefly outlined a scenario. Be inventive!
Here are some possible scenarios.







two actors out of work
a sick person in hospital and friend who visits
two old people who are all but deaf
a divorced couple
a landlady and her overdue tenant
two people who have met before, but can't remember where
two old friends who run into each other on a railway platform
Give each pair a card. [This is for their eyes only and they must not reveal its content to
anyone else]
Get each pair to practice the dialogue they have just memorized using intonation, gestures
and body language to suit their assigned scenario.
After each pair has practiced it for about 5 min call them up and have them perform the
dialogue in front of the class.
The class will have to guess the scenario.
The idea behind this activity is that by giving a different intonation to the same A - B
dialogue they can appreciate the importance of intonation in speaking.
from an idea by Steve O'Connor, ESL teacher in Chengdu PRC
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Intonation"
46
Learning English as a second language in adulthood
By: Jason Geyser
Introduction
There are fundamental differences in the way children and adults learn second languages.
Second language acquisition is incredibly complex and there are so many processes
which underlie the learning of a second language in adults. Understanding the ways in
which adults learn second languages and the differences in the way children and adults
learn second languages, has significant implications for TESOL. Considering the
differences will allow us to effectively evaluate the methods we apply and the decisions
we make when teaching adults. As is generally known, there are a number of commonly
held beliefs about age and second language acquisition. Some people are the opinion that
children acquire languages more quickly and less effortlessly than adults. Pinker (1994)
suggests that language acquisition is guaranteed for young children until the age of
puberty and rare thereafter. This, he says, applies to both first language and second
language acquisition. Others believe that adults are faced with numerous barriers to
learning which is why they rarely meet with much success. Harmer (2001) although
accepting that there is some truth in many of these beliefs, these assumptions suggest that
everyone is the same. This is simply not the case. Much of the focus of this essay will
consider a comparison of second language acquisition in children and adults with
particular emphasis on learning English as a second language in adulthood. To further
explore these issues, we will examine the neurological, cognitive, affective and linguistic
considerations of age and language acquisition. Due the complexities of many of the
issues, the wide range of contributing factors underlying many of these considerations
and the constraints of such an essay, it is not possible to cover all aspects in any
considerable detail. A general overview however, of the many variables in second
language acquisition will provide significant perspectives on learning English as a second
language in adulthood.
Neurological Considerations
At the centre of issue of age and language acquisition, is whether there is a critical period
for language acquisition. The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) put forward the idea
that there is in fact a neurological ‘critical period’ for acquiring a first language and that
learning a second language within this so-called ‘window’ period would lead to nativelike fluency. This idea was further promulgated by Lenneberg (1967) who stated that
after the ‘critical period’ the two hemispheres of the brain become specialized in what
was termed the process of cerebral lateralization. This resulted in a loss of plasticity.
Supporting evidence came from studies of children and adults who had suffered similar
brain injuries affecting those areas of the brain responsible for speech. There is argument
and debate as to the age at which this process of lateralization occurs. Lenneberg (1967)
suggested that the critical period for second language acquisition occurs around the age
47
of puberty. Krashen (1973) on the other hand, believed this process to be complete by the
age of five.
Neurological research has shown evidence that certain functions are assigned to either the
left or right hemispheres of the brain. It would therefore appear that language functions
are essentially controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain. As Brown (2000) points
out; an accident victim suffering damage to the left hemisphere of the brain will suffer a
degree of language impairment less likely if that person had suffered damage to the right
hemisphere. He also goes on further to point out that some patients who suffer similar
injuries to the left hemisphere of the brain have been able to understand and produce
amazing amounts of language. Children who suffered injury to the left hemisphere of the
brain before the age of puberty were able to re-assign linguistic functions to the right
hemisphere and effectively re-learn their first language. Thomas Scovel (1969) suggested
that the plasticity of a child’s brain enables them to acquire both a first and second
language. He concludes that it is this process of lateralization that makes it difficult for
people to acquire fluent command of a second language. Scovel’s research considered the
possibility that the critical period hypothesis can be extended beyond first language
acquisition to include second language acquisition.
The Critical Period Hypothesis assumes that it is near impossible to successfully learn a
language after the age of twelve or thirteen. Evidence has yet to confirm that
lateralization in fact impairs the ability to acquire a second language. This assumption
seems to highlight the role of accent as a determining factor in successful language
learning.
Although some adults have been known to acquire an authentic accent in a second
language, such cases are relatively few and isolated. Research supports the notion of a
critical period in the acquisition of authentic control of the phonology (accent) of a
second language. Brown (2000) refers to the hundreds of muscles used in the articulation
of speech. It is these muscles which gradually develop until the age of puberty; when
complete phonemic control is attained. Different languages require different muscles to
produce the sounds unique to that particular language and it is more difficult for adults to
reproduce these new sounds. Flege (1980) supported this idea with research that
concluded that sounds which occurred in the first language were easier to reproduce in
the second language than those that never occurred. Adults must therefore mimic new
articulatory gestures, which seem easier for children while still in the earlier stages of
developing phonetic patterns in their first language.
Further compelling evidence for a critical period in the acquisition of authentic control of
the phonology (accent) of a second language came from Scovel’s (1998) evidence for a
sociobiological critical period in various species of mammals and birds. This evidence
pointed toward the development of accent at puberty in order to establish bonds of social
community and to attract mates in order to continue the species. Walsh and Diller (1981)
further concluded that different aspects of a second language are learned better at
different ages of maturity. Pronunciation was seen as being dependant on early maturing
which explained why foreign accents were difficult to mimic after childhood. Functions
48
such as semantic relations however, were more dependant on the later maturing process
explaining why college students showed greater command of grammar and vocabulary
than elementary students.
Research on age and accent acquisition provides us with strong evidence of a critical
period for accent. Brown (2000) however, cautions against regarding pronunciation of a
second language as the most important criterion for acquisition. Acquisition of the
communicative and functional purposes of a language is, in most cases, seen as more
important than the command of a near perfect native accent. Brown makes reference to
the former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger who had a distinct German accent, yet
who was more eloquent in his use of the English language than most native English
speakers. Cook (1952:52) warns against using native accent as the yardstick in upholding
the standard of monoligualism.
Cognitive Considerations
In the previous discussion we focused on the neurological and phonological
considerations and their impact on learning English as a second language in adulthood.
We will know discuss the cognitive considerations such as a cognitive critical period;
capacity for abstract thought; ambiguity tolerance; rote and meaningful learning; aptitude
and intelligence; reflectivity and impulsivity; visual and auditory input and their role in
learning a second language in adulthood. Piaget (1972) outlined the various stages of
intellectual development in childhood. He suggests that cognitively, there is a critical
period of language acquisition which develops rapidly during the first sixteen years and
less rapidly thereafter. It is at the age of puberty, that a person becomes capable of
formal, abstract thought and is able to understand a context-reduced segment of
language. Ausubel (1964) further supported this consideration by stating that adults may
in fact benefit from dissecting and examining certain linguistic items, which would
otherwise be pointless for a child. The benefits of such explanations however, depend on
the explanation of the teacher and its suitability within the context.
It is important to consider the question of whether an adult’s capacity for formal and
abstract thought has a facilitating or inhibiting effect on second language learning. Ellen
Rosansky (1975) attempted an explanation by noting that a child is egocentric, lacking
flexibility when initial language acquisition takes place. She further states that as children
are not aware that they are acquiring language, it may be possible that this lack of
flexibility on their part may be necessary for language acquisition. This leads her to the
conclusion that difficulty in learning a second language in adulthood may therefore arise
because they are consciously aware of what they are doing. Counterevidence would
assume that the superior intellect of an adult should facilitate the complex nature of
learning a second language. Furthermore, evidence has shown that successful adult
second language learners have been extremely conscious of the processes of language
acquisition. Another suggestion comes from our earlier discussion on the processes of
lateralization, where the left hemisphere of the brain (controlling analytical and
intellectual functions) takes dominance, leading adults to overanalyze the processes of
49
second language learning. Moreover, the superior intellect of adults and by virtue of their
age, allows them to draw on a variety of life experiences.
Continuing with the cognitive domain, we will consider the Piagetian notion of
equilibration which refers to the development of cognition as a process of moving from
situations of uncertainty (disequilibrium) to situations of certainty (equilibrium). Piaget
(1970) suggested that up to the age of puberty, these periods of uncertainty
(disequilibrium) marked cognitive development. It is at this age of fourteen or fifteen that
this process becomes organized and equilibrium is reached. Piaget claimed that it is this
period of disequilibrium (where the child is cognitively ready) which provides the
motivation necessary for language acquisition. As a result of equilibrium being reached
and the development of intellectual maturity, the child becomes increasingly aware of
contradictions and ambiguities. It is at this stage that the learner becomes aware of the
complexities of learning a second language and therefore becomes discouraged when
faced with the ‘whole picture’ as opposed to a child who approaches the activity a little
step at a time. This intolerance of contradictions and ambiguities may be an inhibitive
factor in the learning of a second language as the adult becomes to rigid and narrow
minded.
An obvious shortcoming of this notion is that it assumes that all adults are intolerant of
ambiguities. Some adults are in fact more open minded and tolerant of ambiguity than
others. As Brown (2000) notes, there is a great deal of contradictory information when
encountering a second language and the person who is tolerant of ambiguity will be less
affected by the ambiguities of learning a second language. Excessive tolerance, on the
other hand, may inhibit successful integration of linguistic rules allowing the person to
become accepting of almost every proposition placed before them. Research conducted
by Chapelle and Roberts (1986), in studying learners of English as a second language in
Illinois, found that those students with a high tolerance of ambiguity were slightly more
successful in some language tasks. Although these findings do show that ambiguity
tolerance is a factor worth consideration in second language learning, the evidence is far
from compelling. In my experience, adults tend to be more disciplined, on the whole, and
unlike children they have a clear understanding of why they are learning and what they
hope to gain. Adults generally have clear and definite goals and are able to maintain high
levels of motivation necessary for successful learning of a second language.
An important consideration of the cognitive domain is the distinction between rote and
meaningful learning. Brown (2000) makes the comparison between adults learning a
second language utilizing rote methods and children learning a second language in a
natural, meaningful context. In this situation, the child’s learning meets with greater
success which would suggest that perhaps this success is not attributed to the age of the
person but to the context in which the learning takes place. For the child, the learning
process is meaningful, whereas for the adult it is not. As mentioned earlier, adults can
engage with abstract thought which would imply that adults do not have to rely on
activities which are exclusively meaningful as they can draw on a diverse range of
experiences. Although authenticity and meaningfulness are still important, adults may
find it easier to understand a context-reduced segment of language.
50
One of the most controversial issues in learning a second language is the relevance of
aptitude and intelligence. Do some people in fact have a natural or a so-called ‘knack’
for learning foreign languages? The emergence of the Modern Language Aptitude Test
(MLAT) in 1958 and the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) in 1966 were
intended to predict the success a learner could expect in learning a foreign language.
Initially, these tests met with success, but this steadily declined as it became apparent that
these tests measured the general intelligence of a student with little no regard to factors of
motivation and determination. Another problem arose with the actual interpretation of a
language aptitude test and the self-fulfilling prophecy of either success or failure.
Weaknesses in the constructs of aptitude or ‘knack’ in learning a foreign language, as
Brown (2000) noted, has focused attention on the question of intelligence and foreign
language learning.
In relating intelligence to second language learning, we may be tempted to state that an
intelligent person would meet with success as memory has an important role in the
learning process. Traditionally, intelligence has been defined in terms of our notion of IQ
(intelligence quotient) which measures linguistic and logical mathematical abilities.
Gardner (1983) proposed a controversial theory of intelligence which added five more
forms of intelligence: special, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and
intrapersonal .Musical intelligence attributed to the ease at which some learners perceived
and produced intonation patterns of a language. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence attributed
to the learning of the phonology of a language. Interpersonal intelligence had relevance in
the communicative process while intrapersonal intelligence referred to personality factors
that contribute to language learning. Gardner further showed that our Westernized
definition of intelligence was culture-bound and did not account for the ‘sixth sense’ of a
hunter in Guinea or the navigational abilities of a sailor in Micronesia. Goleman gave
credence to the bias of traditional tests of intelligence by placing emotion at the forefront
of driving and controlling intellectual functioning.
Brown (2000:101) concludes that with the expansion by Gardner of the constructs of
traditional intelligence (IQ), we are able to discern a relationship between intelligence
and second language learning’ as ‘people within a wide range of IQs have proven to be
successful in acquiring a second language’. Brown also suggests that Goleman’s
emotional quotient may be one of the most important factors accounting for second
language success.
The implications of reflectivity and impulsivity are numerous for language acquisition.
Research in the cognitive domain has been conducted to determine the degree to which
people make impulsive (quick) guesses at a solution to a problem or more reflective
(calculated) decisions. Doron (1973), in her study relating to adult second language
learners, revealed that reflective learners were more accurate, yet slower than impulsive
learners when it came to reading. Jamieson (1992), in another study of adult ESL
learners, revealed that ‘fast accurate’ learners were better language learners as measured
by the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). She however warned against
assuming that impulsive learners were always accurate, as some of her subjects were fast
yet inaccurate. Brown (2000) concludes that reflectivity and impulsivity have some
51
important impacts for second language learning and teaching. He mentions that teachers
often judge mistakes too harshly especially when dealing with impulsive learners who are
more willing to take a risk at offering an answer than their more reflective counterparts.
The teacher may also have to exercise a greater deal of patience with a reflective person,
allowing them more response time. Brown further conceives that impulse people make
rapid stage transitions in terms of second language learning whereas reflective people
may remain longer at a certain stage.
Another important dimension in the way in which learners learn a foreign language in a
formal classroom setting, is the preference which the display towards either visual or
auditory input. Visual learners prefer reading and studying graphic information whereas
auditory learners prefer to listen to lectures. As Brown (2000) noted, successful learners
generally utilize both visual and auditory input, although tending to ‘lean; slightly to one
or the other. Joy Reid (1987) conducted a study of adult ESL learners using a selfreporting questionnaire where subjects rated their own preferences on a five point scale
ranging from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’. Results showed that Korean students
were more visually orientated than English speaking Americans and Japanese and
Chinese students were the least auditory. Factors such as gender, academic field of study
and level of education were found to have an impact on the preferences of her subjects.
These findings highlighted the importance of recognizing the various style preferences of
learners and of not assuming that they are necessarily related to cultural and linguistic
factors alone.
Affective Considerations
We should never underestimate the emotional factors that are associated with the
learning of a second language. Humans are essentially emotional beings. This brings us
to the affective (emotional) domain which includes a variety of variables such as
empathy, self esteem, anxiety, inhibition, extroversion – to mention but a few. Brown
(2000) suggests that egocentricity assumes an important role in human development.
Young children are seen as being extremely egocentric, with themselves at the ‘centre of
their universe’. Brown illustrates this point with the analogy of a baby holding a rattle;
the rattle merely being an extension of the baby and ceasing to exist when dropped. With
time, children are seen as becoming more self-conscious as they seek to define their own
identities and thereafter developing inhibitions about this self-identity in preadolescence.
During puberty, these inhibitions are heightened with the onset of physical, cognitive
and emotional changes.
Alexander Guiora (Guiora et al. 1972b) proposed what he termed the language ego when
researching the different personality variables in second language learning. Guiora
claimed that one’s self-identity is inseparable and connected to one’s language as it is
through this communicative process that such self-identities are ultimately shaped and
molded. Guiora suggested that it is the language ego that may inhibit second language
learning in adulthood. The child’s ego is seen as being dynamic and flexible with a new
language posing little threat to the ego. The onset of physical, cognitive and emotional
52
changes around the age of puberty gives rise to a language ego defensive mechanism
which in turn results in a real fear of taking risks or making a fool of oneself when
speaking a second language. Young children are less concerned with making mistakes as
they are less aware of language forms. Brown (2000) concludes that adults must
overcome a defensive wall of inhibitions which protect the ego in order to become
successful second language learners. Overcoming these inhibitions however, and
assuming a second identity is no easy feat, yet may present less of a threat to those
people who already acquired a second language as children and are attempting to learn a
third in adulthood. It is these inhibitions which surface in both the language classroom
and the non-classroom setting.
Brown (2000) refers to the important affective variable of peer pressure when
comparing child-adult learning of a second language. Children are exposed to a greater
degree of pressure to conform and it is this pressure which extends to language. Adults,
on the other hand, experience less peer pressure and are more tolerant of linguistic
differences. Errors in a second language in adults will usually be politely excused,
encouraging them to be more complacent. Children however, are less tolerant of
differences and harsh criticism will often apply a necessary pressure on children to learn
the second language.
We will now consider a number of specific personality factors in human behaviour and
their effects on second language learning. We begin with the role of attitude in second
language learning. It seems obvious that a negative attitude towards learning any skill
will have an affect on acquiring success. Macnamara (1975) noted that a child, who is
uprooted from their country and settled on a foreign country, will quickly learn the
language of their adopted country irrespective of their feelings towards the native people.
Macnamara goes on to mention that as a child reaches school age they begin to acquire
attitudes to stereotypes of people which are learnt from their parents or peers. It is these
negative attitudes towards the speakers of the second language which will inhibit learning
of this language in school age children and adults.
Self-esteem may be considered as an all-encompassing aspect of human behaviour.
Without some degree of self-esteem and self-confidence, successful cognitive and
affective activity may be limited. Brown (2000) ascribes self-esteem to an accumulation
of life experiences interacting with other people and the physical world around us. Brown
cites three levels of self esteem: global self-esteem which is the assessment of one’s own
self worth; situational self esteem which considers one’s self-appraisals in certain life
situations (work, education etc.) and task self-esteem which relates to a certain task in a
specific situation such as command of subject matter in the educational domain. Gardner
and Lambert (1972) among others, included measures of self-esteem in their studies of
second language learning success. These studies revealed that self-esteem was an
important variable in second language learning especially in view of cross-cultural
differences. MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (1998) noted that an ability to
communicate does not necessarily lead to a willingness to communicate, which signaled
the importance of self- confidence in learning a second language. Brown (2000) raised
the question of whether high self-esteem was a contributing factor in successful language
53
learning, or whether success in a language contributed to high self-esteem. The answer to
this question, he claims, is unclear although both are clearly interacting factors. This
further raised the issue of whether a teacher should attempt to facilitate the improvement
of global self-esteem or focus on a learner’s proficiency, allowing self esteem to develop
as a result. Heyde (1979) and Andres (1999) both agreed that successful classroom
techniques that focused on both linguistic goals and the personalities of students had a
positive and influential effect on the students.
The previous discussion on self-esteem has a close connection to the risk-taking factor
as those students with a high self-esteem are not particularly daunted by the fear of
feeling foolish at the prospect of making a mistake. As pointed out by Rubin and
Thompson (1982), a characteristic of a good language learner is one who attempts
intelligent guesses. As discussed earlier, inhibitions and the protection of one’s language
ego can be detrimental to successful language learning. Beebe (1983) outlined some of
the negative ramifications that cultivate a fear of risk-taking such as failing and exam,
embarrassment, fear of alienation and fear of a loss of identity. Difeu (1994) suggests that
in order for learners to overcome their fear of risk-taking, it is important to create a
comfortable classroom environment that will stimulate self-confidence and acceptance,
allowing them to take risks without embarrassment. We may be tempted to assume that
high risk-taking is a precursor to success in a second language. This is usually not the
case as shown in a study cited by Beebe (1983) which revealed that people who are
extremely motivated to achieve are moderate as opposed to high risk-takers. Rubin
(1994) concurs, suggesting that successful language learners tend to make both willing
and accurate guesses. Beebe (1983) further notes that the incorporation of certain patterns
of error (fossilization) may be due to learners being unwilling to take risks. Brown (2000)
concludes that teachers should encourage learners to make more willing guesses than
they are otherwise prone to doing; at the same time reducing the dominance of high risktakers with their wild guesses.
Anxiety plays an important affective role in the learning of a second language and is
closely associated with self-esteem and risk-taking. Scovel (1978) associates anxiety with
feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self doubt or worry. Does what has now been termed
language anxiety have a debilitative or facilitative affect on language learning? Bailey’s
(1983) study found that facilitative anxiety was closely related to competitiveness and an
important factor in the success of second language learning. Her self-analysis revealed
that competitiveness sometimes hindered her success and caused her to skip class. At
other times she was motivated to study harder. We may be led to conclude that anxiety
may indeed be both debilitative and facilitative and that too much or too little anxiety
may inhibit the process of second language learning. Finding an optimal level of anxiety
for students may well prove challenging for teachers in the classroom setting.
Intricately intertwined with the other aspects of human behaviour is the role of empathy
and extroversion as factors in second language learning. Empathy has been described as
an understanding of what another person is feeling. In more sophisticated terminology,
Guiora (1972b: 142) defined empathy as ‘a process of comprehending in which a
54
temporary fusion of self-object boundaries permits an immediate emotional apprehension
of the affective experience of another.’
As noted by Brown (2000), effective communication requires a sophisticated degree of
empathy where one person is able to understand another person’s affective and cognitive
states based on certain accurate assumptions. It is easy to achieve empathetic oral
communication due to immediate feedback where ambiguities and misunderstandings can
be rephrased for clear interpretation. Written communication, on the other hand, cannot
rely on immediate feedback from the reader so the writer must communicate by means of
empathetic intuition. Empathy therefore has important implications for the processes of
second language learning as the speaker must identify cognitive and affective sets in the
listener and in a language in which they are insecure. Misinterpretations of second
language learners by native speakers often results in linguistic, cognitive and affirmative
information not being transferred effectively.
Extroversion and introversion are also potentially important factors in second language
learning. Stereotypical western views of extroversion are misleading where outspoken
participants in classroom discussions are admired and viewed favorably by teachers.
Extroverts are not necessarily outspoken and talkative yet generally require the
affirmation of others. Introverts, on the other hand, do not seek this affirmation from
others and may in fact have an inner strength of character no found in extroverts.
Teachers also need to consider cultural differences and norms in the classroom, where in
certain societies it is considered improper to speak out in the classroom. Brown (2000)
also points out that although extroversion is often related to empathy this may simply be
a defensive mechanism whereby the extroverted person is merely protecting their ego. An
introvert may show high empathy with a more reserved outward expression of this
empathy. Research undertaken by Busch (1982), exploring the relationship of
extroversion and introversion to proficiency in Japanese learners of English in Japan,
found no significant effect for extroversion in successful second language learning.
Furthermore, although it is highly conceivable that extroversion may be a factor in
developing oral competence, certain classroom techniques (role-play, drama) which
facilitate extroversion should be carefully considered in light of both cultural norms and
whether such extroversion is really necessary.
Linguistic Considerations
In the course of this essay, we have so far focused on the issues affecting language
learners themselves in terms of age and acquisition of a second language. Research
studies into the linguistic processes of second language learning reveal how these
processes differ in children and adults.
It is evident that child learning a second language acquires it much in the same way as
acquiring their first language. As pointed out by Hansen- Bede (1975), among others,
children apply similar strategies and linguistic principles in learning both their first and
second languages. Examination of an English speaking three year old learning Urdu upon
55
moving to Pakistan did not appear to show any first language interference. Similar rules
and strategies were evident for both languages. The linguistic processes in adults learning
a second language however, seem more prevalent to the affects of first language
interference. Brown (2000) suggests that adults will attempt to formulate linguistic rules
on the basis of whatever information is readily available to them, often drawing from the
solid foundation of the first language. This may result in more interference as the adult
attempts to fill in the gaps in the second language. Brown further adds that interference
from the first language may not only be an inhibiting factor, but a facilitating factor in
second language learning. Brown (2000: 68) also points out that ‘adults learning a second
language manifest some of the same types of errors found in children learning their first
language’.
Conclusion
In the course of this essay, we have touched on several significant aspects of age and
language acquisition. Although consideration of the neurological, cognitive, affirmative
and linguistic domains has in many cases provided research which is less than conclusive,
it has on many levels been revealing. However, by considering and comparing various
perspectives of age on acquisition of a second language, we are better able to construct an
understanding of the implications of teaching and learning English as a second language
in adulthood.
In the introductory paragraph, attention was called to the myth that children are better
second language learners than adults and that adults seldom reach success due to a
number of inhibiting factors. Although there certainly appears to be a number of
advantages in learning a second language in early childhood, there does not seem to be
any evidence which concludes that an adult cannot overcome all these disadvantages,
except that of accent. Accent however, is hardly considered an all-important criterion for
effective communication as long as it is clear and intelligible. Scovel (1999) on
considering all the aspects of language acquisition noted that adult learners have proven
to be superior learners in terms of literacy, vocabulary, pragmatics, schematic knowledge
and syntax.
References
Andres, Veronica. 1999. Self-esteem in the classroom or the metamorphosis of
butterflies. In Arnold 1999.
Ausubel, David A. 1963. Adults vs. children in second language learning: Psychological
considerations. Modern Language Journal 48: 420-424.
Bailey, Kathleen M. 1983. Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language
learning: Looking at and through the diary studies. In Seliger and Long 1983.
56
Beebe, Leslie M. 1983. Risk-taking and the language learner. In Seliger & Long 1983.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Addison
Wesley Longman, Inc – fourth edition.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc – second edition.
Busch, Deborah. 1982. Introversion-extroversion and the EFL proficiency of Japanese
students. Language Learning 32: 109 -132.
Chapelle, Carol A. and Roberts, Cheryl. 1986. Ambiguity tolerance and field
independence as predictors of proficiency in English as a second language. Language
Learning 36: 27-45.
Doron, Sandra. 1973. Reflectivity-impulsivity and their influence on reading for
inference for adult students of ESL. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan.
Gardner, Howard. 1983. Frames of Mind: The theory of Multiple Intelligences. New
York: Basic Books.
Goleman, Daniel. 1995. Emotional Intelligence. New York. Bantam Books.
Guiora, Alexander Z., Brannon, Robert C., and Dull, Cecilia Y. 1972b. Empathy and
second language learning. Language Learning 24: 287-297.
Hansen-Bede, Lynn. 1975. A child’s creation of a second language. Working Papers on
Bilingualism 6: 103-126.
Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education
Limited.
Heyde, Adelaide. 1979. The relationship between self-esteem and the oral production of a
second language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan.
Jamieson, Joan. 1992. The cognitive styles of reflection/impulsivity and field
independence and ESL success. Modern Language Journal 76: 491-501.
Krashen, Stephen. 1973. Lateralization, language learning, and the critical period: Some
new evidence. Language Learning 23: 63-74.
Lambert, Wallace E. 1972. Language, Psychology, and Culture: Essays by Wallace E.
Lambert. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
Lenneberg, Eric H. 1967. The Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
57
MacIntyre, Peter D.; Dornyei, Zoltan; Clement, Richard; and Noels, Kimberley. 1998.
Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2
confidence and affiliation. Modern Language Journal 82: 545-562.
Macnamara, John. 1975. Comparison between first and second language learning.
Working Papers on Bilingualism 7: 71-94.
Piaget, Jean. 1972. The Principles of Genetic Epistemology. New York: Basic Books.
Pinker, Stephen. 1994. The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New
York: William Morrow.
Reid, Joy M. 1987. The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly 21:
87-111.
Rosansky, Ellen J. 1976. Methods and morphemes in second language acquisition
research. Language Learning 26: 409-425.
Rubin, Joan and Thompson, Irene. 1982. How to Be a More Successful Language
Learner: Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Second Edition, 1994.
Scovel, Thomas. 1969. Foreign accents, language acquisition and cerebral dominance.
Language Learning 19: 245-254.
Scovel, Thomas. 1978. The effect of affect on foreign language learning: A review f the
anxiety research. Language Learning 28: 129-142.
Scovel, Thomas. 1999. ‘The younger the better’ myth and bilingual education. In
Gonzalez, Roseann, and Melis, Ildiko (Eds.). Language Ideologies: Critical Perspectives
on the English Only Movement. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Walsh, Terence M and Diller, Karl C. 1981. Neurolinguistic considerations on the
optimum age for second language learning. In Diller 1981.
58
Communicative Language Teaching: strengths and weaknesses
By: Jason Geyser
Introduction: Defining Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is generally accepted as the most recognized,
contemporary approach to language teaching. This approach introduces ‘real-life’
communication, characterized by authentic materials, true-to-life simulation and
meaningful tasks. The Communicative Approach highlights the importance of functional
language as opposed to focusing specifically on grammar and vocabulary as was done in
the past. It is suggested that grammatical structures be considered along with various
functional categories. Learners are encouraged to apply various language forms in
various contexts and situations such as making a hotel reservation, purchasing airline
tickets, ordering at a restaurant, booking tickets to a show, asking for directions etc. It is
this constant exposure to language in realistic situations which is thought to aid language
acquisition. Learners are given a clear reason for communicating in the form of role plays
and simulations. Accuracy of the language is seen to be of less importance than fluency
and communicating successfully.
During these communicative activities, the teacher is considered to be a facilitator and
rarely intervenes as the purpose of such activities is to simulate real communication. The
teacher facilitates learners’ learning by managing classroom activities and setting up
communicative situations. The learners are regarded as communicators who are actively
engaged in negotiating meaning. Activities that are communicative represent an
information gap that needs to be filled and the learners have a choice of what to say and
how to say it. The learners receive feedback from the listener and will verify that a
purpose has in fact been achieved. Authentic materials are central with the learners
usually working in pairs or small groups. The teacher initiates interactions between
learners and the learners interact a great deal with each other and in various
configurations. It is these activities which are seen to equip learners with the necessary
tools for producing unrehearsed language when leaving the ‘comfort zone’ of the
language classroom. Learners therefore become communicatively competent and are able
to use the language appropriate for a given social context. Language is for
communication and linguistic competence must be coupled with an ability to convey
intended meaning appropriately in different social contexts. Non-verbal behaviour is also
recognized as being important in conveying social and cultural norms.
Communicative Language Teaching emphasizes the development of motivation to learn
through establishing meaningful, purposeful things associated with the target language.
Individuality is encouraged, as well as cooperation with peers, which both contribute to a
sense of emotional security with the target language. Functions are emphasized over
forms, with simple forms learned for each function at first, then more complex forms.
Learners work at discourse level and concentrate on speaking, listening, reading and
writing right from the beginning. The learner’s native language usually plays a limited
role. Informal evaluation takes place when the teacher advises or communicates and
59
formal evaluation is usually done by means of an integrative test with a real
communicative function. Errors of form are considered as natural and learners with
limited knowledge of language forms can still be seen to succeed as communicators.
Although communicative activities are widely used by teachers, it is quite difficult to
define exactly what a communicative approach is. This is because most teaching methods
are aimed at improving communication irrespective of the techniques employed. The
theoretical interests already mentioned underlie what one can best describe as
Communicative Language Teaching. Brown (2001) offers six interconnected
characteristics as a description of Communicative Language Teaching which offers
important departures from previous approaches:






Goals in the classroom are not only restricted to grammatical or linguistic
competence, but are centered on all aspects of communicative competence.
Communicative activities assist learners in the use of authentic and functional
language in meaningful situations. Language forms are not central to but enable
learners to accomplish effective communication.
Although fluency is often regarded as more important than accuracy in order to
keep learners actively engaged in language use; they are however seen as
complimentary principles.
Learners engage in unrehearsed language contexts as would normally be
confronted outside of the classroom environment.
Learners are encouraged to become autonomous learners by focusing on and
understanding their own learning processes.
The teacher is considered a facilitator of language learning and learners construct
meaning through meaningful interaction with others.
Further to his attempt at a description of Communicative Language Teaching, Brown
(2001) refers to a number of components which are closely related to Communicative
Language Teaching. Due to the constraints of this essay however, we will only consider
these concepts very briefly:

Learner-Centered Instruction. This refers to techniques that focus on learners’
needs and goals thereby fueling their intrinsic motivation and giving them a sense
of control over their learning outcomes.

Cooperative and Collaborative Learning. A cooperative classroom is one
where learners share information and help one another (through pair / group
work) and are not competitive.

Interactive Learning. Communication is essentially interaction involving both
production and reception. Through successful negotiation and interaction with one
another, communicative abilities are enhanced.

Whole Language Education. This term is used to emphasize the ‘wholeness’ of
language as opposed to considering the individual components of language
60
(graphemes, morphemes etc.). It also refers to the interaction and interconnections
between the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Content-Based Instruction. This refers to the simultaneous study of language
and topic. Language presentation relates to the subject matter and language is
used to convey information of interest to the learner.

Task-Based Instruction. This method places task as the central focus.
Communicative tasks are central to the learning process and serve curricula goals.
The focus of this essay will further explore our description of Communicative Language
Teaching, placing particular emphasis on both the strengths and weaknesses of this
approach. It is precisely this kind of questioning and constructive review which has
brought us to this point in our teaching practices over the past century and which will
undoubtedly lead us to re-think, re-shape and enlighten our future approaches to language
learning and teaching.
Strengths of Communicative Language Teaching
Having considered the tenets which underlie Communicative Language Teaching, we
will now outline the various strengths of this approach which has brought it to the fore
over the past thirty years. As previously mentioned, Communicative Language Teaching
introduces ‘real-life’ communication characterized by authentic materials, true-to-life
simulation and meaningful tasks. Research has shown that second language acquisition is
encouraged when learners are exposed to contextually rich and meaningful
communication as opposed to rote-learning. Brown (2000) makes the comparison
between adults learning a second language and utilizing rote methods and children
learning a second language in a natural, meaningful context. In this situation, the child’s
learning meets with greater success which would suggest perhaps this success is not
attributed to the age of the person but to the context in which the learning takes place. For
the child, the learning process is meaningful whereas for the adult it is not.
David Nunan (2004) distinguishes between being successful in learning and being able to
recite grammatical rules and being able to successfully utilize this grammatical
knowledge to engage in effective communication. Communicative Language Teaching
views functional language as a vehicle for meaningful communication. This was in stark
contrast to earlier audiolingualism which was a traditional approach that considered
grammatical structures and vocabulary items as the primary focus of English language
instruction. In Taiwan, Communicative Language Teaching is met with considerable
resistance in favour of more traditional rote-learning methods steeped in drills and
regurgitation of grammar rules. Many of these learners develop the ability to construct
grammatically correct sentences but are however unable to interact with English speakers
or conduct a simple conversation. Although many of these learners may in fact have
attained a high proficiency level in reading comprehension and writing fluency, their
speaking and listening skills remain very weak. Communicative Language Teaching
61
introduces learners to a variety of different true-to-life situations such as greetings,
making travel arrangements etc. striving to enable learners to communicate effectively
beyond the confines of the classroom, without a teacher. As noted by Brown (2000),
effective communication requires a sophisticated degree of empathy where one person is
able to understand another person’s affective and cognitive states based on certain
accurate assumptions. It is easy to achieve empathetic oral communication in the
communicative classroom due to immediate feedback where ambiguities and
misunderstandings can be rephrased for clear interpretation. Written communication, on
the other hand, cannot rely on immediate feedback from the reader so the writer must
communicate by means of empathetic intuition. Vocabulary and grammar are still
considered as an integral part of the whole lesson as the emphasis is on communication.
Grammar is introduced on the basis of communicative needs.
Activities in Communicative Language Teaching typically involve realistic
communication where accuracy of language is considered to be of less importance than
successful completion of the communicative task they are performing. These activities
may include role-plays or simulations. What is however important is that such activities
create both a desire and a purpose for communication. Content is viewed as more
important than form as a sequenced presentation of grammar may not meet learners’
needs as they may be at different stages in the learning process. Meaningful interaction
in the communicative classroom is seen as involving input on both a social and personal
level in real situations. In Communicative Language Teaching classrooms, learners are
encouraged to use language productively and receptively in unrehearsed contexts thereby
developing linguistic fluency and lifelong learning beyond the classroom. Learners are
also encouraged to be less passive and take an active role in creative language learning in
a cooperative learning environment. Language is often created by the learners through a
process of trial and error and by struggling to communicate. CLT activities should be
designed in such a way as to encourage spontaneous communication. This process
involves a certain degree of uncertainty as to the outcomes of the activity, allowing the
learners the opportunity to choose what they think is an appropriate response. Placing
learners in false or unrealistic situations may lead to problems with appropriacy of
language. Harmer (2002: 25) describes language as being both ‘a social construct as
much as it is a mental ability.’ Learners who are not exposed to realistic contexts in the
classroom often lack confidence in real communication and are unable to choose an
appropriate language form in response to a particular situation. Learners often memorize
phrases which are sometimes used inappropriately. This is illustrated by another typical
Taiwanese example:
Teacher: Hello, how are you?
Student: Hello. I’m fine thank you, and you?
The above response from the student is a memorized phrase in response to a standard
greeting and question. In many cases, if this standard greeting and question was changed
to, ‘Hi, How are things?’ – it would invariably lead to confusion on the part of the student
and a complete break down in communication.
62
Communicative Language Teaching considers learners to be individuals with distinctive
and different communicative needs. Jack Richards in his article, 30 Years of TESL /
TEFL: A Reflective Approach, describes and individualized approach to language
teaching as being based on the following assumptions:




Learners have different ways of learning
Learners can learn from a variety of different sources
When learning a language, learners may have different goals and objectives
It is not essential that direct teaching from a teacher is required for learning to
take place
This focus on the learner as an individual and encouraging learner initiative was known
as learner centeredness and was reflected by:




Recognizing learners’ prior knowledge
Recognizing learners’ needs, goals, wished
Recognizing learners’ learning styles and learning preferences
Recognizing learners’ views o teaching and the nature of classroom tasks
This approach recognizes learner initiative in the classroom allowing learners to choose
activities and practice items, thereby giving them a vested interested in their own learning
outcomes and improving intrinsic motivation (enjoyment of language learning itself).
Communicative Language Teaching also encourages teachers to respond to the needs of
the learners allowing for a more student-centered approach with flexible acquisition rates
depending on learner interest and aptitude. This approach further promotes the creation of
a positive learning environment where the teacher encourages the learners to take risks
and actively participate in the learning process instead of being passive learners. As
pointed out by Rubin and Thompson (1982), a characteristic of a good language learner is
one who attempts intelligent guesses. Difeu (1994) suggests that in order for learners to
overcome their fear of risk-taking, it is important to create a comfortable classroom
environment that will stimulate self-confidence and acceptance, allowing them to take
risks without embarrassment.
Communicative Language Teaching breaks away from the use of traditional texts,
making use of authentic materials in an attempt to build fluency. It is these authentic
materials that provide a real or genuine purpose for reading (gaining information). It is
however important for teachers to select authentic materials which are both suitable and
appropriate for the level, age and cultural background of the learners so that they do not
feel de-motivated or frustrated. Communicative Language Teaching was also
instrumental in an integration of the four skills of reading, writing, listening and
speaking. This allowed for learners to transfer learnt vocabulary and other language
structures and items when speaking or writing. In Taiwan, on the other hand, there is still
a tendency for teachers to teach the various skills separately which does not provide for a
consolidation of the four skills and which often leads to the development of poor oral and
written skills.
63
Communicative Language Teaching was unique in that it involved both the learners and
the teachers in the process of evaluation and assessment. David Nunan (1989) adds that
self –assessment in the learner-centered curriculum provides what he describes as an
effective way of developing a critical awareness of the learning process.
Weaknesses of Communicative Language Teaching
Brown (2001) reminds us that there are many and varied interpretations of what
constitute Communicative Language Teaching and not everyone agrees on its definition.
It is therefore important to remain aware of the many different versions of
Communicative Language Teaching and that it is still a term that can be adopted to
encompass current language teaching approaches. David Nunan (2004) states that in
reality, Communicative Language Teaching is not a unitary approach but comprises of a
number of approaches. Harmer (2001) adds that this approach has been criticized for
being prejudiced in favour of the native-language teachers as the activities create an
unrestricted range of language forms by learners making it difficult for non-native
teachers to be able to respond to the multitude of language problems which may arise.
This makes it extremely difficult for teachers who are not very proficient in the second
language to be able to teach effectively. Brown (2001) however says that this
characteristic of Communicative Language Teaching should not be viewed as a drawback
and prevent non-native teachers from pursuing communicative goals in the classroom.
Brown further adds that technology such as the internet and videos may indeed offer
some assistance to non-native teachers. Furthermore, he notes that there has been an
increase in the English proficiency levels of many of the world’s language teachers and
educational institutions are beginning to recognize the importance of communicative
language teaching.
Another criticism of Communicative Language Teaching as expounded by Brown (2001)
is that many teachers as well as institutions give what he calls ‘lip service’ to the
fundamental principles but do not however ground their teaching techniques in these
principles and do not practice their convictions. David Nunan (2004) refers to a recent
study on the emergence of English as a global language on policies and practices in the
Asia-Pacific region. Government officials from seven of the countries surveyed in this
region made claims to the effect that task-based teaching was central to their English
language curricula. Nunan goes on to question whether such rhetoric is indeed based on
reality and refers to a study published in 1987. In this study, it was revealed that there
was indeed a large gap in what was claimed to be Communicative Language Teaching
and what was in fact being taught in the language classrooms. This interpretation and
application of Communicative Language Teaching was seen as schools publicly
embracing this new approach, but actually adhering to traditional teaching practices in
the classroom.
Brown (2000) mentions that approaches to Communicative Language Teaching in the
1980’s and 1990’s witnessed a significant loss of focus on the forms of language. This
was in stark contrast to the earlier traditional methods of language teaching with its focus
64
on vocabulary and grammar. With the rise and acceptance of Communicative Language
Teaching, the place of grammar within the curriculum seemed uncertain. Some linguists,
as mentioned by David Nunan (2004), believed that an explicit focus on form and
grammatical structures was unnecessary and that the acquisition of a second language
would develop almost automatically if learners focused on meaning while completing
tasks. Nunan further proclaims that this focus on content at the expense of attention to
form, has come under increasing challenge in recent years resulting in a widespread
acceptance that form has a place in the classroom. This has sparked debate as to the
extend to which grammar should be included in the curriculum. Some argue that a focus
on form should only be an incidental activity within the communicative language
classroom. Littlewood (1981) makes a distinction between a weak and a strong
interpretation of Communicative Language Teaching, where the strong interpretation
avoids a focus on form and the weak interpretation recognizes the need for such a focus.
Littlewood, in his support of the weak interpretation, argues that a number of skills need
to be considered:
 Learners must attain a high degree of linguistic competence so that it can be used
spontaneously and flexibly in order to convey the intended message.
 A learner should distinguish between form learnt and the communicative
functions which these forms perform.
 Learners must develop both language skills and strategies for communicating in
real situations using feedback to check success and using different language when
faced with failure.
 Learners must recognize the different social meanings of language forms, thereby
using accepted forms for different circumstances and avoiding offensive or
inappropriate ones.
Earlier interpretations of CLT advocated an ‘indirect’ approach, which promoted
incidental learning. Brown (2001), like Littewood, is in favour of the ‘direct’ approach
with a more effective application of CLT principles that sequences and structures tasks
for learners, offering the best possible intervention to assist learners in language
acquisition. This earlier interpretation of CLT led to its own problem with little attention
being given to the importance of form as teachers strived to present authentic, meaningful
language in the communicative classroom. As noted by Brown (2001) we simply moved
from one extreme to another where vocabulary and grammar took center stage with little
regard to language forms, to vocabulary and grammar teaching being given very little
attention. He further adds that we now seem to have a new gained respect for the place
of teaching form in the interactive classroom which allows the teacher to find better
techniques for presenting vocabulary and grammar in the communicative classroom.
Krashen’s (1982) recommendation that the teaching of grammar be abandoned faced
another problem as many learners and parents in different countries are convinced that
learning grammar rules are of value and central in acquiring a second language. In
Taiwan, for example, learners and parents alike will often complain to educational
institutions if teachers are perceived not to be teaching sufficient grammar. Harmer
(2001) adds that the Communicative approach, with its emphasis on pair and group work
and minimal intervention by the teacher may in fact offend educational traditions that it
65
initially aimed to displace. There is often a cultural conflict between what the teacher
intended and how the learner interpreted. Greg Ellis (1996: 213-218) refers to this
cultural conflict between a teacher’s view of adopting a facilitative role in communicative
activities and the learner’s view that the teacher should assume a more assertive and
authoritative role. In Taiwan, teaches are considered as imparters of knowledge and
derive great respect from learners in the traditional classroom setting. Where there are
clearly divergent views as to the nature of the teacher-learner relationship and exchange,
one can expect to meet with some problems. The fact that we often encourage our
learners to actively participate in class, take charge and responsibility for their learning
and behave out of character in the classroom, may go against some educational traditions
and cultural norms. Students in Asia are often expected to behave much in the same way
as their British or American counterparts. Taiwanese learners however often have very
little to say or contribute when faced with a communicative activity as they may feel
uncomfortable and fear a ‘loss of face’ in front of the other learners in the classroom.
Harmer (2001) cites an example of an Argentinean teacher who faced a total lack of
learner interest in role-plays and other communicative techniques as learners were only
interested in gaining good grades. In Taiwan, tests are viewed as being incredibly
important and surprisingly a high percentage of students either like or expect tests. In a
society which is performance driven (and tests results are seen to reflect this) much of the
motivation for completing a language course, is to score well in the test. Failure to score
well in a test is seen as a ‘loss of face’ and in some instances a failure on the part of the
educational institution or teacher. This highlights some of the realities when trying to
implement CLT techniques as these are often suited to motivated learners in an ideal
learning environment and not for all teaching situations. Teachers and learners therefore
need to accommodate for what each wants and expects, perhaps requiring a more gradual
approach to implementing communicative techniques. This gradual approach will
eventually give learners the confidence and motivation to begin to speak more
spontaneously in the classroom.
Further research by Swain (1985) reveals that learners in immersion classrooms that have
been exposed to ample target language continue to make many grammatical errors. This
observation would therefore seem to disclaim the notion of forms being acquired
incidentally. The idea that Communicative Language Teaching with its implementation
of fluency-based activities would develop communicative competence and linguistic
competence did not always occur. It was soon realized that CLT programmes which
applied extensive use of authentic materials, witnessed learners who often developed
fluency at the expense of accuracy. This situation resulted in learners who were
competent communicators but who had a poor command of grammatical structures. It is
important that fluency should not be encouraged at the expense of unambiguous and clear
communication.
Communicative Language Teaching, with its focus on the use of authentic texts in the
classroom brought about a dilemma for language teachers and syllabus designers.
Communicative Language Teaching required a re-evaluation of the learning processes. A
syllabus could no longer be designed as a convenient list structures or lexical items, but
had to now consist of functions and notions. Initially, teachers did not want to make use
66
of the text book and many wanted to discard it altogether, with its focus on structures and
lexical lists. Often these textbooks were seen as boring, general and restricting. Nonnative teachers however still found comfort and security in the use of a textbook. Another
challenging issue was the different views often shared by teachers and students on how
often the textbook should be used. In Taiwan, learners, parents and educational
institutions expect teachers to use the textbook and adhere to the sequence of structures as
depicted in the list of contents. Many non-native teachers find it difficult to break with
traditional teacher-centered approaches to language learning and strict adherence to the
textbook. David Nunan (2004) considers the dilemma of the syllabus designer and is of
the view that curriculum should incorporate both content and process. Nunan cites a
preference for an ‘analytical’ approach to syllabus design which presents the target
language in whole chunks at a time, without linguistic interference or control.
Criticism is also leveled at Communicative Language Teaching as this approach tends to
assume that learner have the necessary skills (especially at the beginner level) to be
effectively involved in the communicative process. Learners require a certain command
of the language skills in order to use this language with any confidence. Therefore, the
functional requirement of CLT presumes that the learners have sufficient command of the
second language to achieve these aims. Learners may become frustrated when faced with
real, authentic communicative tasks or activities as they may find that they lack the
necessary vocabulary or structures that they require. One of the more general criticisms
of Communicative Language Teaching is an overwhelming expectancy for a teacher to be
‘all things.’ Teachers are expected to make the change from a teacher-centered to a
learner-centered curriculum with, in many cases, little or no training. It is often extremely
difficult for teachers to address the specific needs and requirements of individual learners
when classrooms consist of learners of various ages, cultural backgrounds, linguistic
abilities, intelligence and different levels of motivation. Teachers then have to develop
authentic, realistic and motivating communicative tasks and activities to meet the
individual needs of the learners. This may appear extremely daunting especially to some
non-native teachers who often revert back to traditional teaching methods in the
classroom.
Conclusion
During the course of this essay, we have attempted to offer a description of
Communicative Language Teaching as well as considering both its strengths and
weaknesses. It has become evident that the strengths far outweigh the weaknesses and
that there can be no doubt that the development of Communicative Language Teaching
has had a profound effect on second language methodology, leaving an indelible mark on
teaching and learning. Communicative Language Teaching has invoked a learnercentered approach with learners actively involved in and negotiating meaning as opposed
to passively receiving taught knowledge. Teachers have taken on a facilitative role and
are responsible for creating the conditions considered necessary for second language
acquisition to take place. Learners are encouraged to produce unrehearsed, spontaneous
language in realistic contexts, interacting with each other in various configurations.
67
Learners become communicatively competent and motivated beyond the confines of the
language classroom. Communicative Language Teaching is best considered as an
approach rather than a method. This inevitably allows for much greater room for
individual interpretation than would most other methods. Communicative Language
Teaching appealed to those seeking a greater humanistic approach to teaching where
interaction was the focal point of the process of communication. The enthusiastic
adoption of Communicative Language Teaching has raised a number of important issues
for teacher training, materials development and its application for all situations. This has
also raised questions as to whether this approach is equally suited to both ESL and EFL
situations, how syllabuses can be revised and how suitable this approach is for non-native
teachers.
Despite these reservations, Communicative Language Teaching has been adopted in
classrooms all over the world and has, in many ways, made an invaluable contribution to
the profession of second language teaching. Teaching methodology as mentioned by
Harmer (2001) ‘is rooted in popular culture’ and careful consideration of academic
theories will help teachers reflect on their own teaching materials. Changes to the
communicative approach will no doubt come from dissatisfaction with the current
situation, and motivate a change in these practices. Most importantly, one’s methods and
practices should be regularly assessed and monitored to see if they are in fact working or
not. This will ensure that one is applying the best techniques for one’s learners. Academic
theories and research should always be checked against one’s own personal experiences
and where possible, applied in practical situations. The weaknesses of the
Communicative approach to language teaching will no doubt have to receive further
attention if this approach is to survive and gain momentum into the future.
68
References
Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc – second edition.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Addison
Wesley Longman, Inc – fourth edition.
Ellis, G. 1996. How culturally appropriate is the communicative approach? ELT Journal
50/3.
Geyser, J. Peter. 2006. English to the World: Teaching Methodology Made Easy. August
Publishing.
Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education
Limited.
Krashen, S and Terrell. 1982. The Natural Approach. Pearson Education Ltd.
Littlewood, W. 1981. Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. 1989a. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. 1989b. Understanding Language Classrooms: A Guide for Teacher-Initiated
Action. Prentice-Hall.
Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press.
Rubin, Joan and Thompson, Irene. 1982. How to Be a More Successful Language
Learner: Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Second Edition, 1994.
Swain, M. 1985. A critical look at the communicative approach. ELT Journal 39/1 and in
Rossner and Bolitho (eds).
Richards, J. 30 Years of TEFL / TESL: A Personal Reflection. I
69
Communicative Language Teaching
Introduction
What is Communicative Language Teaching?
According to David Nunan (1999) the term Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
covers a variety of approaches that all focus on helping learners to communicate
meaningfully in a target language. Early approaches downplayed the importance of
grammar, some even advocating the abandonment of any focus on form. More recent
approaches acknowledge the centrality of grammar (and try and even teach learners the
relationship between grammatical form and communicative meaning).
Ann Galloway states that CLT “makes use of real-life situations that necessitate
communication”. The teacher tries to set up situations students may encounter in real life.
The audiolingual method relies on repetition and drills while the communicative
approach leaves the student in suspense as to the outcome of class exercise, which may
vary according to their reactions and responses. Students’ motivation to learn comes from
their desire to use communication in a meaningful way.
Since the 1970’s linguists were searching for answers to the nature of communication and
communicative competence. They also were looking for an explanation for the interactive
process of language. The communicative approach could be said to be the product of
educators and linguists who were dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammartranslated methods of foreign language instruction. Students had difficulty engaging in
real- life communication in the target language. They did not know how to communicate
using appropriate social language, gestures or appropriate expressions.
Interest in and development of communicative- style teaching grew. Authentic language
use involving real communication became increasingly popular. Methods that stressed
the importance of the self-esteem of students and learning cooperatively were favoured.
According to Douglas Brown (1994) the main challenge was to move beyond the
teaching of rules, patterns definitions and other knowledge ‘about’ language to teaching
them to communicate genuinely, spontaneously and meaningfully in the second language.
Strengths of the CLT Approach
Barry Taylor (1987) suggested that most current literature on language learning and
teaching indicated that acquisition of a second language is encouraged when learners are
exposed to and engage in contextually rich, genuine, meaningful communication in that
language. Research also revealed that some learners are successful at learning grammar
rules they have been taught, but they could not utilise their understanding of grammar in
real communication. It became evident that language could be successfully acquired
when it was not studied in a direct or explicit way. Learners needed to be involved in
accomplishing something via the language and have a personal interest in the outcomes.
70
Li Xiaoju in her article entitled, In defence of the communicative approach p.59 stated
that ‘ the situation must be real, and the role must be real’. She believed that
communication competence does not mean the ability just to utter words and sentences. It
involves the ability to react mentally as well as verbally in communication situations. She
stated that mental reactions were the root of verbal reaction. False situations do not
produce mental reactions.
Gerard Counihan states in his articled “ Teach Students to Interact, Not Just Talk” that
interaction involves both social and personal input. He added that it forms the basis of the
vast majority of everyday talking done by native speakers. Interaction involves emotions,
creativity, agreement, disagreement, nodding, people waiting patiently to say something
etc. Interaction is not giving short, one- sentence answers to questions. CLT encourages
this meaningful interaction in real or near real situations.
In communicative classrooms, students ultimately have to use the language, productively
and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts. This encourages active learners of language in
more creative ways. Tasks also give learners practice in cooperating with others learners
and with their teachers, making creative use of language they have learned. In this way
the classroom acts as a bridge to the outside world rather than protect the learners from
the risk of having genuine communication. Li Xiaoju continues to add in her article that
traditional text-analysis schools look upon language teaching as a ‘knowledge-imparting’
process, and language learning as a ‘knowledge receiving’ process. This leads to learners
who are passive and lack initiative.
Authentic language also entails appropriacy of language used, the situation and the role.
Putting students into false situations can cause students to be confused about what is
appropriate and inappropriate for them. A similar situation is noticeable in Hong Kong
where the English language is not used with confidence in real communication. Students
still memorise key phrases and sentences and use it inappropriately, more for the purpose
of examinations. This divorces language from communication.
Students can also develop the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences yet not
be able to perform a simple communicative task. Michael Swan quotes the example of
such a student, who asks, “ Have you fire?” when he needs a light. CLT encourages
students to understand commonly used expressions, idioms and slang. Such language
learning moves beyond just grammatically correct sentences as it allows greater exposure
to language. Of course, learners will need time before they can make the finer distinctions
in language. They will make grammatical and structural errors. Teachers need to be
tolerant towards these errors to encourage learners to use language more freely and
spontaneously. The ultimate goal is to enable the learner to communicate with others in
the world beyond the classroom where they will not have a teacher on hand. In helping
learners to achieve this goal, however teachers have redefined their teaching approach
and CLT has contributed largely to re-evaluating effective teaching approaches.
CLT considers the students’ communicative attempts in the target language as the starting
point for our language instruction, rather than the rules or the structure of the language. It
71
requires us to look at different students as people with different communicative
requirements. This should be reflected in both the contents of the curriculum and
learning processes. There is a strong relationship between the classroom interaction and
atmosphere, curriculum, content and focuses on the need to students to feel secure and
non-threatened. When a teacher provides opportunities for students to participate with
support, allow students to choose activities and decide what they want to practise,
students have a stake in the outcomes. Their interest and motivation are likely to be
higher. In addition, CLT stresses the need to teach what is needed and when it is needed.
The teacher has to be tuned into what is happening in the classroom and respond to the
needs of the students. CLT is certainly a student-centred approach to teaching language.
CLT created a strong movement away from highly structured, pre-planned, teachercentred, and grammar-based teaching. Allwright (1979) stated that the teacher’s
responsibility includes providing samples of the target language, providing support,
feedback and classroom management.
Li Xiaoju added that to learn the language, the students themselves must go through the
process of learning. The teacher must provide the conditions for this process, set it going,
observe it, give guidance, analyze and evaluate it. This makes the teacher’s job
interesting, creative and releases students from passive roles in learning. Because of
increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain confidence in using
the target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own
learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).
The teacher creates a positive supportive class environment that encourages learners to
take risks, actively participate and enjoy growing success. The teaching material should
encourage students to engage in real communicative skills in small groups or whole class.
The real language experience is what is most important. Activities can be undertaken not
only in class, but out of class as well. It should be designed to incorporate practice in any
of the language skills and encourage spontaneous communication. Throughout this
process, they remain in a state of uncertainty regarding what they will hear and they
therefore experience the freedom to choose what they consider to be the most appropriate
response. This gives them practice to engage in purposeful extended discourse our time.
The skills developed through the application of active, cooperative learning principles
can extend to other subjects as well. CLT encourages the development of skills such as
of prediction, cooperative group/pair work, problem solving, reporting that can be used in
other subjects in the school curriculum.
Grammar and vocabulary are also taught communicatively. Grammatical patterns are
matched to particular communicative meanings so that learner can see the connection
between form and function. Learners learn how to choose the right pattern to express the
72
ideas and feelings that they want to express. They learn how to use grammar to express
different communicative meanings. Words are grouped meaningfully and are taught
through tasks involving mapping, classifying, etc. Such methodology enables learners to
recombine the familiar in different ways and thus achieve creativity in language use.
CLT breaks away from the traditional textbook to the use of authentic material. It
provides the reader (or listener) with the opportunity to gain genuine information.
Instead of reading a graded text with fictional characters in whom the learner has little or
no interest, he or she is encouraged to read the latest news, or plan a real journey using
timetables, traffic information and so on. This enables the learners to interact with
authentic texts in much the same way that native-speakers react to texts in the first
language. Reading authentic texts also gives the learner a clear purpose for reading e.g.
gaining information. The teacher should carefully consider the linguistic abilities of the
learners and select material that would motivate instead of frustrate the learner.
One of the greatest strengths of CLT is the integration of all four major skills while
learning that target language. Using authentic reading texts and situations means that the
learner develops the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. Li Xiaoju states
that in using the CLT approach in China, “W did not design a reading course, but an
integrated course.” The major skills were constantly combined and integrated in use.
The skills were not developed separately, but rather composite skills involving one or
sometimes two or more skills. Integrating skills also enable the learner to transfer learnt
vocabulary and language structures when speaking or writing. The added benefit is that
the same context is retained. In Hong Kong, most schools still follow the traditional
teaching approach and each skill is taught in a separate compartment. Students have little
opportunity to consolidate skills and language as the contexts change constantly. The
overall result is poor oral and writing skills.
Many teachers lack confidence in the area of assessment and evaluation. The traditional
approach may have been more straightforward as structured tests and examinations
produced a score that determined the learner’s assessment. However CLT, with its
learner-centred curriculum model, involves both teachers and learners in evaluation.
According to the David Nunan in “Learner-Centred Curriculum” (1989) “self-assessment
by the learners can be an important supplement to teacher assessment.” He continues to
add that self-assessment provides one of the most effective means of developing critical
awareness of the learning process.
In addition continuous assessment and evaluation focuses on language and language
learning. There is little scope for using memorized or drilled language. Moreover, the
teacher keeps in mind the clear objective he/she had in mind for the course. Teachers
aim to test what has been taught. Xiao Qing Liao stated in her article, What Influenced
Teachers’ Adoption of the Communicative Approach in China (2000/2001) that the
widespread use of the traditional grammar-orientated method produced unsatisfactory
73
teaching results. Students became almost “structurally competent but communicatively
incompetent” (Johnson and Morrow, P1981). There was call for change and adoption of
the CLT approach but teachers were more familiar with the traditional approach. The
final high school examination included a language section and teachers began to teach to
the test or examination. Again, a similar trend is seen in Hong Kong. Passing the Form 7
examination that enables students to enter tertiary institutions is the most important
consideration. Any English teaching in the last four years at high school is in preparation
for the examination. As a result students leave school with limited ability to
communicate in the oral or written form. Real language learning does not take place if
assessment and evaluation drive the curriculum.
Another strength of CLT was the focus of language teaching was on real communication,
so content instead of grammar was emphasized. According to Barry P. Taylor (1989)
recent research in second language acquisition has questioned the value of explicit,
sequential grammar component in language teaching. The following four observations
are pertinent to the issue:
1. Most learners are unable to successfully transfer their mechanical control of
grammatical patterns to real communicative situations (d’Anglejan, 1978; Long et al.,
1976).
2. Acquisition of syntax appears to be a natural developmental process in learners and
may have its own timetable (Krashen, 1979).
3. Order of acquisition of grammar rules may be determined more by communicative
need than by the teaching order (Kessler et al., 1979; Taylor, 1981).
4. Consider variation among learners in the manner in which they acquire grammatical
forms: some can profit from rules, some cannot; some can use forms quickly; others
need more time; students need to see how the form is used in a number of different
contexts (Krashen, 1977; Bodman 1979; Taylor, 1982).
These observations suggest that it is unlikely that all of our students will be at the same
learning stage at the same time. A sequenced presentation of grammar may not meet
their needs. Just because an item is next on the syllabus, it does not mean a student is
ready to receive that information. With the CLT approach, students need all the
structures simultaneously if they are going to be able to meet the real communicative
needs of everyday.
When an explanation of a new linguistic form is offered at a time when it is needed,
“learners are able to focus on active, communicatively based, self-invested learning”
(Barry P. Taylor p.55 “Methodology in TESOL”). He continued to add there is greater
impact on the learning outcomes if there is immediate communicative utility of a new
form than when language forms are presented in a prescribed order and then practised
through contrived activities.
Teaching any structure should be a resource to
communicate meaningfully. Explicit grammar can be taught within a communicative,
needs-based context.
74
Li Xiaoju also believes the communicative approach help learners to grow and mature. In
a narrow sense communicative competence is developed and in a broader sense the
learner develops as an intelligent being who acquires language for life. He/she becomes a
fuller person who can play a really useful role in international communication between
cultures.
Weaknesses of the communicative approach of Language
CLT involves the integration of all four skills of language- reading, writing, listening and
speaking. While this can be imperative for language learning (especially native speakers),
it can present difficulties for Speakers of Other languages. CLT assumes that the learner
has the necessary skills to be fully involved in the communicative process. CLT dilutes
the skills needed in ESL teaching. The learner needed special skills taught before he/ she
can use it with confidence. Each of the four language skills needs special focus and
development.
Michael Swan (1990) states that CLT does not take into consideration the learner’s first
language. Meanings, uses and communication skills are approached as if they have to be
learnt from scratch. Communicative methodology stresses the English- only approach.
Mother tongue plays an important part in learning a foreign language. Students are
always translating into and out of their own languages- and teachers tell them not to.
Interlanguages often contain errors, which are caused by interference from the mother
tongue. Of course, a large number of correct features in interlanguage also contain a
mother tongue element. It is difficult to learn a foreign language without making
correspondences between the mother tongue and the foreign language. So, if the mother
tongue is central to the process of learning a foreign language, Michael Swan asks why it
is absent from the theory and methodology of the Communicative approach?
The CLT approach advocates that learners need to be placed in ‘ real’ communication
situations to encourage oral interaction. We see our jobs as teachers to teach students to
convey and elicit information, to describe, make requests, establish rapport and so on.
However, this functional requirement assumes that the student has enough English to
achieve this. When we have taught students what they need to know to carry out the main
communicative functions, we still have most of the language left to teach. Students need
to learn the vocabulary and expressions, which are used in the context in question. This is
also the case when authentic material is used for CLT. While real news and events are
useful for the learner, without specific help from the teacher, many learners will try
reading word by word. Problems will arise, as a result of their lack of vocabulary and the
task can become frustrating. Thus, if learners are to be encouraged to read authentic
material, they will need some learner training (perhaps in the first language) in how to
best approach the text.
75
Michael Swan also feels that the teaching of grammar in language courses is necessary,
especially for ESL students. He states how we integrate the teaching of structure and
meaning will depend to the extent on the particular language items involved. Some
problematic structural points present difficulties of form as well as meaning e.g.
comparison of adjectives, word order in phrasal verbs, etc. He feels it is best to deal with
such problems of form before students do communicative work in which they have to
mix many structures. A good language course is likely to include lessons, which
concentrate on particular structures, lessons on vocabulary, functions, pronunciation,
situation based lessons, lessons on productive and receptive skills and several other
components.
Stephen B .Ryan from the Yamagata University identified some problems of the CLT
approach in the context of his EFL class in a Japanese university. Today’s
communicative approach is learner centred and emphasizes fluency over accuracy. He
agrees that fluency is needed but his difficulty was providing concrete feedback for
learners to correct their mistakes and keep focused on the immediate classroom task at
hand. If students do not receive sufficient feedback, they may lose interest and
motivation. He also felt that learners needed constant monitoring and feedback that can
continue to motivate them as opposed to assessing them with a single final semester test.
He also stated that another weakness of CLT is that learners are not always given
direction about what they will be learning about. Students will benefit more if they know
specifically on a class by class basis what language they are trying to practise and in what
context. Teachers who adopt the CLT approach, base lessons on students’ needs or
choose an authentic news item / reading text for language development. Ryan feels that
learners can be kept motivated if they have set small achievable goals on a daily basis and
help learners aware of how they are to accomplish these goals.
Ryan continues to add that CLT creates a division in teaching style. Teachers, in Asian
countries especially, are expected to be strict about certain aspects such as regular
attendance and punctuality. On the other hand they have to assume the role of friendcoach to encourage students to speak without being afraid of making mistakes. There is a
contrast between a teacher who does not allow for mistakes and one who encourages.
Learners may feel betrayed if they score poorly on a test but do well in the classroom.
The CLT approach may be more difficult to implement in some countries because of
cultural differences. Ryan mentions it is important for the teacher” to recognize potential
negative culturally based perceptions of their learners and vice versa”. He found it was
common to be met with silent expressionless students in Japan. This can be interpreted as
a lack of interest. Silence is relative to Western and Asian cultures. This is also noticed in
Hong Kong where students have difficulty adapting to teaching methodology that are
outside the traditional approach. Ryan explains that the instructor does not necessarily
have to be interculturally competent to be an effective teacher. He feels it would be more
76
effective to adopt a consistent, familiar style of instruction to allow learners (especially
ESL students) to adapt within bounds of their own personalities and cultural values.
David Nunan (1999) stated in Second Language Teaching and Learning, “ From time to
time, claims appear that communicative language teaching, with its experiential learningby- doing philosophy, and assumptions about learners as active constructors of their own
knowledge, is inappropriate in many non-Western contexts”. (P.156).
Peter Medgyes in his article Queries from a communicative teacher (1990) states “ the
communicative classroom requires a teacher of extraordinary abilities”. He/she has to be
highly skilled to organize and teach a learner- centred programme. Teachers should no
longer be encouraged and trained to impose their own view of learner’s needs. They need
to know and cater for specific needs of the group as whole. This is not an easy task as
groups are not homogeneous. There are huge differences in the group’s age, interest,
cultural and educational backgrounds, linguistic ability, intelligence, etc. This has led to
much confusion and anxiety, especially amongst non- native teachers. Prior to CLT,
English teachers had to impart knowledge about the English language. Now, teachers
have to create conducive conditions for real communication to take place. They have to
initiate stimulating activities to encourage interaction and involvement of all their
students. In addition they must know their individual students and provide programmes to
meet their needs. They have to abandon their safe position of general language monitor to
the role of co-communicator. All this can be overwhelming for teachers trained for the
traditional teaching approach. For similar reasons man non native teachers often get
frustrated and revert to traditional methods. Insufficient levels of English can compound
their problem. These teachers can no longer rely on a prescribed sequence of material
dictated by a syllabus.
With CLT advocating the use of authentic resources, the textbook’s place is questioned.
The arguments against it were numerous- it was too general, boring restricted activity to
language presentation and controlled practice instead of stimulating real interaction.
There was a call to do away with textbooks. Teachers have the dilemma of letting go of
the textbook or retaining it as it offers a wealth of information, discipline of structure and
easy access. Non-native teachers gravitate towards textbooks as it ensures a great deal of
linguistic safety.
CLT cannot be expected to be successful without adequate teacher training. Even with retraining, older teachers find it difficult to make radical changes to their entrenched
teacher- centred approach. In China, according to Xiao Qing Liao , extensive teacher
training was conducted, as teachers’ inability to do their jobs well was a reason to reject
reform. Most Chinese teachers, especially in rural schools lack a sufficient level of
English proficiency.
77
Conclusion
A critical look at CLT reveals it has greater strengths than weaknesses. Despite some of
its shortcomings, it has made huge impact on methodology for teaching English to
speakers of other languages. Its greatest relevance lies in the fact that it engages learners
in authentic communication. It has also led to the development of other subsequent
effective methodology or approaches for ESL students. It has made us aware of the lack
of productivity of passive learners who merely rote learn expressions and repeat them,
even if inappropriate. Teachers now allow students to be more involved, interact, make
decisions, negotiate with activities that involve carrying out meaningful tasks, thus
promoting learning.
MI-Young Kim and Charles E Heerman (Kansas State University) found in their study
that most ESL teachers supported the CLT approach in the field of ESL. It can be applied
to new methods, material and even syllabi for language teaching and learning. Teachers
today do not feel tied to one true method. They are free to follow research and theory and
develop their own set of hypothesis about language acquisition.
In his provocative article A critical look at the communicative approach Michael Swan
agrees that CLT has directed our attention to other aspects of language besides
propositional meaning and helped us to analyze and teach the language of interaction. He
continues to add, “ Whatever the defects of the communicative theory of language and
syllabus design, the last fifteen years or so have seen enormous improvements in our
methodology.”(P.92)
With time, new language teaching approaches will evolve. Teachers try out new
techniques without giving up useful, older methods. New insights can certainly help us
teach more systematically and effectively. We have to realize that no one approach will
be answer to teaching English to speakers of other languages. Skilled teachers understand
the principles of Second language teaching and use a variety of approaches to meet the
needs of the learner.
References:
1.
Bowen , T. (2001). Using Authentic Reading Materials. The Onestop On-line
Magazine.
2.
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New
Jersey: Tina Carver.
3.
Couniham, G. (1998). Teach Students to Interact, Not Just Talk. The Internet
TESL Journal, Vol. IV, No.7.
78
4.
Crandell, J. (1999). Preparing Teachers for Real Classrooms. TESOL Matters
Vol. 9 No. 3 (1999).
5.
Galloway, A. (1993). Communicative Language Teaching :An Introduction and
Sample Activities. Washington. ERIC Digest.
6.
Harmer, J. (1998). How to Teach English. London: Longman.
7.
Kim, M.Y and Heerman, C. E. Teacher Perceptual Comparisons towards Two
Specific Communicative and Whole Language Dimensions in ESL Instruction. The
Internet TESL Journal.
8.
Le, T. (1999). TESOL Courseware. Grammar-translation orientation.
9.
Le, T. (1999). TESOL Courseware. Communicative Orientation.
10.
Liao, X. (2001). Tesol Matters VOL. 11, No. 1. What Influenced Teachers’
Adoption of the Communicative Approach in China?
11.
Long, M.H and Richard, J.C. (1987). Methodology in TESOL-A Book of
Readings. New York: Newbury House Publishers.
12.
Nunan, D. (1989). The Learner-Centred Curriculum. (2nd ed.). Glasgow:
Cambridge University Press.
13.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Massachusetts:
Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
14.
Richards and Rodgers (1986). Communicative Language Teaching. LingualLinks
Library.
15.
Rossner, R and Bolitho, R. (1990). Current Change in English Teaching. (2nd
ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
16.
Ryan, S. (2001). Overcoming Common Problems Related to Communicative
Methodology. Yamagata University .The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No.11,
November 2001.
17.
TESOL Courseware. Explanation Social Skills in Interperson Communication.
18.
TESOL Courseware. Communicative Orientation.
79
Teaching reading in TESOL: theory and practice
By: Jason Geyser
Introduction
Reading is essentially a receptive skill as people obtain meaning or receive information
from the written word that they see. Reading is best taught in an interactive learning
environment which emphasizes an integrated approach where reading is developed in
association with the other skills of writing, listening and speaking. Three decades of
research into second language reading pedagogy has revealed significant results in this
process which will ultimately affect the approach which we adopt in teaching this skill in
the classroom. The focus of this essay considers both the theoretical and practical aspects
of teaching reading in TESOL. Further exploration of these two aspects requires us to
review and examine a variety of issues such as: research on reading a second language;
reasons for reading; types of written language; strategies for reading
comprehension; types of classroom reading performance; interactive reading
techniques; reading problems and solutions. We will also examine an example of a
lesson plan designed to teach reading skills. As already mentioned, it is important to
remember that reading should be considered as a component of second language learning,
having an interrelated connection to the other skills, especially that of writing.
Research on reading a second language
As readers, what do we bring to the task of understanding a piece of discourse; how do
we decide what is important and how do we infer a writer’s message? Research on
reading a second language suggests that the understanding of a piece text is influenced by
what Cook (1989: 69) refers to as a ‘pre-existent knowledge of the world.’ This
knowledge incorporates information, culture, emotion and various other experiences
which are often referred to as schemata. We therefore make sense of what we read
(visual representations) by applying these schemata (or our understanding of various
patterns or conventions) in order to recognize what we see. We then try to fit this into
those patterns that we already know. Brown (2001) differentiates between content and
formal schemata. He describes content schemata as being that pre-existing knowledge
that we have about people, culture and the physical world around us. Formal schemata
on the other hand, consist of our knowledge of the structures of discourse itself. An
example of how we apply these schemata is evident in how we recognize the difference
between a telephone message, a memo, a newspaper article, a formal letter, different
genres and so the list goes on. This recognition may take place at either the text,
paragraph or sentence level. When we recognize the kind of text we are reading, we are
then able to make certain predictions as to the format of the particular text and what may
in fact happen next. It is the formation of these predictions and the implementation of
pre-existing knowledge which allows for greater comprehension and success on the part
of the reader. Without this pre-existing knowledge, comprehension is more difficult
80
especially for second or foreign language learners, who may draw on different language
conventions and patterns in their first language.
An important approach to reading methodology involves the distinction between what
has been termed bottom-up and top down processing. In bottom-up processing, readers
need to be able to recognize the various linguistic parts such as morphemes, syllables,
phrases and discourse markers. The reader, by looking at these individual linguistic parts,
attempts to extract meaning and comprehension by linking together the detailed sum of
these parts. In comparison, top-down processing involves the reader looking at the whole
and thereby generating a general, overall picture or understanding of the reading text.
Goodman (1970) suggested that all reading involves a certain degree of guessing where
the reader decides what information is important, what information should be retained
and what the writer was attempting to infer. Top-down processing involves, as mentioned
in the previous paragraph, the drawing on of our pre-existing knowledge or schemata in
order to understand the reading text. About five decades ago, most experts in this field
would have agreed that bottom-up methodology was the best way of teaching reading
skills in the classroom. More recent research however shows that that the best way of
teaching reading skills is by implementing a combination of bottom-up and top-down
processing, often referred to as interactive reading. This may seem evident if one
considers that sometimes the individual linguistic parts allow us to understand the whole
and sometimes it is our understanding of the whole which allows us to understand the
individual linguistic parts. Nuttall (1996) says that readers often continually transfer from
one approach to another (bottom-up or top-down) in order to best understand the reading
text. The relevance of bottom-up and top-down processing will become clear in terms of
practical application when we consider the various strategies for teaching reading
comprehension at a later stage in the course of this essay.
Reasons for reading
Having briefly considered the processes involved in reading a text, we will know focus
on individual motives for reading. As Harmer (2002) mentions, we assign different
reasons for reading depending on our motives and purpose for reading. This can be
demonstrated when one compares our motives when reading a train schedule to our
purpose when reading an adventure novel. Harmer divides our reasons for reading into
the two broad categories of instrumental and pleasurable. The first category refers to an
instrumental purpose for reading where we hope to achieve some clear aim. We may, for
example, read a train schedule to find out when our train arrives at the station and when it
departs to our required destination. The second category refers to the purpose of reading
for mere pleasure, such as the reading of novels, newspapers, magazines and comics.
Consideration of these two different reasons for reading will ensure that we, as teachers,
choose a variety of reading genres which will satisfy both the practical and intrinsic needs
of our learners. It is also important to make it clear to your students what the purpose is
of them reading a particular text, which will be further explored in the section which
covers the strategies for teaching reading comprehension.
81
Types of written language
It is important to consider the various different types of written language or genre so that
one is able to identify and include the various techniques in teaching reading in the
classroom. These types of written language or genre have certain conventions and rules
which enable the reader to identify the particular genre and thus be able to predict what
may come next. The genre determines the format, layout, audience (who the reader will
be), the register, style and appropriate language to be used. Here is a non- exhaustive list
of various genres:

Persuasive Writing: The primary purpose of persuasive writing is to use language
in order to influence others to do or believe what you want them to. This may be
done by providing supporting evidence, appealing to the reader’s emotions, using
rhetorical techniques, repeating for emphasis, using alliteration and so on.

Narrative Writing: The primary purpose of narrative writing is to attempt to
describe a personal experience or happening in the form of a story. This is
concerned with the plot, themes, setting, atmosphere and characters.

Descriptive Writing: The primary purpose of descriptive writing is to either
describe a person, a place or an event in such a way as to enable the reader to see
and feel what you are describing. This can be done by using clear and vivid
details. This may be effectively done by referring to the five senses of sight,
sound, touch, smell and taste.

Expository Writing: The primary purpose of expository writing is to give or
provide information in the form of either an explanation or by giving directions.

Report Writing: This form of writing is used to organize and record information.
It is written in order to describe or classify the way in which things are or appear
to be.

Argumentative Writing: This form of persuasive writing attempts to make a
statement that the reader will disagree with. Supporting arguments are then
provided to convince the reader of this statement.

Creative Writing: The purpose of creative writing is to entertain the reader.

Informative Writing: This form of expository writing attempts to provide
information in a very clear and concise way.

Comparison and Contrast Writing: This form of expository writing attempts to
show the similarities and difference between two subjects.

Literary Response: This form of expository writing attempts to provide a personal
response to a piece of literature.
82
When one encounters one of the aforementioned genres of writing, one usually has an
idea of the purpose for reading it – either instrumental or pleasurable. Knowing the
purpose for reading a particular text allows one to apply various schemata to the task. In
turn, these schemata enable us to decide what is important and what we should retain.
Second or foreign language learners, on the other hand, may not have encountered certain
genres and may not be able to distinguish between the differences in their rules and
conventions. The role of the teacher is therefore to expose learners to a variety of
different genres and their specific features, rules and conventions. Learners will then be
able to recognize and develop the strategies necessary to extract meaning and
comprehension from these various genres.
Strategies for reading comprehension
It has already been established that when reading various texts or genres, it is necessary
to both develop and apply appropriate strategies in order to ensure efficient
comprehension. The strategy to be applied for effective reading comprehension will
depend on what it is that is being read. We will apply a different combination of
strategies to reading a train schedule than those use when reading an adventure novel.
These may involve strategies connected to either bottom-up or top-down processes and
can find practical use in your classroom. We will now consider a number of these
strategies as expounded by Harmer (2001) and Brown (2001). These strategies include:
identifying the purpose for reading and the topic; predicting and guessing; reading for
general understanding; reading for specific information; interpreting and distinguishing
between literal and implied meaning and silent reading techniques.
Firstly, it is important for learners to identify the reasons for reading a particular text. It
is this knowledge which allows readers to decide what is important, what is unnecessary,
what should be retained and what they nee to look for. Another important skill for
learners to develop is the ability to identify the topic of a written text. This will, of
course, involve the application of the learner’s own schemata to get a quick overview of
the general topic discussed in the reading text. It is this ability which will assist the
learner to process the text more effectively and to be able to predict the coming course of
events.
Previously, we referred to Goodman’s (1970) suggestion that readers invoke a certain
degree of guessing and predicting in an attempt to understand the meaning of a text.
This may involve the reader trying to predict what will come next in the text or by
making certain assumptions on the basis of their own schemata in order to guess the
content before them. This guessing, as Brown (2002) mentions, can assist learners to
guess the meaning of: words, grammatical and discourse relationships, inferred meaning,
cultural reference and content messages. Brown does however caution us to encourage
learners to make calculated, informed and relatively accurate guesses as opposed to
random, unselective guesses. He further proposes that we help learners develop what he
refers to as ‘compensation strategies’ where learners make calculated attempts to use
language clues such as word associations and other clues such as context and available
83
schemata. Second or foreign language learners who begin to apply these guessing
strategies in order to understand a reading text are well on the path to becoming
independent and responsible learners.
Possibly the two most important strategies for reading comprehension are those of
skimming and scanning. Skimming involves learners ‘speed-reading’ or skimming one’s
eyes over the text in order to gain an overall, general understanding (also referred to as
gist). Learners should be encouraged to devote less attention to the individual meaning of
words and phrases. Learners may, for example, be asked to ‘speed-read’ through a text in
order to answer a general question such as, ‘Is this text about the advantages or
disadvantages of CCTV surveillance?’ Learners should attempt to develop a so-called
tolerance for guessing which can be improved by giving them time limits to ensure that
they skim read. Gist reading therefore encourages learners to develop their top-down
processes. Scanning involves the process of extracting specific information from a text
such as names, dates or definitions. This may involve understanding information or
specific language items in more detail. Learners may, for example, be asked to read a
text in detail in order to answer a specific question such as, ‘At what time did the train
depart from the station?’ To find this information in the text, we may ignore all the other
information in the text until we find the specific information we are looking for
(departure time). Brown (2001) notes that the skill of scanning is essential for academic
English and extremely useful for reading schedules and manuals when reading English
for general purposes.
When reading texts, we cannot only interpret meaning based on literal structures. Often a
reader has to look beyond surface meaning and attempt to understand what the writer is
implying or suggesting. This kind of interpretation places unique demands on the
reader (especially second or foreign language learners) and requires top-down processing
skills and various schemata. Consider the example where a person walks into a very cold
room that has an open window. The person exclaims how cold it is to the other occupants
in the room. This excerpt carries implied information – that the room is cold because of
the open window and that perhaps someone ought to close the window. When reading a
text we are able to create an expanded picture (in our mind) of a particular situation
which goes beyond the literal meaning of the words themselves. We are able to do this, as
we bring our own knowledge of the world to bear on the reading text in front of us,
therefore expanding what the writer was implying and allowing a more detailed and indepth reading experience.
Another strategy which can be implemented for reading comprehension is the use of
silent reading techniques to promote quicker comprehension. Brown (2001) adds that
this technique is more suitable for intermediate to advanced learners as beginner level
learners have limited command of vocabulary and grammatical structures. Although
some of the intermediate to advanced learners may not be able to read quickly, there are a
number of silent reading rules which Brow (2001) suggests may help them to improve
their reading efficiency. These rules include: not pronouncing each individual word to
themselves; to read phrases or chunks of language and not individual words and to ignore
words that are not crucial in understanding the text – guessing meaning from context. The
84
use of silent reading techniques will be further explored in the next section where we
consider the types of classroom reading performance.
Types of classroom reading performance
In the course of this essay, we have so far considered the research on reading a second
language, reasons for reading, types of written language and strategies for reading
performance. We will now focus on the different types of classroom reading performance
including oral and silent reading and intensive and extensive reading.
Essentially, reading is a skill that should be done individually and silently as opposed to
reading orally or out aloud. It is important to remember that learners read at different
speeds and in very different ways. Brown (2000) does however cite reasons where
occasional oral reading at the beginner and intermediate levels may serve a particular
purpose such as to check on pronunciation and in order to promote further student
participation. The disadvantages of reading orally or out aloud may seem clear when one
considers those occasions when you were at school and the teacher asked you to read a
paragraph from a text. Do you remember knowing that it was your turn to read next, and
reciting the next paragraph to yourself with little attention to the person reading orally at
that time? Do you remember feeling nervous, self-conscious and fearful of making a
mistake? This fear of making a mistake and subsequent ‘loss of face’ may be particularly
prevalent when teaching learners of Asian descent. Listening to other learners reading
out aloud may also be an extremely slow, tedious and boring activity especially if the
learners speak in a mono-tonal manner with little expression. Reading out aloud also does
little to instill enthusiasm and interest. Although reading orally may have the façade of
learner participation, it is often little more than recitation. An alternative may be:
 The teacher reads in an expressive and captivating way
 The learners read sections silently on their own then discuss and report to the
class in an open forum
 Learners could read to each other in small groups
Silent reading may be divided into intensive and extensive reading. When we looked at
the reasons for reading in a preceding section in this essay, we considered both
instrumental and pleasurable purposes for reading. Intensive reading usually refers to
tasks chosen and directed by the teacher for the purpose of developing specific reading
skills and strategies (instrumental). Intensive reading is usually a classroom-based
activity focusing on grammatical forms, structures or content. When considering
appropriate topics in the classroom, one should consider the age and the intellectual
maturity of the learners. Topics aimed at young learners should where possible focus on
concrete aspects of lifestyle and habit. For teenagers and young adults, it may be a good
idea to cover topics that they may relate to through their own experiences. This may
involve relationships, friendships, popular and social culture, exploring one’s
individuality etc. It is these topics which they will find stimulating and interesting. When
selecting appropriate materials, it is important that you consider the following criteria:
85

Is the topic appropriate?
It is vitally important that your students find the topic interesting. Furthermore,
the topic must be suitable for the particular age group and the
culture of the
students.

The length of the text
Reading texts should not be too long as reading in a second language can be
particularly demanding. You do not want to discourage or de-motivate your
students.

Language content
It is important that the text you have chosen contains a useful lexical set (travel,
health). There should be some grammar points which can be exploited thus
forming the basis of your language work.

Is the text generative?
Does the task lend itself to follow-up activities to follow the textual work?
Are there further opportunities to extend the reading task to either speaking or
writing? This will enable students to practice language they have learnt from
the text. This may include: role-play, discussions or the creation of something.
Extensive reading is usually undertaken in order to get a general understanding of longer
texts, novels or essays. Extensive reading is usually pleasurable and done outside of class
time. Within the realm of Communicative Language Teaching, the importance of
authentic materials is of central importance. This brings us to us to the rather
controversial issue of specially written materials for extensive reading, often referred to
as readers or ‘simplified’ texts. Readers are often used as part of an integrated English
course. The purpose of readers may simply be to encourage an interest in reading
English or to improve knowledge of vocabulary. Many readers are simplified texts
designed to foster a step-by-step approach to encouraging reading pleasure. Readers are
usually graded to suit particular ability levels, so it is important that teachers choose a
suitable level for their learners. Often, various activities are included at the back of
readers such as before reading, during reading and after reading activities and tasks.
Brown (2001:314) considers two conflicting views relating to the use of readers or
simplified texts. His first argument suggests that it is not necessary to simplify reading
materials and that by simplifying text; much of the ‘natural redundancy’ may be removed
rendering it more difficult to read than the original. Brown goes on to cite an opposing
view by Richard Day and Julian Bamford (1998:53) which contends that the
Communicative Language Teaching approach has over-stressed the importance of
authentic materials and that there is indeed a place for simplified reading texts in the
classroom.
Another issue which deserves attention when discussing extensive reading is the use of
novels in the classroom. Willi Real (2003), in his internet article Teaching English
Novels in the Foreign Language Classroom, highlights the complexities of dealing with
novels in the English language classroom. He goes on to say that when tackling novels, it
86
must be assumed that students have a certain command of basic grammatical structures
and vocabulary and also have experience in extensive reading and guessing meaning
from context. Furthermore, he mentions that students should understand that literary texts
are to be read on different levels: the literal level and the metaphorical/symbolical/ironic
etc. levels and that constant referral to a dictionary would undermine the reading
experience. What is a suitable literary text for second language learners? Well, as
mentioned before, language difficulty is an important consideration as this may restrict
access if learners can’t gain a basic level of comprehension. Another consideration is
access on an experiential level, whereby students identify with the feelings, thoughts and
ideas of the author. This self-discovery in turn, leads learners to appreciate and enjoy the
text.
Carter and Long (1991), add that it is difficult to separate literary and language
competence and that they will always be dependant on one another. The enjoyment of
literary text however, does not always need to be inhibited by language difficulty as a text
that is both motivating and exciting may help learners overcome these barriers. Many
teachers opt for the use of graded or simplified readers. These, in themselves can help
advance literary competence by offering well-constructed and interesting material.
Literary competence is defined by Carter and Long as ‘the ability to infer a message’
(p.6).
It is this literary competence which may or may not develop in second language learners
depending on their exposure to literature in their first language. A teacher who selects
materials which are motivating and which instills a desire to read and interpret may
indeed stimulate such competence. Classical literary texts such as Shakespeare may
however not always be the best choice for encouraging such motivation. Linguistic
analysis of literary texts has its place in the second language classroom especially with
advanced learners. One of the main areas of concern when one considers such literary
analysis is a propensity for it to be teacher-centered. This may on one level, offer some
analytical tools necessary for students to apply to other texts, but undermines the students
own experience of the text.
A language-based approach is essentially concerned with the processes of reading where
methods from the language teaching classroom are applied to the teaching of literature. It
is precisely these learner-centered activities which aim to assist learners in their
exploration of literary texts. It must be remembered that reading literary text is not simply
an extension of language teaching. If this were the case, the pleasure of reading literature
may be lost. Traditionally, the teaching of literature has been a teacher-centered process,
allowing for limited opportunity for students to contrive their own ideas and feelings
towards a literary text. A student-centered approach encourages learners to develop their
own opinions, feelings and responses to a literary text. It is then envisaged that learners
will be able to apply these proficiencies to further reading of texts for their own benefit.
This would of course involve uninterrupted (if possible) reading of the text by the learner
and subsequent disclosure of their responses to the teacher or the other students. Prereading should be seen as desirable for a number of reasons. Firstly, if one wishes to
interpret the first part of the literary text, it is important to know the context of the whole.
87
It is only in this context that various aspects such as irony etc. become apparent.
Secondly, in addition to reading a literary text on their own, students should be
encouraged to read for gist (general meaning) and not for specific detail. This could be
complemented by students completing a reading journal in order to reflect on what has
happened in the literary text up to that point and to predict/hypothesize about how the
text may continue. Students could in this way draw parallels with their own experiences,
films or television thereby identifying with certain characters and their patterns of
behaviour.
Learners will thus be able to make their own value judgments instead of simply accepting
the judgments and opinions of the teacher (not that the teacher is wrong). It is argued by
Carter and Long that the mere fact that students are able to formulate their own
judgments and opinions concludes that the students must have read the text. This would
undoubtedly ‘have been in itself a literary experience’ (p.25).
Creating interactive reading techniques
In a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) environment, it is important to ensure
that learners receive ample exposure to the development of skills and strategies (as
mentioned earlier). Extensive reading opportunities promote fluency and automaticity
(automatic recognition of words). It is vitally important to ensure that learners remain
motivated by choosing interesting and relevant reading texts which will satisfy their
particular goals. Brown (2001) suggests that this aim can be accomplished by allowing
learners a choice in selecting reading texts. Further motivation may be enhanced by
encouraging learners to gauge their own progress through self-assessment. Another
important principle for creating interactive reading techniques is to include both bottomup and top-down techniques. In addition, it is a good idea to divide your reading
techniques into pre-reading, during reading and post-reading sub-divisions (refer to
the reading lesson plan further on in this essay).
Finally, it is important to be able to assess learners’ comprehension of the reading text,
which can be done by utilizing effective classroom feedback. This will provide the
teacher with a clear idea as to whether the students have understood the language item
and whether further explanation and practice is required. The teacher may simply select
different students to answer questions from the set task or write the answers on the white
board. It is important for the teacher to explain difficult items and ensure that the students
have an adequate understanding before moving on to the next task. Students should be
encouraged to correct their own work, making notes if necessary. What is more, a teacher
can make use of a reading checklist in order to monitor a learner’s reading development
and progress. The following checklist serves as an example which can be added to and
adapted to suit the requirements of the course (simply place a tick in the relevant box –
weak/ fair /good):
88
Reading
Weak
Reads confidently
Reads fluently and
accurately
Expresses preferences
Locates information
Refers to text in
explanations
Understands fact and
opinion
Understands main points
Uses information
Reads and understands:
advertisements
fiction
Newspaper articles
Non-fiction
poetry
Television scripts
Able to use:
dictionary
thesaurus
Fair
Good /
Consistent
Reading problems and solutions
Teaching and learning reading skills presents a variety of problems which will need to be
addressed. These problems will include those relating to language, topic and the tasks
that learners may be expected to complete. We will consider a few of these in the table
below:
89
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
script problems (Arabs, Iranians, Orientals)
limit the amount of text (discretely). - enlarge
text for students with problems.
unknown vocabulary
pre-teach essential vocabulary (max. 4-5 words).
Emphasize don't need 100 % understanding.
Encourage individual questions quickly. Only
deal with the meaning in the text. Dictionaries
(sensible use).
slow or word for word reading
set a time limit to encourage gist reading. Set
tasks which discourage word for word reading.
problems of identifying style
gist task to establish / clarify text type so that
students have benefit of contextual clues and
their own experience.
dull text
create interest (crucial!!!). Choose texts
carefully! Vary topics and genre. Activate their
knowledge so that they bring their schemata to
the text.
distractions
reading is essentially a silent individual activity.
Some students like background music, others
are distracted.
long texts
read at home, discuss in class (class time is
precious). Divide into sections to create
speaking jigsaws.
students have read the text already
tell them not to read certain texts.
text set for homework, but some students
haven't read it
put those who have read in groups to explain to
those that haven't i.e. change skills focus.
A reading lesson plan
Lessons may be put together in a variety of ways, using a number of strategies to fulfill
the lesson aims and objectives. It is always a good idea to be prepared before stepping
into the classroom. This will help you to better cope with any eventuality that may
present itself. So, remember – prepare thoroughly and remain flexible and adaptable. If
90
something is not working, be prepared to disregard the plan. Teach the learners and not
the plan – always responding to what is taking place in the classroom. Planning is
important as it raises awareness and encourages teachers to think carefully through their
aims and procedures.
Having considered the theoretical and practical issues in teaching reading; we will now
apply these to the preparation of a lesson plan. This kind of lesson allows a logical
sequence from one activity to the next leading to a pre-determined objective. The teacher
should have predicted any possible problems which may arise in class and have thought
of possible ways to overcome these in the classroom. This lesson plan may be used in
conjunction with a variety of reading texts including newspaper articles, magazine
articles, news items, short stories and brochures.
Here is an example of a reading skills lesson. The teacher will begin the lesson with a
Warmer activity and conclude with Revision. This lesson plan is designed to be adapted
for different proficiency levels from beginners to advanced learners and includes some
bottom-up skills and top-down processing.
91
Warmer /
Revision
Pre-teach
vocabulary
/ pronunc.
Start
&
Finish
Reading for
gist activity
Add-on /
follow-up
activity
Feedback
Feedback
Reading for
specific
informat.
activity
92
Here is the same procedure discussed in more detail:
STAGE:
AIMS:
PROCEDURE:
2. Pre – teach vocabulary
To help students with
potential vocabulary
problems (N.B. not all
unknown vocabulary - just
that which is essential to
understanding this text).
Pre-teach vocabulary items
or Provide glossary on your
text.
3. Reading for gist /
general idea
To provide purpose and
focus for reading. To enable
you to obtain feedback on
their comprehension.
Set 3 or 4 questions or
simple tasks (e.g. grid filling
or ticking boxes) aimed at
checking understanding of
gist or extracting relevant
information (you could elicit
from students what they
would like to find out from
text)
4. Reading Task
To give practice in reading.
Students read text (silently).
(N.B. set time limit for
reading to encourage
students to read quickly and
not get bogged down by
individual, unknown words).
5. Feedback
To obtain feedback on what
students have understood.
Get answers to questions. If
necessary read part of the
text again to focus on difficult
questions. (N.B. students can
compare their answers in
pairs first).
6. Reading for Detail /
Specific Information
To give students practice in
another reading sub-skill
(e.g. reading for detail,
deducing meaning of
unknown words from context,
identifying attitude).
Set task appropriate to this
aim. Students re-read text (or
part of text).
1. Warmer
To generate interest in the
topic and enable students to
anticipate likely content.
Show pictures, headlines,
controversial statements.
Relate topic to students'
personal experience where
relevant.
93
7. Follow-up activity
Or
Highlight language item (e.g.
grammatical structure,
functional exponent, set of
vocabulary), check meaning
and form and set up practice
activity.
Provide freer oral or written
practice around topic of text.
Set up discussion, role play
or writing activity related to
topic of text.
Focus on a language item
found in text and provide
practice in its use.
8. Revision
Plenary or Closing.
Draw the lesson to a
conclusion by tying up
loose ends and
reviewing what has
been studied and
learnt.
Cover vocabulary items
taught. Review grammar
points or writing
structures.
Conclusion
During the course of this essay, we have explored both the theoretical and practical
aspects of teaching reading in TESOL and how this impacts on the Communicative
Language Teaching classroom. It has also been emphasized that reading should be taught
in association with the skills of writing, listening and speaking in what has been termed
an integrated approach. As with many approaches, the Communicative Language
Teaching approach has seen the ‘pendulum swing to far’ in over-emphasizing the
importance of authentic materials. Non-authentic and semi-authentic (readers) materials
certainly have their place in the classroom if the texts are appropriate, motivating, not too
long and are generative. Reading materials should develop interactive reading techniques
(bottom-up and top-down processing) and strategies as well as fluency and automaticity.
Furthermore, the importance of effectively assessing learners’ reading comprehension,
development and progress has been stressed when designing or implementing interactive
reading techniques. Reasonably accurate assessment of reading performance and progress
will allow the teacher to determine whether these strategies for reading performance have
been successfully assimilated by the learner leading to effective comprehension.
94
References
Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc – second edition.
Carter, Ronald and Long, Michael. 1991. Teaching Literature. Longman.
Cook, G. 1989. Discourse. Oxford University Press.
Day, Richard. R. and Bamford, Julian. 1998. Extensive Reading in the Second Language
Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Geyser, J. Peter. 2006. English to the World: Teaching Methodology Made Easy. August
Publishing.
Geyser, J. Peter. 2006. English to the World: Teaching Reading Made Easy. August
Publishing.
Geyser, J. Peter. 2006. English to the World: Teaching Writing Made Easy. August
Publishing.
Goodman, Kenneth. S. 1970. Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. In Singer, H.
and Ruddell, R.B. (Eds.), Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education
Limited.
Nuttall, Christine. 1996. Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. Second
Edition. Oxford: Heinemann.
Real, Willi. 2003. Teaching English Novels in the Foreign Language Classroom. Internet
based article.
95
Discovery Techniques
Author: Adrian Tennant
Type: reference material
Tips and activities for teaching using the discovery technique.
Anchor Point:1 Introduction
What is the discovery technique?
Grammar can either be taught explicitly or implicitly. When we talk about an explicit
approach to grammar we are talking about stating directly, usually at the beginning of a
particular activity, what the grammar is. For example, “Today we are looking at the third
conditional.” On the other hand an implicit approach to grammar is one where the
students are ‘led’ to the grammar through a series of steps – this is what is meant by the
‘discovery technique’. In other words, the ‘discovery technique’ aims to lead students
towards a generalised grammar rule or pattern.
Isn’t that the same as task-based learning?
No. Certainly task based learning is one form of ‘discovery technique’ but not the only
way. In task-based learning the focus is on carrying out communicative tasks without
specific focus on form. However, it is possible in the ‘discovery technique’ to be
predominantly concerned with the form. The idea is that students will ‘discover’ the
grammar through a series of steps (these might be tasks, language awareness activities,
pictures, questions etc) and will deduce both the form and the meaning from the
context(s).
Why use the discovery technique?
One reason is that students often surprise us with what they already know or half-know.
By using the ‘discovery technique’ we learn more about their knowledge and abilities
eliciting information from them rather than telling things to them.
Also, as Scrivener writes:
Giving students chances to be exposed to, or to attempt to use, language ‘above’ their
apparent level of knowledge of grammar is extremely useful and greatly aids future work
on grammar. This approach celebrates what students can do – and clarifies precisely what
still needs to be worked on. (Learning Teaching p115).
Anchor Point:2
An example activity
 Level : Intermediate/Upper Intermediate
 Grammar point: 3rd Conditional
96


Function: Speculating about past possibilities (what might have happened).
Materials: magazine pictures (optional) or board drawings.
Procedure - setting the context
Use the following story to set the scene & try to elicit the form:
This is John
(show a picture of a man looking unhappy)
Question: Does he look happy?
(Elicit the response – No)
Q: Why do you think he’s unhappy?
(Elicit a few ideas)
Well, John was going to meet his friend
( show a picture of a woman) Jane.
Q: What do you think happened?
(Elicit that John didn’t turn up)
John didn’t wake up until
(Elicit a time, and draw a clock) ____.
Because he woke up late he missed
(show a picture of a bus)
John tried to phone Jane but his mobile phone didn’t work.
(Elicit that he’d forgotten to charge it the previous night).
Jane waited for
(elicit a length of time e.g. an hour) and then she left.
Q: Where do you think she went?
(Try to elicit ‘nightclub’ & show a picture).
In the club Jane met
(show a picture of another man & elicit a name).
Jane and _____
(try to elicit fell in love) and they (try to elicit got married)
Note 1: You can build on this story.
Note 2: Use ideas elicited from your students BUT make sure that you keep the story on
track (it is quite easy to go off on a tangent).
Anchor Point:3 Looking at the meaning
Now you can ask questions based on the story to try to elicit the structure (you will be
surprised how many students already know the structural form of a grammatical item but
are not necessarily aware of its use). Start by asking questions that focus on the events:
e.g..
 Did John meet Jane? No.
 Why not? Because he missed the bus.
97

Imagine John had caught the bus. (try to elicit the sentence: If John had caught the
bus, he would have met Jane).
If you elicit the sentence ask the following questions:
 Did John catch the bus? No.
 Did he miss the bus? Yes.
 Did he meet Jane? No.
 Why? Because he missed the bus.
You can focus on each event in the story by asking a similar set of questions. e.g.
 Did John try to phone Jane? Yes.
 Did he manage to call her? No.
 Why not? Because his mobile phone wasn’t working.
 Why? Because he had forgotten to charge it. (Try to elicit the sentence: If John h
 ad charged his phone, he would have been able to call Jane.) etc.
If you are unable to elicit a sentence containing the structure (3rd conditional) after two
or three attempts then give the students an example. Then try to elicit sentences referring
back to the model you have provided.
Note: Re-focussing on the meaning, use and structure is key to the discovery technique.
98
Task Based Language Learning
From ICALwiki
The Theory
A task-based approach to language learning and teaching focuses on the use of authentic
language and involves getting the students to do meaningful tasks using the target
language (English). In current good practice this approach is recognized as an effective
means of developing students’ language output and interaction.
The tasks are goal-oriented activities which have a clear purpose like: filling a form,
visiting the doctor, making a complaint, asking for directions, etc.
In a Task Based Language Learning (TBLL) lesson assessment is primarily based on
task outcome that is on the appropriate completion of tasks, rather than on accuracy of
language forms.
It is widely acknowledged that TBLL as a method of instruction in the field of language
acquisition encourages language fluency and increases students' confidence.
The Practice
In order to achieve optimum conditions for language acquisition, and thus provide rich
learning opportunities to suit different types of learners, Jane Willis from Aston
University (UK) recommends teachers break TBLL into three sections:
1. Pre-Task
2. Task Cycle
3. Language Focus
In the Pre-Task the teacher presents the task to the students by exploring the topic,
highlighting useful words and phrases and generally helping the students understand task
instructions and prepare. Part of a text, a recording or a video clip showing others doing a
similar task may be used as a lead in to the task.
99
The Task Cycle consists of: Task > Planning > Report

Task - students do the task, in pairs or small groups whilst the teacher monitors
from a distance, encouraging but not correcting.

Planning - students plan what to report to the whole class (how they did the task;
what they decided or discovered, etc.) In this stage the teacher stands by to give
language advice, if required.

Report - The reports are presented to the whole class and results are compared.
The teacher acts as a chairperson and then comments on the content of the reports.
In this phase part of a text, a recording or a video clip showing others doing a
similar task may be used to compare it with what the students presented.
The Language Focus has two aspects: Analysis and Practice

Analysis - students examine and then discuss specific features of the text or
transcript of the recording. They can enter new words, phrases and patterns in
vocabulary books.

Practice - the teacher conducts practice of new words, phrases, and patterns
occurring in the data, either during or after the Analysis.
The Task-Based Syllabus
A task-based syllabus is based on a communicative language teaching approach.
Designing this type of syllabus involves first and foremost a needs analysis. Instead of
basing the syllabus on a list of grammatical, functional and notional items, a needs
analysis is conducted to identify the language functions, that is, the tasks that the students
will need to accomplish outside the classroom, for example:




Asking and Understanding Directions
Completing a job application
Ordering office supplies
Checking into an hotel
Once the language functions have been identified, the teacher will need to determine the
appropriate language targets, that is, the language and skills that the students will need to
acquire in order to carry out those tasks.
Next the teacher will need to sequence the functions logically and in order of difficulty,
and then create exercises designed to develop the required knowledge and skills for each
function.
100
Language functions: the communicative requirements of the students or the reasons we
use language – greeting, arguing, finding information, talking about future plans, etc.
Language targets: the language we need to accomplish the above. What we are going to
teach so that the students can accomplish the tasks, for example: stationary vocabulary,
imperatives, prepositions, modal verbs, etc.
101
Listening Comprehension
FromICALwiki
http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Listening_Comprehension
Listening Comprehension is one of the four main skills areas in English language
learning along with reading, writing and speaking. Essentially it is the ability to listen and
understand English.
The basic process for a beginner is:
listening > translating to MT > comprehension
As the student becomes more proficient in English the translation phase is slowly
removed with the translation only happening for words or phrases the student is not
completely familiar with.
listening > comprehension
listening > no comprehension > translation to MT > comprehension
The goal eventually is to completely drop the translation phase.
In the Classroom
For the teacher any listening comprehension exercise needs preparation. It is not good to
jump straight in and give the students a listening exercise and expect them to understand
it completely. For one, this does not reflect the way in which we listen in real life.
For example, real life listening scenarios will include: talking with friends, listening to
the radio, listening to announcements, receiving instructions and so on. With each of
102
these native speakers will usually have some idea of what they are going to be listening to
before they hear it. If you are at a railway station, for example, and there is an
announcement you will normally assume that it will relate to the train schedule, a delay,
security baggage announcement or perhaps a lost child having been found. You would
not expect the railway announcer to talk about what was on TV last night.
And thus it is with you as a teacher: before playing the tape, you should prepare your
students. Tell them that they are about to hear a conversation between an antique dealer
and an old lady he is visiting and then get your students to predict what the conversation
is likely to be about.
Your can discuss this with your students and build up a list of likely vocabulary. When
the tape is played your students will already know the meaning of possibly difficult
words and will thus not get stuck in the translation phase of the listening comprehension.
Method
In giving a listening comprehension to your class you can follow this general method:
1. warm up on the general theme of the listening
2. listen for gist
3. check for comprehension
3. listen for detail
4. check for comprehension
5. practice using new words/phrases from the listening
On a practical level, make sure all the students can hear the listening properly. You may
need to move students for this. Also, to help you can turn the treble control up and the
bass control down if you have these.
Resources
These days there are plenty of resources for listening. You can go online and download
everything from spoken recipes to airport timetables easily (often as Podcasts).
Remember, of course, to make the subject of the listening comprehension relevant to
your students! There's no point in giving 10 year olds a recording of a political debate!
103
Role Plays
From ICALwiki
Role Playing in the Classroom
Role Plays or Simulations are an extremely valuable method for learning and practicing
the TL.
Essentially the students are placed in a certain fictitious situation where they must use
English. It allows creativity on the part of the student and offers a freer practice than
written tests. The role play situation is easily chosen but should be related to the current
language level of the students and ideally related thematically to the work they are doing.
Of course it should also be related to the reason they are studying English and, ideally, be
fun also.
For example, an intermediate group of business people might have a role play involving
ordering goods over the telephone; a group of teenagers do a role play where they
interview their favourite film star; a doctor role plays consulting with a patient on a
medical problem.
Almost any situation can be turned into a role play.
Preparation
This is very important. You should avoid jumping straight into a role play as it can
backfire and prove to be nothing more than a waste of time. With all your students, make
sure they are gently introduced to role plays: don't, for example, call two inexperienced
students up to the front of the class to do a role play with no preparation or practice
beforehand!
Decide:


what key language or language function the role play will practice
what is the role play situation (this will depend on your class; it can't be a
situation alien to them or likely to cause embarrassment or distress)
104
Next you need to decide how the role play is going to take place. This will depend a lot
on the level of your class. With good advanced students you might be able to place them
in a situation and let them improvise freely:
Enrico, you work at the local tourist office here as a guide. Martha, you are visiting the
town and have a few hours to spare; you go and see Enrico to ask him where and what
you can do here.
With other classes and levels you might have to arrange things in more detail. This could
involve preparing cards with pertinent details on them for the students to use as reference
and help:
Name:
Joe Fonebone, tour guide
Places to visit
The Cathedral Opening Hours 10 - 2; € 10 entrance; women must wear headscarf
The Art
Opening Hours 11 - 6; € 15 entrance; currently a Picasso exhibition
Gallery
Opening Hours 11 - 6; free entrance; currently an Ancient Greek
The Museum
exhibition
Name:
Sally Smith, tourist
Has only € 10 to spare!
In the example here not only were the students given information to help them with the
discussion, but decisions were forced on them by the limit of € 10.
Pre Teaching
In the classroom, set the scene. Do not just launch into things but ask questions, set tasks
and generally get the students mentally preparing themselves with the right vocabulary
and grammar (whether they realise this or not).
Decide who will participate. If the class is unused to role plays then it is better to have
them work all together rather than take a pair of small group to the front to have them
"perform" in front of the rest of the class. One option is to have the whole class working
on the role play at the same time (with you walking around checking) and then choose a
couple of good students to come to the front and perform for the rest of the class.
105
Songs in the Classroom
From ICALwiki
Songs are great tools to use in the classroom. Everyone likes listening to music and the
right song can not only be fun for the students (and teacher) but also be used in an
effective way to teach.
Popular song lyrics are often very simple and mostly in the first person. They use rhyme
which can help in remembering and the language is often conversational.
Choosing a Song
A couple of things to bear in mind here. Songs are very generational and music which
you as a teacher may think is classic and cool is likely to induce groans from your
students, especially if they are teenagers. There are ways round this though: select music
which is either "classic" (which isn't always so easy) or get your students to give you the
names of artists they like. It's easy enough to get hold of music which your students like
and which is suitable for the class. You can get a list of popular songs in one lesson and
use one or two several weeks later and surprise the class.
Song Activities
Here are a few ideas on how you can use songs in the class.
Missing Words
Essentially this is a gap fill exercise. Print out the lyric sheet of a song but with gaps
where some words should go. Hand out the sheet to the students and have them (in
groups) try to work out what words would fit in well in that space. Sometimes it's
obvious:
106
When we moved apart
You broke my .....
But sometimes it's not:
When we ...... apart
You broke my heart.
Once this has been done you can compare what different groups have put together.
Which words work (i.e. they have the right number of syllables and scan well) and which
words don't.
Then you give the students a new copy of the lyric sheet with the missing words. This
time they listen to the song (a couple of times if that's enough) and complete the missing
words.
Afterwards it's good to compare the students' version with the artist's version. It's often
the case that the lyrics the students have chosen can make the song sound better and
there's plenty of scope for discussion on the way in which the meaning has changed.
Lyric Strips
Print out the lyrics with wide gaps between each line then cut the lyrics into strips with
one line per strip. Jumble up the strips. With the students in groups, hand out bundles of
lyric strips and have the students reassemble the song and tape them together.
Go through the different versions in the class and then compare it to the original.
Song Writing
Present the students with the first verse and chorus of the song. Work with them to
establish the number of syllables and the structure of the verse and then have them (in
groups) write two or three more verses.
Depending on the level of the class you can give them a few phrases to help them along.
107
Process Writing
From ICALwiki
Writer's Block
Writing is not just a matter of putting pen to paper. It requires some thought and a certain
level of language skills.
We talk about good writing when the written work - be it an essay or an email, a poem or
a business letter, expresses a clear point, has substance, is tightly structured, is
grammatically and syntactically correct, and last but not least, is interesting.
Put in these terms it is clear why writing is often referred to as an Art.
Writing effectively is a challenge for many English native speakers. Our prose may have
substance but lack grammatical correctness; it may be tightly structured but vague in
content. You can imagine therefore how much more difficult it must all be for your ESL
students, who try to master this Art in a foreign language.
A way you can help your ESL students is by adopting Process Writing.
What It is
Process Writing (PW) focuses on the process of creating writing rather than the end result
- the written work.
PW consists of five stages:





prewriting
drafting
revising
editing
publishing
Although the five stages are logically sequenced, students can move back and forth
among these stages while process writing.
108
Basically, process writing is a technique to help students understand that their written
work doesn’t need to be perfect the first time round. They can, and in fact they should,
view their writing as a work in progress. Revising and editing, if done constructively and
according to an initial plan, should be part of their work and never dismissed as a waste
of time.
Students, especially when sitting for their written exams, often feel a lot of pressure to
deliver a good piece of writing the moment they get their blank piece of paper to fill in.
This in turns causes them a lot of anxiety and a general sense of failure, even before they
start. By training your students in process writing you can improve their state of mind and
general performance. And who knows, you may even discover a few talented writers in
your class!
How It Works
Get your students to plan and gather ideas for their piece. Then have them put those ideas
in a rough draft. The next stage is to get them to revise and improve their draft. Have
them reread their work and share it with a partner or small group; they can then make
changes in their writing using the feedback they received from their classmates. Once this
is over you move them on to editing their piece. This is the time when students need to
concentrate on correcting any grammar or spelling mistakes.
Finally students can publish their work, that is, they get others to read it. This can be
achieved in a number of ways when the work is in its final form.
Where to Implement It
The implementation of Process Writing can take several forms. Some examples of
classroom application include writers' workshop, writing across the curriculum, the use of
journals or logs, and modeled writing.
If your school has a computer lab then make the most of it and have your students work
on the PCs. That way work can be easily saved, edited, sent on to other students for
revision, and eventually printed out. If the school does not have broadband and emailing
back and forth is difficult simply have your students swap computers to review each
other's work.
For the Teacher
When planning a lesson on Process Writing you can go two ways.
You can either prepare a plan yourself to then pass on to your students or (depending on
the age, competence level and motivation of your students) you can work on the planning
stage with them.
109
Either way, start by brainstorming and noting any ideas that come to mind. Decide which
of these ideas are most relevant to the writing task. Plan the way in which the piece of
work should be organised. Think of how you could start, what is going to be your main
point how you would like to wrap it up, and so on.
Once the writing plan is drawn, students can start writing.
Make sure they are aware that the focus for the first draft will be on content rather than
accuracy. Let them know that grammar and spelling mistakes - though obviously better
avoided - are allowed at this stage. This is not to encourage any lax approach to grammar
but simply to keep the focus on substance rather than form.
During the revision stage get the students first to look at content, relevance and
organisation of ideas in their first draft and see if they are any major problems. For this
they can pass their piece of work to others in the class. We all know how a second set of
yes can spot things we never noticed! Also by exchanging opinions students will start to
appreciate that there isn't just one good way to organise a piece of writing and hopefully
they will gain more confidence in their organizational skill.
Once your students are happy with the content, get them to look at the more technical
aspects of writing: grammar, vocabulary, spelling and punctuation.
Here again, as in the drafting stage, it is important that students don’t feel overwhelmed
by the task of achieving accuracy. Checking grammar, vocabulary, spelling and
punctuation all at one time is a tall order and would put anyone off!
Break the task into mini review tasks. Select a grammar item you know is often
problematic for them, and likely to be recurrent in this piece of writing, and ask them to
concentrate on that only. Then have them look at another targeted grammar item. And so
on. Don’t worry about having three, four, even five mini reviews. By breaking it up in
piece meal, manageable chunks you are helping your students to stay focused throughout
and hopefully spot as many mistakes as possible.
Depending on the competence level of their student, and often due to time restrictions,
some teachers opt to review their students’ work themselves. We don’t advise this
practice but if you feel it would be useful to your class then see our article Error
Correction for best ways to approach this.
Time
A final note with regards to time. Often as teachers we may be bound to a set syllabus or
the school schedule, which forces us to fit everything into one lesson. Try to avoid falling
into that trap!
Process writing is in stages and should be taken in stages. Whenever possible you should
spread out the work over a number of lessons and even set some of it for homework.
110
Language Skills
From ICALwiki
There are 4 basic Language Skills




listening
speaking
reading
writing
You can see that these can be grouped in different ways:


method of communication: oral (listening/speaking) or written (reading/writing)
direction of communication: receiving (listening/reading) or producing
(speaking/writing)
In general, the way in which we learn these skills are in this order: listening, speaking,
reading, writing.
Listening
Listening is not only hearing but also understanding what is being said. In general there
are two kinds of listening: active where we are in a face to face conversation or on the
phone, etc; and passive when we watch television or listen to the radio.
Within this skill area there are also sub-skills which need to be learnt:












discriminate among the distinctive sounds in the new language
recognise stress and rhythm patterns, tone and intonation
recognise reduced forms of words
distinguish word boundaries
recognise typical word-order patterns
recognise vocabulary
detect key words, such as those identifying topics and ideas
guess meaning from context
recognise grammatical word classes
recognise basic syntactic patterns
recognise cohesive devices
detect sentence constituents, such as subjects, verbs, objects, prepositions, and so
on
Speaking
As with listening, speaking can be active or passive. Active speaking is when we speak
on the phone or face to face and there is interaction between the speaker and listener.
111
Passive speaking is when we speak with no interruptions or feedback from others (e.g.
giving a speech).
Sub-skills here include:







pronunciation
using stress, rhythm and intonation well enough so that people can understand
what is said
using the correct forms of words
putting words together in correct word order
using appropriate vocabulary
using the appropriate language register
building an argument
Reading
Reading is well developed in most societies. Sub-skills here include:









deciphering the script (Roman, Greek, Chinese and so on)
recognising vocabulary
picking out key words
understanding the meaning of the words (sometimes from context)
recognising grammatical word classes: nouns, adjectives, etc
recognising basic syntax
use our real-world knowledge to infer meaning
distinguishing the main idea from supporting details
adjust reading strategies to different reading purposes: skimming, reading for gist,
reading for detail, studying, etc
Writing
Sub-skills here include:




spelling, alphabet and punctuation
using the correct grammar
using the correct vocabulary
style appropriate to the circumstances:
o prose
o poetry
o business reports
o love letter
o resignation letter
o memo
o shopping list
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Skills"
112
Second Language Acquisition
From ICALwiki
The way in which someone learns a second language is known as Second Language
Acquisition or SLA.
Overview
SLA is often regarded as mimicking the way in which native speakers acquire their first
language and it is often felt that imitating this methodology in the classroom is the most
useful way to help learners acquire a second language.
There are several main phases involved here and as a teacher if you understand that all
students will go through these phrases it will help with your understanding and
acceptance of the student’s abilities.
Stage 1: Preproduction
During this phrase the students receive input in the TL. They may develop a passive
vocabulary of some 500 or so words but not feel comfortable using them; instead they are
content to listen while the teacher talks and this is also known as the Silent Period.
At this stage the students communicate with single words or gestures such as pointing to
a person or object or perhaps answering with a single word yes or no.
This being the case, the teacher shouldn't really push the students to speak as although it
may seem like they are doing nothing, they are absorbing the sounds and rhythm of the
language. Even when students do speak, they may merely be parroting what you say
rather than producing language per se.
Stage 2: Early Production
By this time students have a vocabulary of some 1,000 words and they can use them in
context, usually in one or two word phrases. During this phase as a teacher you can:




ask yes/no questions
accept 1 or 2 word responses
build vocabulary
use plenty of pictures and realia
113
Stage 3: Speech Emergence
Students by this time have a vocabulary of 3,000 words and they can use short phrases
and simple sentences to communicate. They can get involved in simple dialogues and ask
questions. Although they will be able to produce longer sentences, they will often contain
errors.
It is not necessary to correct those errors explicitly. For example:
Student: I go toilet? Teacher: Can I go to the toilet? Student: Yes, I go toilet?
The student will hear your correction but will not necessarily be able to produce the
correct sentence. This isn't a problem.
Stage 4: Intermediate
This is a continuation of the previous stage; vocabulary has grown to some 6,000 words
and students can produce more complex phrases and utterances, state opinions, ask for
clarification and speak at greater length.
At this stage, students will often use strategies (i.e. grammar and sometimes vocabulary)
from the MT to help. This may well lead to MT Influence errors which should be pointed
out explicitly.
Stage 5: Advanced
To get to this stage will usually take some 5 or more years depending on circumstances.
Students have developed specialist areas of vocabulary and can participate in most
language situations. Ideally they will be using the grammar and vocabulary of a similarly
aged native speaker.
Input/Output Levels
As a teacher, when you are in the classroom the language you use and teach should be
very slightly above the current ability of the students.
If, for example, your beginners class can understand What is your name? then you can
ask them something slightly above that grammatical level such as What is her name?. In
other words, get them to stretch themselves slightly to understand.
Likewise, your students should be encouraged to produce language slightly above their
abilities. Encourage your students to use the new language they've just learned in the
classroom in an easy environment.
(Unlike most subjects, with language it is expected and natural to make mistakes during
learning and practice. Outside the classroom this can often cause embarrassment but your
114
classroom should be a "safe haven" where students can make as many mistakes as they
like without fear of ridicule; making mistakes is a part of language learning.)
115
Effective Classroom Management
By:Adam Waxler
I often have teachers ask me what is the best approach to classroom management?
As a veteran teacher I have seen far too many teachers fail because of classroom
management problems. (Remember, classroom management and student achievement are
directly related.)
And, all too often I see teachers resort to all types of crazy classroom management plans
trying to get a handle on student behavior.
Unfortunately, many of these classroom management plans involve elaborate systems of
rewards and punishment. For example, writing students names on the board with check
marks added next to the name for each inappropriate behavior. Not only is this degrading,
but the effectiveness of this classroom management plan is short-lived at best. In fact,
often times this classroom management plan can have the exact opposite effect on student
behavior.
Likewise, rewarding students for behavior that is expected of them sends the absolutely
wrong message. Teachers should not reward a student for acting appropriately in class.
Rewarding appropriate behavior is not effective classroom management, it is bribery and
the students will come to expect it. Don’t get me wrong, I am not speaking about a pizza
party or movie after a week in which the students worked well in class. That type of
reward is fine as long as it is unexpected. The type of rewards that are bad are the ones in
which the teacher promises upfront that if “you behave today, I will give you a piece of
candy.” No, the student should behave in class because that is what’s expected. Little
Johnny will not throw his pencil across the room, because it disrupts the learning of the
other students and can be dangerous, not because he will get candy!
So, if teachers do not give rewards or punishments as a classroom management plan, then
how do teachers effectively manage student behavior?
Easy, the key to classroom management is keeping students actively involved in the
entire lesson. This is done with just a handful of simple teaching strategies.
Here are five effective classroom management tips you can use in any classroom
regardless of subject or content area. These classroom management tips will keep all
students actively involved in all classroom lessons. (Remember, keeping students
involved in the lesson is the most effective classroom management plan.)
1. All-Write: Instead of having students raise their hand to respond to a question aloud,
have all the students write down an answer to the teacher’s question. Not only will the
teacher get much more class participation, but the quality of student responses will also
improve.
2. Pair/Share: Have students pair up with a partner and share their answers before
discussing it as a class. This gives the students a chance to respond without the anxiety of
speaking in front of the entire class and also allows the teacher to “monitor” the room and
116
talk to various students about their responses. The “pair/share” is great teaching strategy
to use right after the “all-write” strategy.
3. On-the-Clock: Give students specific time limits to complete tasks and make sure you
stick to those time limits. By putting students “on-the-clock” the teacher helps the
students stay focused. I even use an egg timer to make this teaching strategy even more
effective.
4. Check-for-Understanding: Not understanding the teacher’s directions is a major cause
of classroom management issues and student behavior problems. Therefore, no matter
what set of directions a teacher gives, the teacher should always “check-forunderstanding” by simply asking a couple of students (at random) to repeat the directions
back to the class.
5. Do Now: Effective classroom management starts from the second students walk into
the classroom. Therefore, the “do now” is a short assignment that the students are to
complete as soon as they enter the classroom. Personally, I put up 1-4 review questions
on the board every day as the “do now” assignment. The “do now” gives the students
something to do right away and is a great opportunity for review.
Remember, effective classroom management is not about rewards and punishments.
Effective classroom management is about the teacher keeping the students actively
involved in the entire lesson. By practicing the teaching strategies above, teachers will
greatly reduce classroom management problems.
Adam Waxler is a middle school social studies teacher, teacher mentor, and author of
"eTeach: A Teacher Resource for Learning the Strategies of Master Teachers". Find out
more about his book here: http://www.teaching-teacher.com and check out his blog for
free teaching tips here: http://www.teaching-tips-machine.com/blog.
117
Practical Tips to Support EAL pupils in the mainstream
The Classroom
Think about where the EAL pupil should sit (preferably near the front to ensure they can
hear everything the teacher says)
Choose who they will sit with (ideally a pupil who speaks the same first language but is
more advanced in English, or supportive English speakers)
Support your oral language with visual stimulus (Put pictures and keywords on display at
eye level)
Communicating with EAL pupils
Use the pupil’s name whenever they are addressed. Learn the pupils’ names as quickly as
possible; making sure your pronunciation is correct.
Allow just a few seconds longer for an EAL pupil to answer verbal questions. The pupil
not only has to think of the answer but also how to say it in an unfamiliar language.
Use simple techniques such as repeating and emphasising key words, speaking slowly
and clearly, making use of visual supports, using body language and gestures, checking
for understanding, etc
Make your material understandable
Use multi-media technology to provide multiple ways in to the topic, such as pictures,
film footage, and recorded sound material, which the pupil can replay to aid
understanding.
Highlight text to identify keywords
choose texts that provide plenty of visual support. Photographs and drawings can convey
or provide clues to meaning without making heavy language demands.
Incorporate familiar images from the pupil’s homeland into lessons to help the pupil
connect with prior experience and know that their own background is valuable.
Actively encourage output from EAL pupils
Begin with simple ‘yes/no’ questions to build-up confidence and become more elaborate
as time goes on.
Begin by using closed questions such as, ‘How many…’, When did…’, What is …’ etc,
before building to higher order questions such as ‘Why did…’, ‘How does…’ and ‘What
would happen if…’
118
Parents and homework
EAL students generally have EAL parents. Therefore, wherever possible, try to structure
homework tasks in a straight forward manner so that parents are more likely to
understand what is expected and how they can help.
119
Lesson Planning
Teaching Resources and Materials
By: Jason Geyser
Using a Course book
A course book can be a good source of exploitable and useable material. Activities are
sequenced and carefully thought out. Unfortunately, not all course books are that helpful
but are a useful starting point. Students will probably expect the teacher to use a course
book, so this may be a sensible idea. It must however be remembered that a teacher does
not necessarily need to be a slave to the book. Material can be reordered, adapted, varied
and omitted. Carefully select that which is appropriate for the students. That which is not
appropriate should be rejected. Teachers may vary and adapt activities in order to give
students the practice that they need. Teachers should use supplementary materials when
needed. Furthermore, a course book provides a useful syllabus for students to follow and
a devised course to help them learn.
In the School environment, it is important to select course books and supplementary
resources that are aimed at the correct target audience (young children or teenagers).
There are many good course books on the market that are not appropriate for children but
which are aimed at an adult audience. There are some excellent course books available on
the market that are aimed at children, covering interesting and relevant topics. There are
also many course books written specifically for preparing students for the Oxford and
Cambridge Examinations. These are an excellent starting point and can be supplemented
using a tremendous range of resources available in the bookstores and on the internet. A
few course books have been mentioned in the next section as a point of reference as it
would be impossible to cover the vast and excellent range available.
Course book sets usually comprise of a Student’s book, Teachers book, Student’s
workbook, CD with listening activities. These various books will be graded according to
the level of your students, ranging from beginner to advanced level. The various book set
will usually consist of the following:
Student's Book
 Topic-based units and writing section
 'Test your Grammar' and 'Grammar Spots' introduce new grammar points
 clear signposting to ensure both teacher and student know what they're doing and
why
Workbook
 exercises to improve and extend accuracy and skills work
 extra vocabulary exercises
 available with or without key
120
Teacher's Book
 detailed lesson notes with suggestions for launching activities, background
information, additional ideas, and cultural notes
 photocopiable activities
 photocopiable 'Stop and Check' sections for students to monitor their progress
 photocopiable progress tests
 complete answer key
Student's Cassette / CDs
 listening activities from the Workbook
 answers to activities
Class Cassettes / CDs
 listening passages for exercises in the Student's Book
 answers to Student's Book listening exercises
Examples of some popular books can be found in the folder called “Teaching Resources
& Materials.” These books are categorized according to age of your students: Young
Learners (7-12 years); Young Learners (12-16 years); Readers; Adults and Business.
121
Accuracy and Fluency
Retrieved from http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Accuracy_vs_Fluency
English is an international language which people from all over the world learn in order
to communicate with each other.
Accuracy and Fluency are two factors which can determine the success of English
language students in the future.
Accuracy
Accuracy is the ability to produce correct sentences using correct grammar and
vocabulary.
Accuracy is relative. A child in early primary isn't capable of the same level of accuracy
as an adult.
Teachers who concentrate on accuracy help their students to produce grammatically
correct written and spoken English.
Typical accuracy activities are: grammar presentations, gap-fill exercises, frame
dialogues.
Fluency
Fluency is the ability to read, speak, or write easily, smoothly, and expressively. In other
words, the speaker can read, understand and respond in a language clearly and concisely
while relating meaning and context.
Fluency generally increases as learners progress from beginning to advanced readers and
writers.
Language teachers who concentrate on fluency help their students to express themselves
in fluent English. They pay more attention to meaning and context and are less concerned
with grammatical errors.
Typical fluency activities are: role plays, speeches, communicative activities, games.
Accuracy vs Fluency
Taken as a given that students' needs should always dictate what you teach them, the
question of whether it is more important to work on accuracy or fluency in the language
classroom remains.
122
Many teachers believe that fluency is a goal worth striving towards only with students
who are at a fairly advanced level. Other teachers, strong in the belief that the learning of
a language is about communication, feel that fluency should be the main goal in their
teaching and that it should be practiced right from the start.
More traditional teachers give accuracy paramount importance and test their students for
accuracy and accuracy only!
Often a rigid educational system where tests and exams are the focus, will have students
(and their traditional teachers) believe that language accuracy is what matters most, and
giving the "correct" answers often becomes an obsession. Students who have been taught
this way can complete any grammar gap-fill you care to give them, but will struggle to
order a coffee in a real English speaking situation.
Tests and Exams
Excelling in tests represents but a small part of language competence and a lot of
students' needs relate to performing in situations that are non-exam focused. However,
English competence exams do drive a lot of the ELT industry and contribute to
perpetuating the supremacy of accuracy over fluency.
For example, tests like IELTS and TOEFL are very much focused on accuracy, and so is
FCE.
Benchmark testing instead is a great example of tests that are not accuracy based, though
a higher degree of accuracy obviously accompanies a higher level of fluency.
PET or even CAE are also examples of tests that have a greater emphasis on fluency.
Methodologies in Practice
As far as teaching methodologies are concerned, very broadly speaking the
communicative approach is the one that favours fluency the most, while the audio-lingual
and grammar translation approaches favour accuracy.
Typically, at beginner level when the students don't have enough language to worry about
fluency, teachers tend to focus on accuracy.
This carries on through to pre-intermediate level when fluency activities like discussions
and debates are introduced.
At intermediate level, when the students are reasonably independent language users, a
mix of accuracy and fluency is used, with the focus shifting to fluency as students
advance.
123
To Sum Up
Students learning accuracy without fluency, and vice versa, is one of the biggest threats
to successful learning and balancing accuracy and fluency should be the aim of any
English language teacher.
124
Concept Checking
From ICALwiki
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Concept_Checking"
Concept Checking is a way to make sure your students have understood.
Example 1
You have asked your students to read a passage in a book. You could then ask them, "Did
you all understand that?" The chances are that one or two students will say, "Yes", some
more will nod their heads, some will mumble something and one or two say nothing. As a
teacher you may then assume that everyone has understood and move on; but can you be
sure?
Example 2
You have asked your students to read a passage in a book. You could check that the
entire class has understood by asking several different students if they understood. In a
group environment people tend to conform and with peer pressure it is unlikely that one
student will admit "no" if several students before them have said "yes". Even if you ask
the entire class in private you're unlikely to get the full picture.
Concept Checking is simply asking the right questions to find out whether your students
have understood. Most importantly, this means not asking yes/no questions.
Instead you will need to ask questions which check full understanding. These are likely to
be questions beginning





Who...
What did...
Where did...
When did...
Why did...
125

How did...
In other words, to answer the questions your students will need to have understood the
English presented to them.
A Working Example
Show your students the following text:
Elena Paparizou was born in Sweden to Greek immigrant parents (her father is from
Volos and her mother from Karditsa). She studied singing, dancing and music at an early
age and always wanted to perform. In 1999 she formed the band Antique with her
childhood friend Nikos Panagiotidis; their first single, Opa Opa, reached number 1 in the
Swedish charts. The band was selected to represent Greece in the 2001 Eurovision Song
Contest in Copenhagen with the song, I Would Die For You, where they reached third
place equaling Sakis Rouvas' entry Shake It in 2004 and the highest placed Greek placing
until 2005 when she won the contest with the song, My Number One.
Questions which don't check understanding would be:


Did you understand the passage?
Are there any words you don't understand?
Concept Checking questions include:




Where was she born?
When did she reach Number 3 in Eurovision?
What was the name of her band?
What happened in 2005?
Although Concept Checking will become second nature in time, at the beginning when
you first try this it's good to prepare your questions beforehand to make sure what you are
asking is actually useful and will tell you about the students' level of understanding. For
example, in the passage above the questions all checked if the students have understood
the passage. However, they didn't really check whether the students understood the
grammar of the passage - that would require another set of questions.
126
Error Correction
From ICALwiki
Correcting a Problem
Error Correction is the way in which student errors are corrected in class.
Firstly remember that all students will make mistakes. It is part and parcel of learning a
language (and bear in mind that children learning their first language will make mistakes
also; it is a natural part of the process).
When to Correct
At one end of the spectrum are teachers who will correct every single error the student
makes. This can have negative results.


students may feel intimidated and stop speaking for fear of being corrected in
front of the class
it can interrupt the flow of speech and break a student's thought or concentration
At the other end of the spectrum are teachers who do not correct any mistakes but again
this can have negative results:

students do not realise they are making mistakes and believe they are error-free
Teachers can, of course, adopt a middle way. Here they might correct:
1. when the student needs correction in order to continue
2. when the meaning of what the student says is uncertain
3. when several students make the same mistake
How to Correct
This is the WRONG way:
127
Student: I go at the park last night.
Teacher: went
Student (looking confused): I went at the park last night.
Teacher: to
Student: I go to the park last night.
What has happened here is that the teacher has not been explicit and it has resulted in the
student losing the thread of their speech, not really understanding what they have done
wrong and then making further errors.
If we look again at the 3 different scenarios when error correction is needed there are
different approaches to the way in which errors can be corrected.
1. when the student needs it to continue
Student: I go at the... (looks to the teacher for help)
Teacher: park?
Student (triumphantly): I go at the park last night.
Teacher: Excellent.
Here the teacher offers a helping hand to the student when asked. The student won't feel
threatened or embarrassed by this as it is they who have asked for help.
2. when the meaning of what the student says is uncertain
Student: I go at the park.
Teacher: Sorry? You go now or yesterday or tomorrow? When do you go to the
park?
Student: Last night.
Teacher: Ah! Then it's: I went to the park.
Student: I went at the park.
Teacher: Excellent.
Here the teacher interrupts for clarification and then gives the correct language for the
meaning to be fully understood.
3. when several students make the same mistake
In this case, the teacher will notice that several students make the same mistake. This
indicates that in all likelihood the whole class has this error. Thus the teacher may well
decide to create a mini-lesson around this particular error for another day. On that
occasion they will explain the error and the correction and get the students focussing on
where they may be going wrong.
128
Correction Strategies
Gestures
Error Correction need not always be about the teacher butting into the conversation and
correcting. This, after all, is guaranteed to block fluency. Remember that hand signals can
also be used and are less intrusive.
Student: I go at the park last night.
Teacher points back over their own shoulder (a known gesture indicating the past)
Student (pauses for thought): I went at the park last night.
Teacher thumbs up
One advantage with this method is that because the teacher is not speaking, the student
has a chance to self-correct. Look at this extended dialogue:
Student: I go at the park last night.
Teacher holds up hand as stop sign; student stops and the teacher looks
enquiringly
Student pauses for thought then looks blank and shrugs shoulders
Teacher gestures to class for their input and a bright spark at the back suggests the
past tense
Teacher nods
Student: I went at the park last night.
Teacher thumbs up (or another appropriate gesture)
Note that gestures need to be appropriate.
Recasting
The teacher will repeat what the student says but without an error.
Student: I go at the park last night.
Teacher: Ah, so you went to the park last night?
Student: Yes, I go at the park.
This strategy copies almost exactly how parents correct a child learning their first
language. The child may or may not correct their own language but in the end the
correction will "sink in". In the case of the ESL classroom then the teacher can do this at
the moment the error is made and the student may or may not correct themselves there
and then; if not and the error persists then a separate mini-lesson is probably called for.
129
Giving Instructions
From ICALwiki
Giving Instructions
There is a right way and a wrong way to give instructions in your classroom. If you give
instructions the wrong way you'll end up with a class who don't know what's going on.
It's not rocket science, but it can make the difference between a successful lesson and a
disastrous lesson.
Procedure
Prepare
Make sure you know what is going to happen before you step into the classroom. This is
especially true if the exercise is going to be complicated and the instructions are long.
Check that the vocabulary you're going to use is right for the level of the class. If the
class is complete beginners then you might have to give instructions in their MT, but you
should then repeat them straight afterwards in English.
In the Classroom
Don't begin till you've got their full attention. If you begin before this, you'll only end up
having to give the instructions again because some students haven't heard what you're
said.
Breaking it Down
Break your instructions down into short, simple steps. Give each one and then check that
the students have understood either by seeing that they've followed your instruction or by
concept checking.
130
Seating Arrangements
From ICALwiki
There are many different seating arrangements available to the ESL teacher, and
lessons can be enhanced by paying attention to them. Unfortunately many teachers keep
the same seating arrangement for the entire lesson, and throughout the academic year.
Don’t be afraid to experiment with different seating arrangements, even within a single
lesson. A quick seating change can increase motivation and make activities run more
smoothly. In fact, although it can seem like an extra effort and a waste of time, a little
time spent on rearranging the furniture at the start of a course can lead to more effective
activities throughout the year.
You can usually get the students to help you and as long as you give the instructions in
English it's all good language practice!
There are many ways you can arrange the desks in a classroom to make the layout as
appropriate as possible to your lesson.
Different set-ups allow for different types of learning.
Rows
Rows style
Rows are the typical environment for a teacher-centered classroom and/or individual
learning. Students are aligned in such a way as they all face the front of the class. The
teacher conducts the instruction from this 'front' position. This type of physical set-up is
regarded by some as an effective method of behaviour management.
The traditional classroom layout, in rows, allows the teacher to make eye-contact with all
the students (although it is important to keep looking around to move beyond a narrow
arc of vision, if you want everyone to feel included). The students can also readily see a
131
screen or board at the front. But in order to talk to each other, they need to turn in their
seats or address the back of a fellow-student's neck.
Although many schools still use traditional rows, as you can pack in lots of people in a
small space, there are very few advantages for a language teacher. If students are sitting
in twos you have immediate pairs made for pair work but as you will probably want to
change the pairs at some point this is only a limited advantage. If you can't get around
behind the students to look at their work it can be really difficult to monitor. If you have
to work in this layout think about the spaces at the front of the class and the aisles
between the rows. For mingle tasks make use of these. Look for alternative spaces for
certain group tasks, such as the corridors, playground or halls.
If rows are indicative of a teacher-centered approach, groups are typical of student
centered learning. They provide an effective environment for students to actively engage
with the learning process. Grouping can help with integration of advanced and disruptive
students, ensuring racial and cultural diversity, gender balancing and social skill
development.
The following are some of the main student-centered layouts.
Cabaret Style
Cabaret style
Typically tables are arranged in small squares or rectangles with 4-6 seats around them.
Nested tables are great for small group work and project work. It can be difficult to start
classes when students are already sitting on small tables as some students will have their
backs to you. If possible have the students sit so they're side on to you and remember to
move around the classroom when you need to give instructions or change activities.
Surprise your class by popping up at different places around the class.
132
Circle
Circle style
The circle formation is great for many games, group discussions, welcoming your
students at the beginning of the class, doing the register and really talking to your
students. You should push the tables to the walls and have just the chairs in a circle. You
can sit in the circle with your students. If they need to write at certain times of the lesson
they can either go to work at the tables facing the walls around the outside or they can
rest a folder on their knees and stay in the circle.
Theatre
Theatre style
Another set up that does not include tables is the theatre layout. This layout is useful if
you are planning on giving a lecture or an OHP presentation. Chairs can be arranged in a
chevron (a wide V) to increase visibility.
Horseshoe
Horseshoe style
133
This layout is great if you are using visual aids, doing board work or speaking activities
like whole-group discussion. All the students will be able to see you, the board and each
other and you will have a lovely space in the middle of the horseshoe and around the
outside to monitor students work, distribute handouts etc. Breaking the group into pairs
or dividing the students into 2 large groups can be easy with this set-up.
Boardroom
Boardroom style
Placing rectangular tables up against each other to create a large rectangular table and
then arranging the seats around the perimeter is called a boardroom set-up. The shape can
also take the form of a solid or hollow square. This set up is ideal for debates or when
students need to act as one group to make decisions and discuss content.
Fishbowl
If the group is too large to get around a U-shaped layout or a board-room table, the
"fishbowl", with concentric circles of students, maximises the possibilities of discussion.
Clearly this works better without tables, and it is useful to make efforts to ensure that
over several sessions, everyone has their turn in the "inner circle".
For sessions involving small group working, it is useful to arrange tables at which four or
five students can sit, to promote the easy formation of the small groups from the start of
the session. It avoids the disruption caused by people moving about half-way through
(although that is sometimes a useful "punctuation mark" in the session).
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Seating_Arrangements"
134
Teacher Talking Time
From ICALwiki
Keeping Mum
Teacher Talking Time (TTT) is the amount of time the teacher talks in the classroom. It
pays to make it as little as possible.
Look at this typical classroom dialogue:
T: Jimal, what's your favourite TV show?
Jimal: Er...
T: Baywatch? American Idol? Top Gear?
Jimal: Baywatch.
T: Great! [teacher writes up Baywatch on the board] Now, the rest of you, what are your
favourite TV shows?
Ss: Er...
T: Well who likes watching football on television? Louie?
Louie: Yes.
T: Ok, that's on the list. What about you Marie?
Marie: Er...
T: Well, do you like to watch Oprah?
Marie: Yes
T: Great, we'll add Oprah to the list.
In this example the teacher is speaking about 90% of the time. The students are just
occasionally agreeing or muttering one word answers.
There are a couple of interesting points about this example:

The teacher speaks English perfectly - the one person who doesn't need to practice
their English is doing most of the talking whilst those who need most practice
rarely speak a word.
135

The students don't need to listen to each other; they know that the teacher will do
all the work for them.
Oh, and if you think that you speak far less in class, why not take a tape recorder in next
time and record a typical lesson. When you play it back to yourself later you may well be
surprised at how often you are speaking instead of a student and also how little work the
students have to do!
Reducing TTT
It can take a little patience, but the rewards are great. The first thing you need to do to
reduce TTT is to simply wait for an answer.
T: Jimal, what's your favourite TV show?
Jimal: Er...
T: [waits expectantly]
Jimal: Er...
T: [still waiting expectantly]
Jimal: Baywatch.
T: [nods and smiles then writes it on the board; goes to Marie and gestures to her for an
answer]
Marie: Er...
T: [waits expectantly]
Marie: Oprah
Essentially you as a teacher are leaving a space; the students will eventually fill that
space and in time the class will get into the habit that they are responsible for filling the
spaces and they know that their teacher will stand their for fifteen minutes if need be
waiting for an answer.
More Strategies
Don't Repeat
If a student says something then you can correct it if need be, but don't repeat it (after all,
how often would you do that while speaking with another native speaker?).
If a student on the other side of the class doesn't understand or didn't hear and asks you,
you gesture to the first student to repeat.
Open Ended Questions
This is a closed question:
T: Did you go to the zoo yesterday?
S: Yes.
136
And this is an open question:
T: What did you do yesterday?
S: I went to the zoo.
Wait Some More
But it doesn't end there. Don't speak and wait some more:
T: What did you do yesterday?
S: I went to the zoo.
T: [waits expectantly, looking at the student]
S: We saw some... some lions.
T: [waits expectantly some more]
S: From Australia.
T: [puts on a very puzzled face and waits expectantly for clarification]
Second student: From Africa.
T: [smiles and nods]
137
Classroom Focus
From ICALwiki
Classroom Focus is concerned with who is the main focus of teaching in the classroom.
Essentially there are two possible foci:
1. the teacher - the class is Teacher Centered
2. the students - the class is Student Centered
Traditionally classes have been Teacher Centered however more recently classes have
become more Student Centered. And this improves learning.
Teacher Centered
Teacher Centered
In a Teacher Centered class the teacher controls everything. They decide:



what should be taught
how it should be taught
when it should be taught
In other words, the classroom is based around the needs and preferences of the teacher
and the administration. The students are not necessarily taught what is best for them, but
rather what is deemed to be necessary for them by the teachers.
Likewise, the teaching methods are primarily designed for the teacher rather than the
student and work is graded by the teacher alone.
138
This means the teacher controls the entire learning process.
Student Centered
Student Centered
On the other hand, Student Centered classrooms focus on the needs and abilities of the
students and on topics relevant to the students lives, needs and interests.
This increases student motivation and as a result they feel they have a stake in their own
learning which (it has been proven) increases their learning and performance.
The role of the teacher whilst still important is not so much a provider of knowledge as
much as a facilitator. The teacher will not, for example, stand and lecture the class but
rather set up situations where the students can find out for themselves the information
they need.
Classroom Focus in Practice
How does this pan out in practice? Here are some ideas to make the classroom more
student centered. They are not going to change a class into a perfect example of Student
139
Centered learning overnight, but they will help students get used to the idea of the
concept.
needs analysis
Make sure you know why your students are in the classroom. You may know, for
example, that they are all there in preparation for taking the First Certificate in English
examination and in this case the students want to pass the exam and so you must teach
them what they want to know which is not necessarily what you feel would make them
appreciate English more.
Consider them as customers in your shop: you have to give them what they need rather
than what you have on offer.
pair/group work
Break down the learning process. Information does not flow solely from the teacher to
the students. If you have your students breaking up into small groups or pairs for different
activities they will share knowledge between themselves.
Students can learn off each other and as all good teachers know, the act of teaching is
also the act of learning
keep it relevant
Use examples and exercises directly related to the students; imagine you are teaching the
basic prepositions then instead of saying "the cat is under the table" you say "the blue bag
is under Kostas' desk" and point to the real thing. Students will relate to this and
remember more.
Keep it relevant when you talk about what happens outside the classroom as well. The
country you are living in may well be hosting the Olympic Games and your students may
well be involved in the games in some way in their own community. Thus, bring that into
the class - notwithstanding the needs analysis!
facilitate
To take a simple example, if a students come across a word they do not know, rather than
simply tell them, get them to find out for themselves what it means. Have a dictionary in
the class; get the students used to using it and when a new word comes up a student finds
out what the meaning is and tells the rest of the class.
The teacher, then, does not become the sole repository of knowledge; especially in this
day of internet let the students find answers for themselves.
140
ESL Comics
From ICALwiki
The Simpsons
Comics are an excellent medium to introduce your ESL/EFL students to current,
everyday English, in a non academic format.
Comic strips, books or magazines all contain sequential art. In fact, sequential art is often
used as a synonym for comics. But sequential art is a term that encompasses much more
than comics, like animation, storyboarding, children’s book illustration, and game design.
Sequential art in the form of comic strips is generally published in newspapers and
magazines. Comic strips are similar to comic books, but they generally consist of about
four panels of images and text.
Comic strips sometimes flow together from one strip to the next. In this way, a person
who reads comic strips in the newspaper may get the next episode within a story each day
until a particular story is told. Popular comic strips are sometimes compiled in a book
after they have been published in newspapers or magazines.
Comics lend themselves to be read individually or as a story to be followed over a long
period of time. Through comics students learn a lot of English (some good slang, too!)
and they can also pick up on cultural aspects that may have been portrayed in the comics.
The subject matter in comics is not necessarily humorous; in fact, it is often serious and
action-oriented giving a wide spectrum of topics to address in class.
ESL Activities
You can create great lessons around a comic strip. Here are a few ideas.

Select a comic strip that can be suitable for your students and tipex out (blank out)
the text in some of the speech bubbles. Photocopy that and hand it out to your
class. Encourage students to think of what the characters might say or think and
get them to write it in the empty speech bubble. Then with the whole class go
141
through some of the answers suggested and compare them to the original to see if
they managed to create a better comic strip!

Supply the text in the speech bubbles as simple text, without putting it into
sequence or saying who said it. Then supply pictures of the characters whose
words you have transcribed. Ask your students to match words with characters.

Cut up your comic strip and jumble up the frames. Get students to put in the right
order.

Get your students to create their own comic strip. You can restrict the activity to
target problem areas like a specific grammar item or new vocabulary by getting
them to base their strip around it. To increase motivation you can have each
student portray themselves as a carton character or get each student portray their
class mate.

[This idea is good for an ongoing project.] Select a suitable theme for a home
made comic strip and divide the class in two teams. Get one team to work on the
text for the speech bubbles and the other on creating the characters. Set a specific
time during which students can work together - perhaps 10mins before the end of
each lesson. Once the preparation work is completed bring the two teams together
and work on building the comic strip as a class. Once competed display it in class
or in the school hall for all to see!
You can adapt these ideas, and expand on them, to fit various levels and ages. You can
also use them to get students to work in pair, groups or individually.
142
ESL Jokes
From ICALwiki
You've got to Laugh
ESL Jokes are a collection of jokes which you can use in the classroom.
Using humour in the classroom is an excellent way of breaking the ice with your
students, getting the class relaxed and generally fostering a friendly atmosphere to work
in. However, don't over do it - you're a teacher not a stand-up comedian - and be careful
with the jokes you use. Some students are easy to take offence and since jokes are often
made at the expense of an individual or type, you should try to ensure that they do not
alienate or offend anyone in the classroom.
This is especially true when you are working in a foreign culture: it's sometimes difficult
to understand that what you may find amusing someone else will find offensive.
Telling Jokes (Word Play)
Often jokes will find their humour in word play - puns and so forth. This can be useful to
the ESL teacher as they can be used to explain a particular item of vocabulary or
grammar. For example, take a look at this joke:
This office is closed today because of illness... I'm SICK of work!
Walking into a beginners class and writing this on the board will probably be met with
silence and no one understanding what is happening. However if you have been
discussing the subject and the way in which a word like sick can refer to both being ill
and being fed up then your students will understand.
Don't forget though, analysing a joke like we did above often removes its humour!
So... before telling a joke make sure that
1. the students know the vocabulary and any word play
143
2. the joke is of the right language level (of course you can simplify them as
required)
3. it is not offensive to anyone
Remember, you can often change the tense of a joke to suit the occasion:
A horse walks into a bar. "Why the long face?" asks the barman.
A horse walked into a bar. "Why the long face?" asked the barman.
And finally, don't dismiss the idea of bad jokes: a groan from your class means they have
understood what you have said and have enjoyed it!
Joke List
In heaven, there are two gates for married men: The gate for married men that say that
they are the boss, and; the gate for married men who admit that their wife is the boss.
Saint Peter was strolling near the two gates one afternoon. In front of the gate for married
men who admit that their wife is the boss, was a big long line. In front of the gate for men
who say the they are the boss was one fellow, standing all by himself. "Say Buddy, what
are you doing over by THAT gate?" inquired Saint Peter. "Well, Saint Peter, I'm really
not sure," replied the man "but this is where my wife told me to stand."
Some employees bought their boss a gift for his birthday. Before opening the gift, the
boss shook it slightly, and noticed that it was wet in the corner. Touching his finger to the
wet spot and tasting it, he asked, "A bottle of wine?"
His employees replied, "No."
Again, he touched his finger to the box and tasted the liquid. "A bottle of scotch?"
His employees replied again, "No."
Finally the boss asked, "I give up. What is it?"
His workers responded, "A puppy."
Q: Aren't you wearing your wedding ring on the wrong finger?
A: Yes I am, I married the wrong man.
144
A man is talking to God.
The man: "God, how long is a million years?"
God: "To me, it's about a minute."
The man: "God, how much is a million dollars?"
God: "To me it's a penny."
The man: "God, may I have a penny?"
God: "Ok, I'll give it to you in a minute."
Teacher: Tell me a sentence that starts with an "I".
Student: I is the...
Teacher: Stop! Never put 'is' after an "I". Always put 'am' after an "I".
Student: OK. I am the ninth letter of the alphabet.
Two cows are standing in a field.
One says to the other "Are you worried about Mad Cow Disease?"
The other one says "No, It doesn't worry me, I'm a horse!"
Two cows are standing in a field.
The first cow says, "Mooo!"
The second cow goes, "Baaaa!"
The first cow says, "What was that?"
The second cow says, "Oh, nothing. Just practicing my foreign languages."
145
Q: What do you call a boomerang that won't come back?
A: A stick.
Q: What travels around the world and stays in a corner?
A: A stamp.
Write this one up on the board!
Q: What do you call a pig with three eyes?
A: A piiig.
Q: What did the ocean say to the beach?
A: Nothing, it just waved!
A man inserted an advertisement in the classifieds: "Wife wanted".
The next day he received a hundred letters. They all said the same thing: "You can have
mine."
Teacher: Today, we're going to talk about the tenses. Now, if I say "I am beautiful,"
which tense is it?
Student: Obviously it is the past tense.
Q: What is orange and sounds like parrot?
A: A carrot
Q: Can a kangaroo jump higher than the Empire State Building?
146
A: Yes, because the Empire State Building can't jump!
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=ESL_Jokes"
147
Hard then Soft
From ICALwiki
When I first started teaching I taught teenagers and was overwhelmed by the class and
lost control of them a few times - a frightening experience.
One of the more experienced teachers I knew gave me some advice which saved my life
when I started the new term.
Basically she told me I had to be as hard and tough in lesson 1. A real tyrant, in other
words. Then, as time went on, I could relax and become more friendly. The other way
round - the "approachable nice guy" method I'd started with - was completely hopeless
and doomed to failure.
So, the next time I got a new class (it can't really be started half way through a term) in
lesson 1 I stopped people talking, I moved people, I raised my voice and essentially took
utter control of them.
They looked shocked and sat silently working while I stood at the front looking mean but
wondering what on earth was going on!
Later in the term I relaxed and we ended up having a fantastic year together - I only had
to raise my voice slightly and they knew they had approached the boundary and to back
off. It was the best piece of teaching advice I'd ever been given and I use it to this day!
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Hard_then_Soft"
148
Email in the Classroom
From ICALwiki
Here's an idea I'm experimenting with.
I've got 3 online students I teach. One is in China, the second in Poland and the third in
Italy.
Until last week they'd never even heard about each other, they'd just dealt with me online
(sending emails, having Skype chats and so on) and then I read a post on a forum about
email communication between students.
That got me thinking.
I wrote to each of the students and checked whether they would be happy having their
email sent on to the other students and when they all agreed, I set the following tasks.



Find out basic information about the other students.
Arrange a time between you all to Skype.
Have a chat online!
Every email was CCd to every student and myself and after about thirty emails had gone
between them (without my help) they managed to set up a chat online when we could all
get online together. It worked out really well. I didn't say a word (but listened in) and
they got on pretty well - well enough so that they've arranged another online chat next
week.
This got me thinking even more of course. It helps that these students are from different
parts of the world, but the same kind of set up could be worked between students who
know each other already and share a classroom. Why not bring in email communication
as part of the homework or part of the course structure? Perhaps a course requirement
could be to send and respond to 50 emails from other students per term?
Retrieved"http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Email_in_the_Classroom"
149
Classroom Discipline Tips
From ICALwiki
Here are a few Classroom Discipline Tips.

Hard then Soft. Start by being strict and then get more relaxed once the term
progresses. It's almost impossible to go the other way round.

Be Fair. Treat all students equally so if your best students does something wrong
they get punished just as anyone else would.

Each Lesson is New. Never bring over grudges or problems from previous
lessons. Wipe the slate clean for each lesson.

Keep Confrontation Out. If there's a growing confrontation between you and a
student don't let it erupt in class or you could lose face. Say something like "we'll
talk about this after the lesson" and then deal with it later.

One Student at a Time. Don't try to take on the whole class if there's a big
problem. Deal with one student at a time rather than the whole class or a group.

Don't Bluff/Be Consistent. Never go back on a threat if you're called; always
follow through with a punishment otherwise you will be taken advantage of. In
other words, if you say you are going to do something then do it.

Use Humour. If you are that kind of teacher, use a little humour to close
disruptions down (but be careful with sarcasm, some cultures don't understand it).

Overplan. Make sure you have more than enough material for your lesson and
everything is planned. Having to stop a lesson while you think of what to do next
invites disruption and talking amongst students.

Be Understandable when Giving Instructions. Make sure your instructions are
clear, simple and to the point. A lot of classroom problems arise when students
don't understand what they are supposed to be doing.
150
DOs and DON'Ts for Teachers
From ICALwiki
This is a common sense list of DOs and DON'Ts for Teachers. It is especially relevant
to teachers working overseas.
DO






be punctual, consistent and fair
dress well - most countries put far more store in this than the UK and USA;
conservative is good
be polite - you are a guest in the country and you should act as such
behave well outside the school
be sensitive to local customs and make sure you read up about them before you go
carry identification with you always
DON'T





teach unless you are trained and qualified
talk about sensitive subjects (sex, politics, religion or taboo words) in class
be intimate with another person in public
drink to excess
go with a hidden agenda (be it religious, political or otherwise)
Alcohol
In some countries and cultures alcohol is a sensitive issue. In much of the Middle East it
is frowned upon or even illegal and thus should be avoided at all costs. In Qatar, for
example, alcohol is permitted in a private home but not in public.
151
Mother Tongue
From ICALwiki
Your Mother Tongue (or MT) is the language you learn and speak as a child. It is
sometimes known as First Language (FL), Native Language (NL) or Arterial
Language. Note that it is NOT always the language spoken by your mother!
It is usually the language learnt in the home thus a bilingual child may well have two
MTs.
MT Influence
Of interest to teachers is the phenomenon known as MT Influence whereby the MT
interferes with the learning of a second language later in life. For example, a student
might speak English but with elements of their MT grammar thus making errors.
Also, there is the issue of False Friends here - words which look and/or sound very
similar in the student's MT and English but which have very different meanings.
MT in the Classroom?
Should you use the students' MT in class? This is a debate which has gone on for many
years and will undoubtedly continue to go on.
On one side of the argument is the idea that when a child learns a language they "pick it
up" by being constantly exposed to it. To replicate this kind of situation in the classroom
means banning all languages except English. Thus, it is reasoned, the student will, by
being exposed to English only, start to think and work in English without any
interference from their MT and thus achieve a greater understanding and better command
of English since they are learning as a native speaker would.
On a practical level, of course, is the ability of the teacher. Whilst a teacher may know
the MT of a monolingual class they can't be expected to know the MTs of a multilingual
class.
The other side of the argument is that using the MT can be both time saving and ease
understanding. For example, if you had to explain when we use the past perfect tense it
may make a lot more sense to explain this using the students' MT and know that everyone
in the room understands fully what you are saying than possibly explain in English and
have half the students not quite sure of what you say.
With vocabulary, too, there can sometimes be obvious advantages in translating words or
phrases into the students' MT. It's quicker and makes for better understanding.
152
But what do students think? One study suggests that students appreciate it if the teacher
speaks their MT, however the more advanced they are in English the less they think their
MT should be used in class.
Boundaries
If you do use the students' MT in the classroom, there are boundaries to be considered. It
shouldn't be allowed to take over and as a teacher you should consider carefully when
you can allow this. Tactics here could include:



only allowing the teacher to use the students' MT - students must speak English
having an MT Dispensation Symbol - a colourful and unique object which, when
held, allows the speaker to use the students' MT (in this way it restricts the use to
when the teacher deems it necessary by controlling the use of the object
only using it in particular situations, e.g. giving instructions or dealing with
vocabulary or idioms, etc
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Mother_Tongue"
153
Multilingualism
From ICALwiki
Multilingualism is the ability to speak more than one language.
In some definitions this means speaking a language as a native speaker or to native
speaker standard, however some definitions are more flexible allowing multilingual to
mean being able to communicate in more than one language (though not necessarily to
native speaker standard).
Types
type
explanation
monolingual speaking 1 language only
bilingual
speaking 2 languages
trilingual
speaking 3 languages
multilingual speaking more than 3 languages
Note, the term polyglot also refers to someone who can speak many languages.
Circumstances
The circumstances which give birth to multilingualism are many and varied.



children of parents who have different mother tongues; the child may often speak
one language with one parent and another language with the other parent
children with monolingual parents but growing up in a country using a different
language, often this means speaking one language at home and another at school
migrants who need to learn another language to live and work in a different
country
Whilst many English classes will be monolingual (i.e. the students share the same mother
tongue) there are often classes where the students are multilingual, that is students from
different countries who will speak many different languages. In this latter case the lingua
franca will be English.
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Multilingualism"
154
Syllabus
From ICALwiki
The Syllabus in the hierarchy of English Learning
A Syllabus is the outline of language to be taught to a class over a particular course
(term, etc).
It can be seen as a step in the hierarchy of learning and teaching English. At best it will
be designed by the DoS; at worst there won't be one. Or if there is one it will be merely
using a particular book throughout the term.
Note: syllabus is singular; the plural is either syllabi or syllabuses. Both are accepted
these days.
Design Preparation
Step One in designing a syllabus is working out what your students need to learn. In other
words, you look at the Needs Analysis of your students. This will give you the ending
point of the syllabus (the goals which should be reached) and also you will know where
your students are now and thus, what they need to know.
In conjunction with the needs analysis, you can also look at other considerations for the
syllabus such as:


class age & makeup
class background (in terms of what teaching techniques they are used to, etc)
155

class age, level and ability
Next you will need to know what resources you have available:




teacher/classroom availability
teacher ability/experience
teaching contact hours
books, computers, field trips, etc...
And of course there may well be other influences such as the interests of the school
owner in what should be taught or perhaps the desire to use certain materials and so on.
Syllabus Types
There are different kinds of syllabi often related to different kinds of teaching
methodology. For example, you could base your syllabus design on one of these
methodologies:

structural - a certain selection of grammatical items would be presented over the
course of the syllabus e.g. lesson 1 is the past simple, lesson two the past
continuous and so on. There are several criticisms we can make of this, namely
that this approach looks at one aspect of language (grammar) to the detriment of
others. Likewise not all needs can be broken down into grammar; the students
might be learning English for pleasure or to watch Hollywood films for example.

situational - a selection of situations is chosen and presented to the students. This
might work well with a class who are going to be visiting the USA on business
and need to be able to work with their hosts; lessons could include Introductions,
Going through Airport Customs, Touring a Factory and so on.
Or, of course, a mixture of these and other approaches. The bottom line is, however, that
the approach you adopt will be determined to a large extent by the needs of your students.
Syllabus Content
Having established what the syllabus will do and broadly how it will be done, the next
step is to fill in the spaces.
This means breaking the syllabus down into a series of lessons. A syllabus for business
learners might be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introductions
Talking about your job
The company hierarchy
Making/Taking orders on the phone
Discussing your products
156
and so on. However, the syllabus should be flexible and allow time for revision lessons or
adjustments which will crop up during the course. They will also need to take into
account the fact that not every lesson is concerned with teaching new material per se
(exams, field trips, illnesses and holidays can all interrupt the course).
The final step is to take the syllabus and for each lesson devise a lesson plan. This won't
be done, of course, at the syllabus design stage but will happen almost certainly in the
week preceding the lesson itself.
Retrieved from "http://www.icalweb.com/wiki/index.php?title=Syllabus"
157