ST. BASIL’S ADDRESS TO YOUNG MEN—METAPHORS
TO LIVE BY
by
KYLE DAVID HIGHFUL, B.A.
A THESIS
IN
CLASSICS
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Approved
David Henry James Larmour
Chairperson of the Committee
Peder G. Christiansen
Accepted
John Borrelli
Dean of the Graduate School
May, 2006
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first like to thank Dr. David H.J. Larmour and Dr. Peder Christiansen,
who have guided me through the writing of this thesis and who are largely responsible for
anything of value found within these pages. Without their belief in me, I would never
have reached this point in my education or my personal development. Without their
persistent suggestions, criticisms, challenges, and affirmations, this work would never
have been completed. I would also like to thank my other professors, especially Dr. Jill
Connelly, and all of my colleagues for their unwavering support. To my father, mother,
and brother, I express my deepest love, gratitude, and respect.
Above all, SOLI DEO GLORIA.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION
1
II.
THE JOURNEY
14
III.
THE STRUGGLE
34
IV.
GATHERING
54
V.
CONCLUSION
71
BIBLIOGRAPHY
75
iii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION1
As Christianity began to flourish in the Roman world, believers found themselves
forced to deal not only with their own internal conflicts and theological disagreements,
but also with religious, philosophical, and ethical pressures from the Hellenistic culture in
which they were embedded. This collision of old and new paradigms spawned a wide
variety of Christian and non-Christian apologies, containing arguments ranging from the
perceptive and profound to the outrageous and ad hominem. As various Romans accused
Christians of obscenities2, Christian believers confronted what they considered to be the
immoral polytheism of traditional Greek religion. Through the lens of Christianity,
traditional views of cosmology, theology, and anthropology appeared corrupt, unhealthy,
and even damning. To the Christians, who generally did not believe in universal
salvation, the non-Christian and anti-Christian factions were risking eternal punishment.
1
My view of metaphor has been informed throughout by Metaphors We Live By, by Lackoff and Johnson
(2003). Of particular relevance to the present work is their belief that metaphor, far from being merely a
clever “rhetorical flourish” actually affects the way in which people live their lives: “The concepts that
govern our thoughts are not just matters of the intellect. They also govern our everyday functioning, down
to the most mundane details. . . . If we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely
metaphorical, then the way we think, what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter
of metaphor.” (p.3). I have also adopted their orthography of CAPITAL letters in order to quickly distinguish
specific metaphors. The text of the Address to Young Men is that of Deferrari (1970). Throughout this
paper, “Section [Arabic Numeral]” denotes divisions in Deferrari’s edition, while “Chapter [Roman
Numeral]” denotes chapters in this paper. Unless otherwise noted, all translations of Greek and Latin
works are my own.
2
Christians were accused of such taboos as infanticide, cannibalism, and incest, because of
misunderstandings of baptism, the Lord’s Supper, and Christian fellowship, respectively. cf. Tatian, Oratio
ad Graecos and Fragments, p.27.12.
1
Yet the Christians were by no means the only critics of contemporary culture
during the first two centuries of the Roman Empire. In a paradigm shift comparable to
the advent of Postmodernism in the late twentieth century, the Mediterranean world
began to reexamine the traditional Hellenistic worldview, especially its vague and often
contradictory philosophical notions and its plethora of immoral and extremely
anthropomorphized deities. Instead of passively accepting or quietly rejecting the
elaborate mythology of the Greek people, authors began to produce arguments that
attempted to undermine some of the most essential elements of Greek philosophy and
religious practice. It is into a world with such a heritage of doubt and confusion that
Basil is to send his Address To Young Men (πρὸς τοὺς νέους) near the middle of the
fourth century A.D.
Such radical apologies were merely the widespread voicing of a tradition going
back at least to the Greek philosopher Plato, who in the Republic has Socrates argue
against thoughtlessly accepting every myth from the Greek canon, especially as this
relates to the education of the young. Socrates argues that young children are the most
impressionable and thus that one must be careful not to “carelessly allow the children to
hear any old stories, told by just anyone, and to take beliefs into their souls that are for
the most part opposite to the ones we think they should hold. . .”3 When pressed to
identify particular faults with the traditional corpus, Socrates states, “When a story gives
a bad image of what the gods and heroes are like, the way a painter does whose picture is
3
Republic 377b. For all quotations from the Republic, the translation is by Grube and Reeve in Cooper
(1997).
2
not at all like the things he’s trying to paint.”4 Socrates proceeds to offer numerous
quotations from the Greek literary tradition (especially Homer), revealing in each the
misrepresentation of the gods; these distortions include the battles and sexual intrigues
among the gods. These two complaints against Greek theology are echoed by both
Tatian and Basil.
Plato, then, has Socrates argue for complete repression of false theology,
particularly in the medium of poetry. In the utopian Republic, there is no place for
literature or myth which represents the gods as warlike, sexually immoral, unmindful of
familial obligations, or “sorcerers who change themselves” and thereby “mislead us by
falsehoods in words or deeds.”5 This official censorship would deny subversive young
poets a chorus and thereby render the production of a play impossible.6 As will be shown
below, Basil does not advocate such absolute repression of non-Christian Greek
literature; although he urges extreme caution in dealing with works that represent God in
an unworthy manner7, Basil nevertheless believes that good can be derived from such
literary sources.8 Although Basil is writing some seven centuries after Plato, his views
4
Republic 377d-e
5
Republic 383a
6
See Republic 385b-c
7
See To Young Men 4.4: “But least of all shall we give heed to those who argue something concerning the
gods....” (πάντων δὲ ἥκιστα περὶ θεῶν τι διαλεγοµένοιϛ προσέξοµεν).
8
See To Young Men 4.1: “But that these teaching from without are not useless for souls, certianly these
things sufficiently are spoken.” (Ἀλλ᾿ ὅτι µὲν οὐκ ἄχρηστον ψυχαῖϛ µαθήµατα τὰ ἔξωθεν δὴ ταῦτα
ἱκανῶϛ εἴρηται).
3
toward the “pagan classics” have still been considered by one scholar “as the most
enlightened and well-balanced of his time.”9
Plato portrays Socrates as disapproving of the actions of the traditional Greek
deities, but he does not include philosophers in his list of offenders, with the exception of
certain individuals and the Sophists. Lucian, however, writing in the second century
A.D., incorporates respectable philosophers, poets, and educators in his work True
Histories (ἀληθῆ διηγήµατα). Unlike Plato, who explicitly levels charges against the
poets, Lucian attacks traditional views through the instrument of parody.10 That the work
is a parody is made clear in Lucian’s introduction:
καὶ τῶν ἱστορουµένων ἕκαστον οὐκ ἀκωµῳδήτωϛ ᾔνικται πρόϛ
τιναϛ τῶν παλαιῶν ποιητῶν τε καὶ συγγραφέων καὶ φιλοσόφων.11
...and each of these histories not uncomically hints at someone of the poets
or historians or philosophers of old.
Lucian states that he would “have written them by name” (οὕϛ καὶ ὀνοµαστὶ ἄν
ἔγραφον)12 if it weren’t for the fact that the readers will naturally recognize the victims
of his parody. This having been said, Lucian does supply three names: Ctesias, Iambulus,
and Homer. The first two authors are accused of representing as true histories accounts
of places and peoples which they had neither experienced for themselves nor heard about
9
Deferrari (1970), Prefatory Note p. 370.
10
For the parody of the True Histories, see Georgiadou and Larmour (1998).
11
Lucian, True Histories, I.2.
12
Ibid.
4
from a reliable source (µήτε ἄλλου ἀληθεύοντοϛ ἤκουσεν).13 Lucian traces this
tradition of inaccurate histories back to the Homeric tale of Odysseus, who relates all
manner of false information to the Phaeacians.14
What staggers Lucian is not that these authors record untruths, but rather that they
are able to escape notice for doing so. In response, Lucian decides to become a liar
himself and record a fantastic voyage which never actually occurred. He is careful to
make a crucial distinction: “But my lying is far more honest than theirs, for though I tell
the truth in nothing else, I shall at least be truthful in saying that I am a liar.”15 Lucian
then proceeds with his narrative, leveling subtle attacks at some of the most cherished
authorities of the Hellenistic worldview.16
Another work by Lucian, The Passing of Peregrinus, further elucidates the
author’s contempt for hypocritical philosophy. A man named Peregrinus, who in his
earlier years had consorted with the Christians, is now a Cynic philosopher and is
planning to extinguish himself publicly on a pyre near the Olympic festival. According
to Lucian, the philosopher claims that, “. . . he said that he does this on behalf of [other]
people, so as to teach them to look down on death and to persevere in the midst of terrible
things (διδάξειεν αὐτοὺϛ θανάτου καταφρονεῖν καὶ ἐγκαρτεῖν τοῖϛ δεινοῖϛ).17
13
Ibid., I.3.
14
See Odyssey, Books 8-12.
15
Lucian, vol. I p.253.
16
For commentary on Lucian’s work, see Georgiadou and Larmour (1998).
17
Lucian, Vol. V, The Passing of Peregrinus, 23.1-3.
5
Lucian then briefly recounts the life of Peregrinus and suggests that the philosopher’s
extravagent death is merely for display; Peregrinus is incinerating himself to achieve an
immortal reputation. Whether or not Lucian’s synopsis and conclusion are accurate is of
little account here; it is Lucian’s skepticism and wry humor concerning the ordeal which
is significant. Here is another example of distrust in those who claim knowledge,
wisdom, or enlightenment. Lucian, then, does not advocate a particular source of truth in
his True Histories or The Passing of Peregrinus; instead, he is merely drawing attention
to the glaring inconsistencies which exist in mainstream Greek thought. Basil, it will be
seen, does not leave the situation thus suspended. Instead, he suggests training from a
variety of sources, including both Greek literature and Christian Scripture.18
Tatian, a Christian from Assyria and a contemporary of Lucian19, condemns
Greek culture and philosophy in no uncertain terms in his work, Address to the Greeks.
Beginning with a catalouge of spurious Greek claims to invention, Tatian attacks the
“ἄνδρεϛ Ἕλληνεϛ” as unoriginal thinkers who spurn the very cultures from which they
borrow numerous innovations. He chides, “Therefore cease calling these imitations
discoveries” (ὅθεν παύσασθε τὰϛ µιµήσειϛ εὑρέσειϛ ἀποκαλοῦντεϛ).20 Tatian then
proceeds to complain that the Greeks can not even speak their own language in a
18
See To Young Men 2.5-6
19
For the possibility of Tatian being a Gnostic and unorthodox, see Oratio ad Graecos and Fragments,
pp.xvi-xvii.
20
Oratio ad Graecos, p.1.8-9.
6
consistent manner.21 In fact, Tatian states that it is for this reason that he departed from
the traditional Hellenistic teaching (τῇ παρ᾿ ὑµῖν σοφίᾳ).22
Philosophers are the first group of traditional authorities which Tatian finds
offensive. He insinuates that their philosophizing (φιλοσοφοῦντεϛ) has not produced
anything of value (σεµνὸν); furthermore, the philosophers are arrogant, intemperate,
gluttonous, and teachers of dangerous doctrines.23 In addition, the philosophers maintain
a bestial appearance,24 harbor many desires despite their claims to the contrary,25 and use
their influence to obtain wealth.26 Not only do these philosophers emulate dogs,27 they
can’t even come to a consensus among themselves; if a person supports one philosophical
tradition, proponents of opposing schools of thought ridicule him.28 Such a contradictory
legacy leads to the confusion and lack of respect for traditional philosophy that was
evident in the early centuries of the Roman Empire.29
Mythology, too, comes under the scrutiny of Tatian’s pen. He despises the
Greco-Roman theology and cites specific examples of its inferiority. Tatian mentions the
21
For a possible explanation of this, see Oratio ad Graecos, p.xii.
22
Ibid., p.2.9.
23
Ibid.,, p.2.17- p.3.10.
24
Ibid., p.26.19-20.
25
Ibid., p.26.21-24.
26
Ibid., p.26.26-28.
27
ὁ ζηλῶν ἄνθρωπε τὸν κύνα; Ibid., p.26.24-25.
28
Ibid., p.26.28- p.27.3.
29
Ibid., p.27.3-5.
7
various metamorphoses of the divinities and asks, “Tell me, does a god become a swan
and take up the form of an eagle. . ?”30 Classical deities are often honored for their
immorality31, a fact which enrages Tatian; in light of the perceived inferiority of these
divinities to the Christian God, he claims, “for to compare our understanding concerning
God with those who roll into matter and mire is not sanctioned” (τὴν γὰρ ἡµετέραν
περὶ τοῦ θεοῦ κατάληψιν οὐδὲ συγκρίνειν ὅσιον τοῖϛ εἰϛ ὕλην καὶ βόρβορον
κυλινδουµένοιϛ).32 Central to Tatian’s complaints against the Greek divinities are the
notions of warfare among the gods and sexual promiscuity. In fact, he claims that the
Greeks established poetry “in order that [they] might arrange the battles and passions of
the gods and the ruin of the soul” (µάχαϛ ἵνα συντάσσητε καὶ θεῶν ἔρωταϛ καὶ
ψυχῆϛ διαφθοράν).33 The identification of the battle and passions of the gods as
decisive reasons for rejecting traditional religion is later to be echoed by Basil, who
writes of war (πόλεµόϛ) between parent divinities and their children, as well as the
adulteries (µοιχείαϛ) and passions (ἔρωταϛ) of the gods.34 Note the correspondence
between the term πόλεµόϛ in Basil with µάχαϛ in Tatian; the term ἔρωταϛ is used by
both. These similarities suggest that such complaints were “in the air” of Basil’s era.
30
Ibid., p.11.2-3.
31
Ibid., p.11.17-24.
32
Ibid., p.24.15-17.
33
Ibid., p.2.16-17.
34
To Young Men, 4.5.
8
There is a great amount of emotion and conviction in Tatian’s address. He
accuses the Greeks as though they had personally offended him. As he enumerates his
grievances, Tatian claims that he has no reason to adhere to the teaching he is criticizing,
since he does not wish to rule, be wealthy, command, fornicate, embark on greed-drive
voyages, compete in athletics, or succumb to ambition.35 He purports to have risen above
death, sickness, and grief.36 Tatian claims possession of a wisdom reminiscent of the
Preacher of Ecclesiastes37; he realizes that the slave and the free, the rich and the poor, all
meet death in the end. Therefore there is no need to be sleepless (ἀγρυπνεῖϛ) because of
an unseemly love of money (διὰ φιλαργυρίαν).38 One should be content in whatever
situation occurs, just as Paul of Tarsus admonishes.39 Tatian desires that his audience
“die to the world” (ἀπόθνῃσκε τῷ κόσµῳ) and “live to God (ζῆθι τῷ θεῷ).40 It is
Tatian’s personal zeal which prompts the outburst, “Why have you robbed my God? And
why do you dishonor his creation? (τί µου τὸν θεὸν σεσυλήκατε; τί δὲ αὐτοῦ τὴν
ποίησιν ἀτιµάζετε;).”41 As Cayré says, “His discourse is less of an apology than an
attack on all Graeco-Roman culture, which, together win the Pagan religions he crushes
35
Oratio ad Graecos, p.11.25-29.
36
Ibid., p.11.29-31.
37
See especially Ecclesiastes 9.1-10.
38
Oratio ad Graecos, p.11.31- p.12.9.
39
See Philippians 4.11-13.
40
Oratio ad Graecos, p.12.10-13. For the Pauline motifs of slavery and death/life, see also Romans 6.
41
Oratio ad Graecos, p.11.13-14.
9
with his sarcasm.”42 In contrast to Tatian’s mocking polemic, Basil’s address exudes a
modest tone of sincere concern for the young men under his care.43
Tatian’s polemic is addressed to “the Greeks.” However, it is important to note
that “although his apology was directed towards the Greeks he was not really making a
racial distinction. A new Christian culture is set out in opposition to the conventional
education. . .”44 It is this “conventional education” which Basil the Great discusses in his
Address To Young Men. Tatian, like Lucian and many of their era, is concerned with
truth and falsehood; when speaking of his conversion, Tatain claims that he sought a way
to discover the truth (κατ᾿ ἐµαυτόν γενόµενοϛ ἐζήτουν ὅτῳ τρόπῳ τἀληθὲϛ
ἐξευρεῖν δύνωµαι).45 After chancing upon some “barbarian writings” (γραφαῖϛ
βαρβαρικαῖϛ), by which he means the Hebrew prophets,46 Tatian’s soul is divinely
instructed (θεοδιδάκτου) and he accepts the tenets of the Christian faith. His highly
intellectual conversion represents one path out of the doubt and disregard for authority
prevalent in the early Empire.
With the reign of Constatine the Great came enduring peace for the Christians of
the empire. Constantine’s favor of Chrstianity the influence of Christianity to continue to
expand. Ecunemical councils such as the Council of Nicea (325 A.D.) began to codify
42
Manual of Patrology, p.131.
43
See To Young Men, 1.2.
44
Oratio ad Graecos, p.xii.
45
Ibid., p.30.3-4.
46
Ibid., p.xvii.
10
orthodox Christian dogma, and those who disagreed (such as the followers of Arius) were
doggedly opposed. An answer to the doubt and uncertainty of the early Christian era was
beginning to arise; people who had come to doubt the traditional explanations of the
Greek poets, philosophers, and historians could, like Tatian, put their faith in the
crystalizing Christian worldview. Yet for those embracing the Christian faith, an
important question still remained: how should the Christian community view the ancient
works of classical literature? In answer to this question, Basil the Great issued his
Address To Young Men.
Saint Basil the Great (c.330-379 A.D.)47, his brother Gregory of Nyssa, and some
seven other children were born to into a Christian family; their grandparents had
experienced persecution for their beliefs under the Emperor Maximinius II.48 Basil was
born into a changing Empire; the Edict of Milan, issued under the Emperor Constantine
in 313 had officialy recognized the Christian religion, and the seat of Imperial authority
had shifted from Rome to Byzantium.49 From an early age Basil was reared in the
Catholic faith by his family, especially his father and his grandmother Macrina. After a
possible period of instruction at Caesarea, Basil traveled to Constantinople and excelled
in the study of philosohy and rhetoric; in 351 in went to Athens. The generous and
enlightened nature of his Address To Young Men may perhaps be attributed to the fact
47
Βασίλειοϛ in the Greek; for a brief discussion of this name, see Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the
Christian Church, vol. VIII, p.xiii, n.6.
48
The following bibliographic and literary account is taken largely from Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
of the Christian Church, vol. VIII, Prolegomena, p.xiii-lxxvii and Manual of Patrology, vol. I, pp.406-447.
49
“For a time the centre of ecclesiastical and theological interest is to be rather in the East than in the
West.” Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, p.xiv.
11
that “Basil starts for his life’s work with the equipment of the most liberal education
which the age could supply.”50 Following his education and baptism, Basil embarked on
the harsh life as an ascetic. Basil was ordained as presbyter, and later as Archbishop of
Caesarea. During his episcopate, Basil championed the cause of orthodoxy against the
doctrines of Arianism51, organized the ascetics and clergy, established charitable
institutions, and educated those under his care with various sermons. After a somewhat
brief but influential life, Basil the Great52 died in the winter of 378-379.
The Cappadocian fathers, including Basil, were defenders of orthodoxy during the
tumultuous Arian controversy following the Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D.53 These
leaders accepted the triune nature of the Godhead (including the full deity of Christ), and
attempted to bring back to this accepted view those who had disagreed. Basil’s prolific
literary accomplishments include works on dogma, ascetics, liturgy, a number personal
correspondences, and a variety of other topics.54 The Address To Young Men is
significant as both a manifestation of Basil’s classical education and as an apology for the
continued use of pagan literature in an increasingly Christian era.
50
The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, p.xvi.
51
See in particular Manual of Patrology, pp.409-410.
52
“He as great as foremost champion of a great cause, great in contemporary and posthumous influence,
great in industry and self-denial, great as a literary controversialist.” The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,
p.xxxi. “The Church has possessed few men so gifted and so well balanced.” Manual of Patrology, p.411.
53
For information concerning the Symbolum Nicaeno-Constantinopolitanum, see The Creeds of
Christendom, Vol. II, pp.57-61.
54
A helpful division of Basil’s works is provided in The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, pp.xxxii-xxxiii.
12
In the address To Young Men, Basil covers a variety of topics which center around
directions for the proper use of Greek literature. With unique balance between a concern
for Christian orthodoxy and an appreciation of classical insight, Basil the Great addresses
the issues of guarding the soul from harmful influences, nurturing virtue and
understanding through education, and taming one’s body in view of the life to come. As
he discusses these themes, Basil employs a number of similes and metaphors taken from
earlier literature, both Christian and non-Christian. He freely adapts this material in order
to suit the argument of his address, and examining his use of metaphor allows one to
better understand Basil’s view of life and literature, as well as the influences from the
Greek literature and philosophy that have shaped his thought. Three groups of images
will be examined below: JOURNEY, STRUGGLE, and GATHERING metaphors. Finally, a
brief Conclusion will attempt to situate Basil within both the Christian and Classical
traditions.
13
CHAPTER II
THE JOURNEY
As Basil begins his address, he announces a motive, a method, and a metaphor in
order to explain his present treatise. The motive is his close “relationship of nature” (τῆς
φύσεως οἰκειότητι) to his young pupils and the concern for their well-being (εὐνοίαϛ)
that accompanies such a relationship.55 The method is that of employing Classical
literature to achieve goals peculiar to the Christian faith. Before explicitly stating this
aim (in 1.4-5), Basil uses his own tactic and introduces a quotation from Hesiod in order
to dissuade his audience from ignoring his advice (1.3).
A metaphor, however, structures Basil’s discussion before he even introduces his
motive or method. In order to categorize his credentials, and thereby explain why he is in
a position to instruct his young relatives, Basil embarks on a brief mention of the
metaphor, LIFE IS A JOURNEY. Basil’s advanced age is explained in terms of travel; life is
linear, with a beginning and an ending point, and Basil is further along this line than the
youths, who have only recently begun their journey. Having traversed much of the road
of life, Basil has the ability to impart knowledge of “the most secure of paths” (ὁδῶν τὴν
ἀσφαλεστάτην, 1.1).
From the outset, it is important to note the connection between the JOURNEY and
the STRUGGLE in Basil’s system of thought. Basil’s ability to instruct his young men is
based not only on the fact that he has traveled the road of life, but also that he has
endured numerous trials and experiences which have made him “experienced concerning
55
See 1.1-2. Wilson has the audience as Basil’s “nephews (and perhaps nieces)” (1975, p.7).
14
human affairs” (ἔµπειρόν µε εἶναι τῶν ἀνθρωπίνων πεποίηκεν, 1.1.). The term
“experience” (ἐµπειρία) is also used in a discussion of physical, even military training.56
What is more, Basil explains in a straightforward manner that the road of life trains one
(γεγυµνάσθαι) to be “experienced.” Even at the beginning of Basil’s work, then, we
find the juxtaposition of travel metaphor with that of training for the ἀγών, and this
connection will continue to manifest itself as we examine two JOURNEY metaphors in
greater detail, that of the SHIP, and that of the CROSSROADS. Our examination will
culminate in a discussion of the JOURNEY metaphor in the Christian and Cynic traditions,
and will eventually lead to the following chapter’s examination of the STRUGGLE
metaphors, to which the present subject is intrinsically tied.
Above all, Basil wishes his students to be discerning. A summary of his treatise
appears as follows:
This in truth now is the very thing which also I have come counseling, that
you ought not to be giving over the rudders of your mind once and for all
to these men, as though of a ship, to follow wherever they might lead; but
receiving from them as much as is useful, it is necessary to know also
what to overlook. Now what these things are, and in what way we might
distinguish them, this indeed also I shall teach henceforth.57
Basil invokes the image of a ship in order to convey the sense of danger associated with
truth and falsehood. The analogy of the ship, of course, does not originate with Basil
himself. Readers familiar with Platonic thought will recall the image of the ship in the
56
Note the use of ἐµπειρία in 2.6, where it is connected with such words as ἀγών.
57
“τοῦτο µὲν οὖν αὐτὸ καὶ ξυµβουλεύσων ἧκω, τὸ µὴ δεῖν εἰϛ ἅπαξ τοῖϛ ἀνδράσι τούτοιϛ, ὥσπερ
πλοίου, τὰ πηδάλια τῆϛ διανοίαϛ ὑµῶν παραδόνταϛ, ᾗπερ ἄν ἄγωσι, ταύτῃ συνέπεσθαι· ἀλλ᾿ ὅσον
ἐστὶ χρήσιµον αὐτῶν δεχοµένουϛ, εἰδέναι τί χρὴ καὶ παριδεῖν. τίνα οὖν ἐστι ταῦτα, καὶ ὅπωϛ
διακρινοῦµεν, τοῦτο δὴ καί διδάξω ἔνθεν ἑλών,” 1.5.
15
Republic. Of particular interest is Book VI, 487e-489c, where Socrates, in attempt to
establish the necessity of rule by philosophers, elaborates the old simile of the State and
the Ship. The ship’s owner is deficient in both vision and hearing, and the crew is inept
at navigation. Although all of the sailors quarrel among themselves and claim a right to
captainship, they are so far from being skilled seamen that they “never learned the art of
navigation, cannot point to anyone who taught it to [them], or to a time when [they]
learned it.”58 Indeed, the useless men even laud those who are able to seize power from
the ship’s owner as “‘navigator,’ a ‘captain,’ and ‘one who knows ships...’”59 Worst of
all, they do not even acknowledge the existence of such an art as navigation, and berate
anyone who lays claim to such ability: “Don’t you think that the true captain will be
called a real stargazer, a babbler, and a good-for-nothing by those who sail in ships
governed in that way, in which such things happen?”60
Socrates explains thereafter that he is discussing the treatment of philosophers by
their fellow citizens, and especially by those who falsely claim philosophical talent. As
he says, “Therefore, it isn’t easy for the best ways of life to be highly esteemed by people
who, as in these circumstances, follow the opposite ways.”61 Just as the sailors
pretentiously call themselves navigators and captains, so too many people call themselves
philosophers who have no true skill, nor any knowledge that true philosophy exists.
58
Republic, 488b. See Introduction, Note 3.
59
Republic, 488c.
60
Republic, 488e.
61
Republic, 489c.
16
These pretenders despise the true philosophers, just as the sailors despise the true
captains.
Basil’s use of this metaphor is appropriate in his own terms, whether he obtained
it from the Platonic tradition or elsewhere.62 Ships, although sometimes used for
exploring, are usually embarked with a particular destination in mind; they are, above all,
a means of transport from one specified location to another. To Basil, life is a journey
leading to a specific place in another life.63 Being led astray into damnation, then, would
be the worst kind of shipwreck.
This image of the ship is particularly meaningful in the context of cultural sources
of truth and falsehood. As mentioned in the Introduction, the early Empire was filled
with opposing truth claims, many of which were clearly contradictory. Each of these
authorities clamored for acceptance, just as the crew of the Plato’s ship vies for control of
the vessel. Just as the image of a ship may represent a state or society, so it may also
represent an individual. Each person, whether adequate for the task or not, must sift
through the barrage of truth claims in the hopes of attaining “something rather
advantageous” (τι λυσιτελέστερον, 1.4), which Basil claims to have discovered in the
writings of ancient men. If authorities who offer faulty information are trusted, the
person or society may run aground and crash into heresy or ignorance. Basil does not
62
James uses the image of a ship being guided, though in a different context (see James 3.4-5). In this
passage, the New Testament writer compares the tongue to a mighty ship, which, despite its large size, is
able to be controlled by a relatively small part, the rudder. In the same way, James says, the tongue (a
person’s speech) is able to control the course of one’s life. Basil is arguing that the same importance which
is given to the tongue in James applies equally well to the mind; when this is turned over to the control of
harmful influences, one’s entire well-being is in jeopardy.
63
See 2.2-3.
17
wish to see his young charges shipwrecked through the influence of godless authorities,
and this prompts his admonition to caution.64 It is important to note, however, that Basil
is not suggesting that all intruding voices are to be silenced; he advocates ignoring
harmful messages while embracing wisdom which is in accord with sound doctrine.65
The Classical Greek writers, a potent source of information for young men of Basil’s era,
are neither to be seen as a hopeless lot whose influence can only lead to perdition, nor are
they saints whose every word should be taken to heart. They must be taken for what they
are, early training for the eye of the soul (τῷ τῆς ψυχῆς ὄµµατι), preparing the mind for
ventures into the “mysteries” (ἀπορρήτων) of the Christian Scriptures.66
The issue of intruding voices is important for Basil, and he connects this idea to
the realm of Classical mythology. As with other forms of virtue, Basil believes that
discriminating against unwanted influence is an ability which is praised by the ancient
poets. He exhorts his young men that “it is necessary to flee this imitation, being mindful
of the ears, not less than those men say Odysseus did with the songs of the Sirens (τὴν
µίµησιν ταύτην δεῖ φεύγειν, ἐπιφρασσοµένους τὰ ὦτα, οὐχ ἧττον ἢ τὸν
Ὀδυσσέα φασὶν ἐκεῖνοι τὰ τῶν Σειρήνων µέλη, 4.2). Basil goes on to say that
“intimacy” (συνήθει) with such words is “a road toward [wicked] deeds” (ὁδός τίς
ἐστιν ἐπὶ τὰ πράγµατα, 4.2). This passage is significant for a number of reasons. First
of all, Basil teaches that “imitation” (µίµησις) (a common word in his treatise) is often
64
cf. 1 Timothy 1.19, where certain people “τὴν πίστιν ἐναυάγησαν.”
65
“. . . but receiving from them as much as is useful, it is necessary to know also what to overlook,” 1.5.
66
See 2.5-6.
18
destructive, just as it is often constructive; imitation is an honor to be bestowed only on
worthy exemplars.67 The above passage is also important because of the way in which it
interweaves the myth of the Odyssey with the repeated metaphor of the ὁδός. One notes
that the Sirens of this myth resemble Vice as she is portrayed in Prodicus’ allegory of
Hercules and the divided road, to be discussed below.68 In both cases, an alluring female
urges a hero to depart from the appropriate path and join her in activities which will
eventually lead to his destruction. Nevertheless, Basil’s retelling of this ancient story
varies from the Homeric tradition in one very significant way. In Homer’s account, by
having himself bound Odysseus is able both to avoid the negative consequences of the
Sirens’ songs, and to listen to their entrancing music.69 Though he longs to listen to the
voice of the Sirens, his men only tie him more tightly to the mast. One might expect
Basil make a metaphor of the mast; by securing oneself to something constant and good
in life, one is able to triumph over temptation. Instead, Basil has Odysseus himself block
out the voices of the Sirens. Odysseus does not listen to the call of the Sirens (the voice
of temptation) and trust in his previously devised restraints and his moral fortitude.
Instead, he avoids this temptation altogether.
67
One wonders if Basil, a writer intimately familiar with the Classics, and currently discussing the poets, is
not also establishing a criterion for literary criticism; he seems be drawing upon the idea of art as imitation
of reality, and implying that only certain aspects of reality (namely, those that promote virtue) are
appropriate topics for artistic expression. He says as much in the passage below (4.4-5), where he praises
those poets who praise virtue and condemns the poets who offer examples of immorality or impiety. For
more on the meta-literary aspect of Basil’s address, see Chapter IV, especially pp. 60-61.
68
See the discussion below of the decision of Hercules, beginning on p. 23.
69
See especially the Odyssey 12.153-200.
19
Basil seems, then, to be suggesting that it is best not even to expose oneself to
dangerous and distracting notions, and yet this seems incommensurable with Basil’s other
exhortations. After all, how can one obtain the useful examples from Classical literature
without occasionally stumbling upon unwanted information? Perhaps proper attention to
the term συνήθεια, which is juxtaposed with the term ὁδός, may help to resolve this
paradox. Just as with the English metaphor, the “way” of life for Basil seems to mean
both the path that one chooses and also the manner in which one pursues the goal. A
habit of listening to evil words is a “way of life” which naturally leads to wicked deeds.
Basil is concerned that one does not ingest the poison of harmful ideas with the sweet
honey of the poet’s words,70 but he seems most concerned with this happening in the
context of a continuous habit, rather than a single event. Read as a whole, his treatise
extols the advantages of a careful (and guided) exploration of Classical literature.
Odysseus himself is a paradigmatic example of the successful traveler. As
mentioned below, his journey inspired many allegorical interpretations. Curiously, he is
selected as an example of virtue by Basil, who mentions him again shortly before his
retelling of the parable of Hercules.71 Instead of selecting portions of mythology which
portray the hero as a trickster or braggart,72 Basil links Odysseus to Hercules in this text,
70
A GATHERING metaphor; see 4.3. As will be discussed more fully in the following chapter, Basil appears
to be influenced by values of the Second Sophistic, and therefore, like a well-prepared sophist, has at his
disposal an extensive canon of Classical material with which to support his arguments. For the relationship
between the sophist and Greek literature, see Anderson (1993), Chapter 3.
71
See below, beginning on p.23, where this passage at 5.11-14 is discussed.
72
Horace refers to duplicis Ulixei; Garrison adds, “double-dealing because of his use of deception; this
pejorative view of Ulysses was widespread in later antiquity, as early as Sophocles’ Philoctetes (409
B.C.).” Garrison (1991) on Ode 1.6.7.
20
for both are involved with the JOURNEY, Odysseus by sea and Hercules by land; both
serve as exempla for Basil’s young audience.73 Odysseus further serves Basil’s purposes
by being implicitly contrasted with one who shipwrecks his life by handing over the
rudder of the mind to unworthy influences.74 The hero, although physically shipwrecked
and in a dire situation, is admired and envied by the Phaeacians as one who possesses
virtue.75 Of further importance is the fact that Basil mentions Odysseus’ lack of material
possession when he enters this new land (he is γυµνὸν, 5.8). Basil, whose asceticism is
elaborated upon in Section 9, uses this myth of Odysseus as an introduction to a short
discussion of virtue as a “possession.” Unlike other, material possessions (τὰ ἄλλα τῶν
κτηµάτων, 5.9), virtue can not be taken away by chance or circumstances. Basil is
reiterating one of his most basic themes, that this world and its goods are subordinate to
ethical and spiritual concerns, in consideration of the life to come.76
Like Basil after him, Lucian writes allegory employing the metaphor of the
nautical journey. In his work, True Histories (ἀληθῆ διηγήµατα), Lucian explores “the
relationship between truth and lies” through the construction of an unbelievable narrative
73
Basil writes of “dangers through every land and also sea” (κινδύνους διὰ πάσης ἠπείρου τε καὶ
θαλάσσης) in 5.14, in connection with the troubles promised to Hercules by Virtue.
74
See 1.4-5.
75
See 5.6-10. The parable of Hercules follows hard upon this discussion, suggesting the connection in
Basil’s mind between the two. In addition, compare Basil’s description of “dangers through ever land and
also sea” to Paul’s list of dangers at 2 Corinthians 11.23-28, where he mentions, among many others,
“κινδύνοις ἐν ἐρηµίᾳ, κινδύνοις ἐν θαλάσσῃ” (verse 26). Echoing Paul’s words, Basil suggests that
both Paul (from Christian literature familiar to Basil’s audience), and Odysseus and Hercules (from the
Classical world), can serve as an example of suffering and endurance.
76
“We do all things as preparation for the other life” (πρὸς ἑτέρου βίου παρασκευὴν ἅπαντα
πράττοµεν, 2.2).
21
filled with impossible creatures and events.77 The Odyssey and its history of allegorical
interpretation serve as background against which Lucian fashions his tale.78 A very
multi-faceted metaphor, LIFE IS A JOURNEY has served as a quest for knowledge, as in
Lucian’s text, as a discovering of order,79 and as an allegory for religious initiation.80
Lucian’s voyage is also similar to that of Basil’s in that the struggles and dangers
involved are “the representatives and ideas of numerous philosophical schools . . .,”81 just
as, for Basil, the nautical journey symbolizes the avoidance of threatening doctrines. We
see, therefore, two elements to Basil’s use of the ship metaphor: the avoidance of harmful
teachings, and the struggle involved with successful navigation. Each of these themes
will recur in other metaphors yet to be discussed.82 One metaphor which involves both
the JOURNEY and the STRUGGLE is that of Hercules and his choice of two paths, as we
shall see.
77
See Georgiadou and Larmour (1998), p.1. Hereafter I draw many ideas from Section 2 of the
Introduction of this work, Allegory and the Journey for Knowledge.
78
Lucian also “draws upon symbolic readings of the Labours of Heracles and his other adventures”
(Georgiadou and Larmour (1998), p.9). Basil, too, uses an important parable involving Hercules. Lucian’s
work also makes allusions to Plato’s Myth of Er, in which a man narrates a visit to the afterlife, in which
good and wicked souls are separated for punishment or reward before they are reincarnated. This
dichotomy between a righteous road and an evil road is similar to the parable of Hercules examined below.
79
Georgiadou and Larmour (1998), p.7.
80
“One might wonder whether all journey narratives are not somehow analogous to initiation processes...”
(Georgiadou and Larmour )1998), p.21). Georgiadou and Larmour briefly consider the connection between
Lucian, allegory, and Christian mysteries on p.22.
81
82
Georgiadou and Larmour (1998), p.42.
CONTEST and struggling metaphors will be
GATHERING will be examined in Chapter IV.
examined particularly in Chapter III, while metaphors of
22
In the discussion above (5.6-10), Basil has employed the metaphor VIRTUE IS A
POSSESSION and
has quoted both Homer and Theognis in order to demonstrate various
aspects of this claim; that virtue causes emulation (5.7), that it cannot be taken away from
its owner, unlike other possessions (5.9), and that it is therefore more desirable than
riches (5.9-10). Now Basil engages another metaphor, that of the path or JOURNEY
(ὁδόϛ). In order to differentiate between virtue and vice, and in order to encourage virtue
amidst his readers, Basil relates the account of Hercules and the two roads. He claims
that this story was told by “Prodicus, the sophist from Ceos” (ὁ Κεῖόϛ που σοφιστὴϛ
Πρόδικοϛ, 5.11). It appears, however, that Basil may have obtained this tale from
Xenophon, who has Socrates attribute it to Prodicus.83 In support of the conclusion that
Basil reads Xenophon and thence extracts this story, we note that both are unsure of the
exact words which Prodicus used. In making this concession, both Basil and Xenophon
employ the phrase, “so far as I remember” (ὅσα ἐγὼ µέµνηµαι), although Basil
elaborates on this statement.84 Regardless of whether Basil borrows directly from
Xenophon or whether they are both informed by a common tradition, the differences
between their accounts demonstrate Basil’s ability to alter common myths to suit his
didactic purposes.85
With this narrative, the originator of the story (whether that be Xenophon,
Socrates, or Prodicus) draws upon a feature of physical roads which is often incorporated
83
Cicero also uses Xenophon’s account in a discussion of young men and their attempts to choose a
profession. See De officiis, 1.32.
84
Basil 5.12, Xenophon Memorabilia, 2.1.21. This connection has been noted by Wilson (1975, p.54).
85
See the discussion below for a brief comparison of the two accounts.
23
into metaphorical renderings of ὁδόϛ; namely, that roads divide, and that choices must
often be made at the crossroads. In the ancient world important events often occurred at
such a place,86 and Hercules metaphorically (and perhaps physically as well) sits at the
crossroads, wondering which path to take in life. Significantly, Hercules is at this time a
young man (νέοϛ), among the age of those “becoming self-masters” (αὐτοκράτορεϛ
γιγνόµενοι).87 To this fact Basil is quick to add that Hercules was at nearly the same age
as his audience (ἡλικίαν, ἣν καὶ ὑµεῖϛ, 5.12). By thus emphasizing this detail of the
story, Basil helps his audience to relate to Hercules and his position, in which they also
find themselves as young men in a formative period of character development. This
connection between the mythical hero and the young men whom Basil addresses aids the
readers in recognizing the difficulties facing Hercules, and smoothes the way for a
mimesis of his later decision to follow Virtue. That is, by identifying with the character
Hercules, the young Christian men are able to participate in the metaphor LIFE IS A
JOURNEY,
selecting the path of Virtue instead of the path of Vice.
While Hercules ponders this momentous decision, he is approached by two
women who personify Virtue (Ἀρετή) and Vice (Κακία). Immediately, a striking
difference between the two women is discerned, for Vice, having made herself
voluptuous through the use of cosmetics (ὑπὸ κοµµωτικῆϛ, 5.13), offers countless
86
See, for instance, Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, 707-725. and 771-833.
87
Xenophon, Memorabilia, 2.1.21.
24
pleasures as a result of following her lead.88 Virtue, on the other hand, is physically
unattractive and offers toil and danger; however, “the prize of these things is to become a
god, as is the account of that one (ἆθλον δὲ τούτων εἶναι θεὸν γενέσθαι, ὡϛ ὁ
ἐκείνου λόγοϛ, 5.14). By the latter phrase, Basil is able to distance himself from the
traditional reward of apotheosis; given his Christian theology, Basil does not want to
insinuate that one can achieve the divinity possible in Classical mythology, nor yet does
he wish to deny the great benefits bestowed by Virtue. Here Basil demonstrates his
ability to extract from this non-Christian narrative a theme useful for his audience while
avoiding ideas which might lead to unorthodoxy.89 In the end, Hercules chooses to
follow Virtue, becoming a useful example of the high regard for morality and excellence
which Basil wishes to instill in his young men.
One significant difference between Basil’s account and Xenophon’s account is
that, for the former, Virtue and Vice remain silent, while in the Classical account they
both speak; Virtue’s speech is particularly lengthy. Perhaps Basil does not repeat these
speeches because they would already be familiar to his audience, but this does not
explain Basil’s specific mention of the fact that they did not speak (καὶ σιωπώσαϛ, 5.13).
Instead, the differences between them are to be known solely on the basis of
“appearance” (ἀπὸ τοῦ σχῆµατοϛ). Basil is here preemptively discounting the
88
For the idea of two types of beauty, see Achilles Tatius 2.36. For Basil’s dislike of cosmetics, see To
Young Men 9.5-6 and 9.10-11, where he states that he is ashamed even to forbid such things (καὶ
ἀπαγορεύειν αἰσχύνοµαι, 9.11). Basil sees such excessive cosmetics as bestial (θήραν).
89
Such a brief dismissal of apotheosis, however, is less polemic than might be expected, as Wilson notes.
He also explains that Basil probably derived this version of the reward from Plato (Theaetetus 176b1). See
Wilson (1975), p.55.
25
sufficiency of speech, and is locating the truth of a person in his or her σχῆµα. This is
not superficiality; Basil is probably using σχῆµα as much to mean “nature” as
“appearance”; it is the nature of a thing as can be deduced from its appearance, and is
thus neither the summation of a person’s innermost being, nor a mere deception. It has
this richer meaning at Philippians 2.7, where Christ has been found “in appearance as a
human being” (σχήµατι εὑρεθεὶϛ ὡϛ ἄνθρωποϛ).
The passage immediately following the story of Hercules further develops this
idea of the insufficiency of words alone. Basil explains that words are important, but that
these words must be “shown in one’s life” (ἐπὶ τοῦ βίου δεικνύναι τοὺϛ λόγουϛ, 6.1).
It is important to demonstrate through action what others limit to their speech, so that one
may resemble a painter who faithfully portrays reality, rather than an actor who pretends
to be something he is not. In fact, disparity between word and deed is, according to Basil
(who quotes Plato), “the extreme marker of injustice” (ὁ ἔσχατοϛ τῆϛ ἀδικίαϛ ὅροϛ,
6.5).90 There are thus two parts to the task of successfully using Classical texts; by
quoting Plato Basil has accomplished the first task, that of gathering useful material from
the Classical tradition, which also contains some useless or even harmful material. The
second part of the task involves imitating the examples of virtue one has discovered in
the ancient texts. The silence of the two women in Basil’s account bolsters the idea that
imitation of virtue, which transfers one’s words into action, is a central concern of the
Christian life as Basil describes it.
90
All of Section 6 is an elaboration on this theme.
26
Regardless of his mythological or literary source, the adoption of the tale of
Hercules is in accordance with his own principles of using Classical literature. He has
focused attention on one particular story, severed the account from its context, distilled
an instructive principle, and encouraged his readers to emulate the narrative’s
protagonist. This tendency to moralize tales of Hercules did not begin or end with
Basil.91 Overlooking the hero’s less enviable traits, Basil and others cast Hercules into
the role of a Classical warrior of virtue. For Basil there is no inconsistency here; his
mission is to draw together whatever useful examples of virtue exist while discarding
unwanted details.
A few further details of Hercules’ allegorical scenario merit attention. When
actual roads divide, a small initial divergence often leads to two remarkably different
places owing to the great length of the roads. The greater the angle which separates the
two paths, the further apart their eventual destinations will be. This fact, too, is used
metaphorically in the fable. Hercules, although beginning the road of life at one certain
point, arrives after much travel at one of two very different locations. Drawing upon this
property of actual pathways, Basil portrays the two women as differing in obvious and
fundamental ways. As mentioned above, Vice is associated with beauty, pleasure, and
cosmetics. Although such descriptions implicate Vice in sexual immorality, Basil intends
this character to be abhorrent to his audience for other reasons as well. First of all, Vice’s
concern for her appearance is an affront to Basil’s asceticism. Elsewhere he discourses at
length regarding the impropriety of an excessive toilette and other compromises with the
91
See Galinsky (1972), Chapter IX, Exemplar Virtutis, especially pp. 198-199.
27
body, against which the Christian ascetic is constantly at war.92 He mentions in particular
the dangers of paying too much attention to one’s hair and other bodily matters, which
signifies that one is either “unfortunate” (δυστυχούντων) or “being unjust”
(ἀδικούντων) (9.3). For one example, in Xenophon’s account of this story, Vice
mentions, among other pleasures, delight in the sense of smell (ὀσφραινόµενοϛ)
(2.1.24), and Basil counters this temptation by saying, “even to forbid this I am ashamed”
(καὶ ἀπαγορεύειν αἰσχύνοµαι) (9.11).93
It is not as though the deprivation of such pleasures is beneficial in itself, but
rather it must not be allowed to hinder the “service to philosophy” (ὑπηρεσίαν
φιλοσοφίᾳ) (9.12).94 In the midst of this discussion he mentions that the advice of Plato
and of Paul is in accord with respect to the subjugation of the body. Returning to the
examination of the tale of Hercules, let us mention that another reason why Basil expects
his young audience to despise Vice; the young men would presumably be familiar with
the warning from Christian Scripture regarding the allure of an ungodly life. Indeed, the
metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY is prevalent throughout Scripture; this fact will be examined
below. Such a background of Pauline ideology would fuel Basil’s, if not his students’,
scorn for the character of Vice as she is depicted in this myth. In contrast to this
92
Virtually the whole of Section 9 is dedicated to this end.
93
Chapter III below will treat Basil’s ascetical metaphors in greater detail.
94
Considering the high position Basil allots to φιλοσοφία in this work, his use of the term ὑπηρεσία is
unlikely to be coincidental. This word, with its connotations of religious service, seems almost too strong a
word in this context, and greatly emphasizes the importance of φιλοσοφία in Basil’s advice to his young
pupils. On the other hand, note the importance of σοφία (and its personification) in Proverbs chapters 1
and 2 (Septuagint).
28
desirable woman, Virtue is unattractive, and she promises toil and hardship. By listing
“dangers through every land and also sea” (κινδύνουϛ διὰ πάσηϛ ἠπείρου τε καὶ
θαλάσσηϛ) (5.14) among the promised results of pursuing Virtue, Basil echoes Paul’s
declaration that he has suffered “dangers in the wilderness, dangers on the sea”
(κινδύνοιϛ ἐν ἐρηµίᾳ, κινδύνοιϛ ἐν θαλάσσῃ).95 While making this declaration, Paul
is actually serving in a capacity similar to the one occupied by Hercules in the Classical
myth. He, too, leads a virtuous life and is able to serve, to a large extent, as an example
of following Virtue despite temporal losses.96
It is here useful to briefly pursue the connection between Basil’s account of
Hercules and his predecessors, both Christian and Cynic. As mentioned above, the
Christian Scriptures abound with metaphorical content relating to the Journey or Way.
Only a few instances need be examined now in order to establish a general background
against which Basil is sketching his argument. In the New Testament, ὁδόϛ is used of
both moral philosophies and religious sects. Often this metaphor is applied to one’s
manner of living; this usage is paralleled by the modern expression, one’s “way of life.”
The metaphor is used in this way by certain men who were hostile to Jesus and,
pretending to praise his doctrine, claim “you teach the way of God by truth” (ἐπ᾿
ἀληθείαϛ τὴν ὁδὸν τοῦ θεοῦ).97 This use of the ὁδός metaphor in ethical evaluation is
often positive and exemplary, but it can also be negative and cautionary. For instance,
95
2 Corinthians 11.26.
96
See the discussion of Paul’s list of dangers above. Paul is further similar to Hercules (and Odysseus) in
that he is a traveler.
97
Luke 20.21.
29
Jude gives warning concerning people who “traveled on the way of Cain” (τῇ ὁδῳ τοῦ
Κάϊν).98 Here the author uses the metaphor to conveniently summarize a type of moral
lifestyle, in this case, one of treachery and violence, and this is typified in the person of
Cain. Sometimes, individual entities become so typical or otherwise central to the
metaphor that they are referred to simply as the ὁδόϛ; this is true of both Christ99 and his
followers considered as a collective.100 Surely Basil, a member of “the Way” himself,
would understand the centrality of this metaphor to his philosophy. Perhaps most
important for our purpose is a statement by Christ recorded in Matthew 7.13-14:
Εἰσέλθατε διὰ τῆϛ στενῆϛ πύληϛ· ὅτι πλατεῖα ἡ πύλη καὶ εὐρύχωροϛ
ἡ ὁδὸϛ ἡ ἀπάγουσα εἰϛ τὴν ἀπώλειαν καὶ πολλοί εἰσιν οἱ
εἰσερχόµενοι δι᾿ αὐτῆϛ· τί στενὴ ἡ πύλη καὶ τεθλιµµένη ἡ ὁδὸϛ ἡ
ἀπάγουσα εἰϛ τὴν ζωὴν καὶ ὀλίγοι εἰσιν οἱ εὑρίσκοντεϛ αὐτήν.
Come in through the narrow gate; because broad [or flat] is the gate and
wide is the road leading away into destruction and many are the ones
going through it: how narrow is the gate and constricted the way leading
into life, and few are the ones finding it.
Similar to this is the account in Luke 13.24: “Struggle to come in through the narrow
door, because many, I say to you, seek to come in and are not strong [enough]” ( Ἀγωνίζεσθε εἰσελθεῖν διὰ τῆϛ στενῆϛ θύραϛ, ὅτι πολλοί, λέγω ὑµῖν, ζητήσουσιν
εἰσελθεῖν καὶ οὐκ ἰσχύσουσιν).”
Here Jesus establishes a dichotomy which is similar to that posed by Prodicus and
those who record his parable. Instead of discussing the paths in terms of temptations,
98
Jude 11.
99
See John 14.6: “‘᾿Εγώ εἰµι ἡ ὁδοϛ καὶ ἡ ἀλήθεια καὶ ἡ ζωή . . .’”
100
See Acts 9.2 and 24.14.
30
however, in this passage Jesus focuses solely on the destinations, either destruction or
life. On the other hand, Jesus incorporates the idea of the struggle into the physical
descriptions of the paths themselves, using the adjectives πλατεῖα and εὐρύχωροϛ to
describe the road to destruction, while applying στενὴ and τεθλιµµένη to the road to
salvation. One could normally be expected to prefer a broad and flat road to one which is
narrow and restricted, and this preference, which many indeed choose to follow, is related
metaphorically to relate the relative ease of a wicked life and the difficulty of a righteous
life. For the Christian, then, a grueling journey should be expected, just as Hercules
faced a life of burdensome tasks. In fact, the STRUGGLE metaphor is also connected with
the Christian life as a journey; Christ admonishes his followers to ἀγωνίζεσθε.
Notably, Basil does not choose to mention Christ’s exhortation to choose the
difficult path; instead, he uses the parable of Hercules, and he also quotes Hesiod in 5.35. Basil, using Hesiod’s ideas supplemented by his own, describes the road of life as
toilsome, steep, and altogether difficult to surmount. Seeing that this road is such a
burdensome endeavor, Basil claims that “Therefore it is not for everyone to mount it,
because it is steep, nor is it for the one mounting it to easily come upon the summit”
(διόπερ οὐ παντὸϛ οὔτε προσβῆναι αὐτῇ διὰ τὸ ὄρθιον, οὔτε προσβάντι ῥᾳδίωϛ
ἐπὶ τὸ ἄκρον ἐλθεῖν, 5.4). Basil goes on, however, to explain that, having competed the
strenuous ascent, one is able to perceive the beauty and benefit of choosing this way of
life. This account is, therefore, much like that given by Christ, and it is likely that Basil
is selecting Prodicus and Hesiod as evidence, rather than the New Testament, to
31
demonstrate that the Classical tradition contains “other things not wholly set apart” (ἐν
ἑτέροιϛ οὐ πάντη διεστκόσιν, 2.6) from the doctrines of Christian Scripture.
From these two New Testament accounts, then, we see that the Christian life is
established as one of JOURNEY and one of STRUGGLE, and that these two elements are
inseparable. Corresponding to these two facets of a unified whole we find that the
Christian, in order to come into life, must both “find” and “struggle.” Those who are
unable to enter into life fail because they do not find the narrow gate, or because they are
not strong enough to enter through it. Basil does not wish either fate to befall his young
men, and he seeks to guide them to the narrow gate by means of training beforehand for
“the eye of the soul” (τῷ τῆϛ ψυχῆϛ ὄµµατι, 2.6), through the instrumentation of
Classical literature, and he wishes to strengthen them for the fight by the same means.
The discovery of the narrow road is similar to Basil’s discovery of useful material in
those words which have been left behind by his Classical forbearers.101 Basil, then, is
maintaining that non-Christian writings may be useful in the preparation required for both
tasks posed by Jesus: the finding and the struggle.
The Christians, however, were not the only group committed to suffering for
which this parable was significant. Diogenes of Sinope, the Cynic, adopted this parable
of Prodicus, and Hercules began to evolve into “a veritable patron saint to the Cynic
movement.”102 Hercules was a useful figure for the Cynics because of his association
with toil; the Cynics come to interpret his labors as expressions of wisdom and virtue.
101
See 1.4.
102
Dudley (1967), p.13. He has also been called “a legendary proto-Cynic” (see Branham [1996], p.4).
32
Diogenes was compared to, and compared himself to, Hercules.103 The Cynic adopted
the adventures of Hercules as a metaphor for their own endeavors: “The Cynic’s
equivalent to the labors of Heracles is the effort he expends in training himself to reject
all values not sanctioned by nature and to become ready for all contingencies . . .”104 In
fact, Diogenes and the Cynics hold that a relationship exists between physical
conditioning and the development of virtue.105 A study of the Cynics’ views concerning
the journey metaphor reveals its connection to LIFE IS A CONTEST.
The connection between Jesus, the early Christians, and the Cynics is a matter of
ongoing debate.106 Regardless of whether or not any reliable connection exists between
the founder of Christianity and the Cynic school of philosophy, there is clear fondness of
Diogenes expressed in Basil’s work,107 and this undoubtedly contributes to the Church
father’s close association of the journey and struggle of life. This association leads us to
a discussion of Basil’s use of STRUGGLE/CONTEST metaphors in his advice to young
Christian men.
103
Ibid., p.35 and n.19.
104
Ibid.
105
“His doctrine is that good physical condition promotes states of mind that facilitate virtuous deeds- mens
sana in corpore sano.” Ibid., p.39.
106
See for instance Branham and Goulet-Cazé (1996), Dudley (1967), and Bruce Griffin, “Was Jesus a
Philosophical Cynic?”
107
See 9.3-4, 20.
33
CHAPTER III
THE STUGGLE
In the parable of Hercules, the popular hero and the moral exemplar of the Cynics,
Lady Virtue offers to the young traveler a “prize” (ἆθλον), which is “to become a god”
(ἆθλον δὲ τούτων [that is, the many toils and dangers he must face] εἶναι θεὸν
γενέσθαι, 5.14). Basil’s word choice here is not fortuitous; his treatise contains
numerous metaphors connected with LIFE IS A STRUGGLE. Under this rubric, we find
metaphors taken from athletics, warfare, and asceticism. This chapter will treat this class
of metaphors, which further reveals the influences, both Classical and Christian, which
have shaped Basil’s opinion on the proper use of Greek literature.
Basil presents his longest discussion of life as an ATHLETIC CONTEST in Section
8. He begins this section with a list of GATHERING metaphors, which will be examined in
the next chapter. From there, Basil reasons that those who practice any craft work toward
some goal (τέλους, 8.2), which is in accordance with their own interests. In the same
way, Basil argues, it is absurd to think that the lives of human beings have no “end”
(πέρας, 8.3); he asks the following question:
οὐ γὰρ δὴ τῶν µὲν χειρωνακτῶν ἐστί τι πέρας τῆς ἐργασίας, τοῦ δὲ
ἀνθρωπίνου βίου σκοπὸς οὐκ ἔστι.
“Can it be the case that, on the one hand, there is some end for the work of
the handicraftsmen, but that, on the other hand, there is no mark [that is,
something one sets one’s eyes upon, as a goal] for the human life?” (8.3)
If this were the case, Basil continues, the unfortunate human race would be like a ship
without a pilot of the soul, “being borne up and down through life without purpose” (εἰκῆ
34
κατὰ τὸν βίον ἄνω καὶ κάτω περιφερόµενοι, 8.3). As discussed in the previous
chapter, Basil is fond of using the sea voyage as a metaphor for the uncertainties and
dangers of life. Near the beginning of his treatise Basil speculates on the dangers of
allowing harmful entities to control one’s ship of life (in 1.5); now he considers the
ramifications of living life as though it were devoid of teleology.
The adversative ἀλλ᾿ (8.4) introduces a couple of metaphors that Basil suggests
are more appropriate to the actual situation of the Christian, who does not lack an aim in
life, but rather his life is “just like in gymnastic contests, or if you wish, in those of
music” (ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς γυµνικοῖς ἀγῶσιν, εἰ δὲ βούλει, τῆς µουσικῆς). Basil is
talking about focusing one’s attention on the activities upon which one’s desired
achievement is contingent; that is, unlike a ship aimlessly tossed about, a person ought to
pay careful attention to one’s ultimate goals and the means needed to achieve those ends.
His thought becomes clearer as Basil elaborates upon these metaphors.
ἐκείνων εἰσὶ τῶν ἀγώνων αἱ µελέται, ὧνπερ οἱ στέφανοι πρόκεινται,
καὶ οὐδείς γε πάλην ἀσκῶν ἢ παγκράτιον, εἶτα κιθαρίζειν ἢ αὐλεῖν
µελετᾷ.108
There are practice exercises for these contests, for which wreaths are
offered, and no one practicing wrestling or the pankration studies playing
the kithara or the flute.
The “victory wreaths” or “crowns” (στέφανοι) were awarded at the great Panhellenic festivals (Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian, and Nemean) to the winners, the greatest
athletes of the Greek (and later the Roman) world.109 There were only winners and
108
To Young Men, 8.4.
109
See Swaddling (1999), especially pp.11-12.
35
losers; no second or third place finishes were rewarded. Although the games granted no
official material awards, offering only the symbolic wreath of victory, the athletes were
well compensated with fame, glory, and wealth when they returned to their proud home
cities. The fierceness of the competition, as well as the increasingly large geographical
area from which the athletes were drawn, ensured that only a person with great physical
prowess and extensive training would be able to obtain one of the coveted στέφανοι.
Such a singleness of purpose as that of a champion athlete is placed in stark
contrast to the image of a floundering ship, suggesting that the Christian ought to
maintain focus on the task at hand. As the following examples will show, it is important
to Basil that his young readers not be distracted from their duty and lifestyle. Just as one
should not turn over one’s mind to those who would lead one astray (recall Basil’s use of
the ship at 1.5), so too one should not dabble in activities not conducive to reaching the
chief goals of one’s life. Before he explores the application of this metaphor to the
Christian life (at 8.10-14), Basil introduces several men of legendary strength and skill as
examples suitable for emulation. Once again, Basil’s suggestions of mimesis demonstrate
his willingness to gather suitable wisdom from a wide variety of sources; here he even
employs his knowledge of famous athletic figures from Greek legend. Polydamas is
mentioned, as well as the renowned Milo of Croton, two men revered for great feats of
strength. It is not their bodily might, however, in which Basil is interested; he is
concerned with the fact that “on the whole the practice exercises were for them
36
preparations for the contests for a prize” (καὶ ἁπαξαπλῶς αἱ µελέται αὐτοῖς
παρασκευαὶ τῶν ἄθλων ἦσαν).110
This idea of preparation permeates Basil’s treatise and is of central importance to
his athletic and military metaphors. Near the beginning of his address, Basil considers
the gravitas of the future life to be so great that he declares, “and for the other life we do
all things as preparation” (καὶ πρὸς ἑτέρου βίου παρασκευὴν ἅπαντα πράττοµεν).111
The juxtaposition of παρασκευὴν and ἅπαντα emphases the uniform goal of life which
Basil is espousing; it is not enough to take a passing interest in the next life, but rather
one must bend all of one’s energies toward that future time. Just as a champion athlete
does not earn the crown by lethargy, the riches of the future life (which Basil praises at
2.4-5) necessitate thorough training.
For Basil, an important part of this training is the avoidance of other pursuits. He
praises the athletes he has mentioned above not only for their devotion to their study, but
also for the unity of their preparation. Basil argues that, had these same athletes indulged
in musical endeavors, “having left behind the dust and the gymnasia” (καταλιπόντες τὴν
κόνιν καὶ τὰ γυµνάσια), they would not have “hit upon wreaths or glory” (στεφάνων ἢ
δόξης ἔτυχον).112 Not only this, but they would even have been laughed at for the poor
110
To Young Men, 8.6. Basil must handle his treatment of these athletes and their physical prowess
carefully in order to avoid contradicting his views on the body that are discussed in detail in Section 9.
That is, because he believes that the body must be treated with minimal care and be held in low esteem
when compared to the mind, Basil must draw upon athletics metaphorically without endorsing the actual
practices of the athletes themselves.
111
To Young Men, 2.2.
112
To Young Men, 8.6.
37
condition of their bodies (ἢ διέφυγον τὸ µὴ καταγέλαστοι εἶναι κατὰ τὸ σῶµα).113 In
other words, a failure to prepare properly for the contest ensures a shameful defeat.
There are numerous ways in which Basil could have employed these metaphors of
the contest; Basil is here ignoring other potential parallels between athletic contests and
the Christian life (such as the concepts of endurance or, as in 1 Corinthians 9.24-27, of a
prize) in order to focus on the act of preparation. Musical training is suitable to this same
analogy, so Basil has no trouble transitioning to the example of Timotheus, who devotes
himself to music rather than the “wrestling schools” (παλαίστραις), and whose art is said
to have enchanted even Alexander the Great.114 If an athlete devotes himself to music,
then, he fails as an athlete, and likewise if a musician devotes himself to physical
exercise, he can never master his own art. The athlete must train qua athlete, and the
musician qua musician. The implication, then, is that a Christian should train qua
Christian; indeed, Basil will soon lay out the other side of this analogy (the Christian life)
in great detail, and this will be examined below. For now, Basil summarizes these
examples of men who have pursued excellence wholeheartedly by declaring that there is
“great might” (τοσαύτην ἰσχὺν) in both athletics and music, provided that one aims at
“the attainment of the end [or goal]” (τὴν τοῦ τέλους κτῆσιν).115
As Basil prepares the way to explore the Christian life in terms of this athletic
analogy, he mentions several specific aspects of athletic training that serve as metaphors
113
Ibid.
114
To Young Men, 8.7-8.
115
To Young Men, 8.8.
38
for the rigors of a Christian’s experiences.116 These details concerning the hardship of
attaining excellence come in the form of a series of participles; the repeated use of forms
of πολλός emphasize the abundance of trials that must be endured in the course of one’s
training.117 First of all, Basil states that “those men” (ἐκεῖνοι), that is, those who are
successful in athletics or music, have experienced “thousands upon thousands of things”
(µυρία παθόντες ἐπὶ µυρίοις). Basil is unapologetic about the suffering experienced by
champion athletes, and he will later recognize the difficulties in pursuing the goals of
Christianity. Such sufferings, however, are constructive; Basil next indicates that the
athletes have increased “their might from many places” (πολλαχόθεν τὴν ῥώµην
ἑαυτοῖς συναυξήσαντες). Gathering metaphors are found throughout this address, and
Basil seems intent on gathering a wide variety of examples to instruct his young pupils.
In the same way, athletes ought to train by whatever means improve their abilities, and
Christians ought to use whatever is at their disposal (Greek literature included) in order to
achieve their own goals. The means of strengthening one’s body or mind are not without
a price, and the athletes are said to have “sweated much in gymnastic toils” (πολλὰ µὲν
γυµναστικοῖς ἐνιδρώσαντες πόνοις). They do not cling to the “most pleasant way of
life” (δίαιταν δὲ οὐ τὴν ἡδίστην), but instead experience life from the gymnastic
masters (ἀλλὰ τὴν παρὰ τῶν γυµναστῶν). Perhaps most significantly, these athletes
are not being afflicted with unasked for suffering, but rather have “taken up for
116
Note that this discussion of athletics is followed hard upon by Basil’s consideration of asceticism and
taming the body in Section 9.
117
To Young Men, 8.9.
39
themselves” (αἱρούµενοι) this “way of life.” They are not passive victims of their harsh
regimens; they have actively cultivated this δίαιτα with a very specific goal in mind. All
of their training is done for the following reason:
ὥστε κοτίνου λαβεῖν στέφανον ἢ σελίνου ἢ ἄλλου τινὸς τῶν
τοιούτων καὶ νικῶντες ἀναρρηθῆναι παρὰ τοῦ κήρυκος.118
...so as to receive a wreath of wild olive or parsley or some other one of
such things, and, being victorious, to be proclaimed by the herald.
That Basil spends so much time in his elaboration of this passage suggests the great
importance which he felt ought to be attached to this analogy between athlete and
Christian. This is to be expected, seeing that Basil is not the originator of this
comparison. Athletic metaphor is found in various ancient sources, both Classical and
Christian. A few occurrences of such metaphors will be examined below, with the aim of
understanding the tradition from which Basil draws his analogies. This understanding
will inform the subsequent analysis of Basil’s particular usage of these and similar
metaphors.
The use of athletic metaphors is a practice that is still to be found in contemporary
English speaking societies; the phrases “getting over a hurdle,” “ballpark figure,” and
even “getting to first base” are all part of modern parlance, and the ancient Greeks and
Romans also adapted the terminology of sport to other spheres of life. Only a few need
be mentioned here, to demonstrate the existence and manner of this adaptation. One
particularly popular Greek sport was wrestling, which was studied not just for
118
Ibid. The parallels between this passage and the writings of Paul will be discussed below.
40
competition, but also for the attainment of physical fitness.119 From wrestling, then, a
few example metaphors will be examined. In one form of wrestling, the upright method,
a competitor won by throwing his opponent to the ground three times.120 A throw that
landed one of the men on his back was considered spectacular and was known as a “back
fall.” Such a fall, which placed the wrestler in a position that would be very
compromising in an actual combat scenario, was considered as tantamount to total defeat,
and it is this aspect of the “back fall” which crosses into another semantic territory.121
The phrase begins to be used in many situations involving total defeat, even when these
situations of not athletic in nature, as in the case of defeat in an argument. Although not
every aspect of a “back fall” is transferable to these other territories (losing an argument,
for instance, produces no physical impact), enough similarities exist between the original
event and the new one for the connection to be made by those familiar with the metaphor.
Another example from wrestling is again concerned with being placed in a compromised
position. According to the ancient rules, touching the knees to the ground during a match
did not constitute a fall; nevertheless, a competitor on his knees was vulnerable to attack
and easy defeat. For this reason, it was usually in the best interest of the wrestler to avoid
119
“The ‘heavy’ events as the Greeks called them- wrestling, the pankration (a kind of all-in wrestling) and
boxing- were always big attractions at the games. But they were more than sports and entertainment, they
were one of the essential aspects of Greek athletic education.” Swaddling (1999), p.71.
120
Swaddling (1999), p.72.
121
For this process of semantic change, see Ayers (1986), pp. 75-79. Ayers writes, “Metaphors are
powerful motivators of semantic change, and they often acquire an immediate vogue that can last for years
or even centuries. However, because of the voguish or faddish nature of metaphors in general, many fall by
the wayside and are forgotten in a few months or a couple of years.” Note the implicit use of the metaphor,
TIME IS A JOURNEY, which gives rise to the phrase, “fall by the wayside.” For sports and military metaphors
in particular, see Ayers (1986), pp. 231-238.
41
this position. Consequently, the phrase “falling to the knee” became a metaphor for
being at a disadvantage, even in situations far removed from the realm of athletics.
In addition to these non-Christian metaphors, Basil is echoing the Pauline epistles
through his use of athletic metaphors. As mentioned above, Basil, having expressed the
many hardships through which champion athletes must persevere, states that the athletes
endure such toils in order to attain a wreath of victory, and to have their name proclaimed
by the herald. Immediately following this pronouncement, Basil abruptly changes the
subject from the athletes to the Christians, of whom Basil and his young men are a part.
He writes the following concerning the application of this metaphor to the Christian life.
ἡµῖν δέ, οἷς ἆθλα τοῦ βίου πρόκειται οὕτω θαυµαστὰ πλήθει τε καὶ
µεγέθει, ὥστε ἀδύνατα εἶναι ῥηθηναι λόγῳ, ἐπ᾿ ἄµφω καθεύδουσι
καὶ κατὰ πολλὴν διαιτωµένοις ἄδαιαν, τῇ ἑτέρᾳ λαβεῖν τῶν χειρῶν
ὑπάρξει;122
For us, however, before whom the prizes of life are placed, such in
quantity and also magnitude that it is impossible for them to be spoken of
with speech, sleeping upon both [ears] and living a life according to much
security, will it be possible to seize [the prizes] with the other of the
hands?
These words are similar to those used by Paul when he admonishes the church at Corinth
(who would likely be familiar with the Isthmian Games, see Swaddling [1999], p.11-12.).
in the following way.
Οὐκ οἴδατε ὅτι οἱ ἐν σταδίῳ τρέχοντες πάντες µὲν τρέχουσιν, εἷς δὲ
λαµβάνει τὸ βραβεῖον; οὕτως τρέχετε ἵνα καταλάβητε. πᾶς δὲ ὁ
ἀγωνιζόµενος πάντα ἐγκρατεύεται, ἐκεῖνοι µὲν οὖν ἵνα φθαρτὸν
στέφανον λάβωσιν, ἡµεiς δὲ ἄφθαρτον.123
122
To Young Men, 8.10.
123
1 Corinthians 9.24-25.
42
Do you all not know that in the stadion all the ones running run, but one
receives the prize? Run thus, so that you all my seize it. Every one
competing exercises self-control with respect to all things, those men, on
the one hand, so that they may receive a corruptible wreath, we, on the
other hand, an incorruptible one.
Paul and Basil each mention the difference between the physical and “corruptible” prizes
of the athlete, which consists of a crown of vegetation or other rewards, and the
“incorruptible” prize of the victorious Christian, clearly implying by their disjunction that
if an athlete trains so vigorously for a temporal reward, the Christian ought to endure
even greater hardships for the sake of an eternal one. In addition, Paul, like Basil,
emphasizes that difficult training lies in wait for those who would win the race of the
Christian life.
ἐγὼ τοίνυν οὕτως τρέχω ὡς οὐκ ἀδήλως, οὕτως πυκτεύω ὡς οὐκ
ἀέρα δέρων· ἀλλὰ ὑπωπιάζω µου τὸ σῶµα καὶ δουλαγωγῶ, µή πως
ἄλλοις κηρύξας αὐτὸς ἀδόκιµος γένωµαι.124
I, therefore, run in this way, not as one [running] aimlessly, in this way I
box, not as one thrashing the air; but I afflict [or strike under the eye] my
body and bring it into slavery, lest in any way I, having preached to others,
should myself be unproved.
In this passage, Paul employs three different metaphors to describe the Christian
life. First, LIFE IS A RACE. It is important not to run this race ἀδήλως, but rather to have
purpose behind one’s pursuits.125 Along the same lines, LIFE IS A BOXING MATCH. A
boxer can not swing wildly through the air, but must focus the attack on the opponent.
124
1 Corinthians 9.26-27.
125
The central idea of ἀδήλως is acting secretly or indistinctly; from this basic meaning, it seems to take
on the meaning of performing an action with no clear goal in mind. I have translated as “aimlessly,” along
with the English Standard Version. See the entry for ἀδήλως in Friberg (2000).
43
The efforts of one’s life, then, need by focused on some specific goal. These two athletic
metaphors express a similar sentiment to that of Basil; Paul’s athlete is not like Basil’s
despised ship, which is carried about aimlessly, but instead aims his blows with care.
Paul adds one final metaphor in conjunction with these exhortations by the use of
δουλαγωγῶ. One target of Paul’s combat is his own σῶµα, which he “afflicts” and
“leads along into slavery.” The word first word which Paul uses to describe his treatment
of the body, ὑπωπιάζω, is a term from boxing; the word means to beat an opponent
“beneath the eye” or “black and blue.”126 In this verse, then, we find the combination of
THE CHRISTIAN LIFE IS COMBAT
metaphor with the metaphor of slavery. Basil, too,
employs the slavery metaphor, elaborating on its message and using it in the transition to
his discussion of asceticism. Instead of exhorting his young men to enslave their bodies,
Basil inverts the relationship and advises, “So, then, it is necessary not to be a slave to the
body” (οὐ δὴ οὖν τῷ σώµατι δουλευτέον).127 Basil’s choice here to represent the
body as the prison of the soul (ὥσπερ ἐκ δεσµωτηρίου, 9.2.) (rather than the soul as the
master of the body, which he will describe in 9.14) is consistent with the Platonic thought
that Basil will promote later in his discussion.128 For Basil, the agent through which the
126
See under ὑπωπιάζω, Friberg (2000).
127
To Young Men, 9.2. This alternate formulation of the idea is also found in Paul; see, for instance,
Romans 6.20-22, where Paul suggests that slavery (whether to sin or to God) has its own τέλος, implying
that one must look ahead to the consequences of current “slavery”; this concern for the future, and even the
future life, is echoed by Basil (see, for example, 2.1-3).
128
Platonic influence is to be found throughout the discussion of Section 9; Deferrari and McGuire (1970)
point to parallels at 9.6 and 9.7, to name just two instances. Basil’s direct mention of Plato (9.12) will be
discussed below.
44
soul escapes the confines of the body is “philosophy” (διὰ φιλοσοφίας, 9.2). Here it is
possible to see a disagreement with Paul;129 another interpretation, however, is that their
differences are of emphasis (Basil’s purpose in this emphasis will be discussed in the
following remarks). Regardless of how one reads Basil’s statement, it seems clear that
Basil is embracing Greek philosophy, and Plato especially, in very self-conscious
manner, and this is different from the practice of the Christian writers of the New
Testament.
During this discussion, Basil explicitly mentions Paul by name only once, despite
the wealth of Pauline material from which he could have drawn to suit his purposes. This
single reference to Paul is significant in its relationship to Basil’s Classical examples.
Basil, far from ignoring canonical Scripture, is, through his self-conscious collection of
Greek wisdom, trying to demonstrate the similarities which he believes exist between
Christian and non-Christian schools of thought.130 This is expressly stated as a
correlation between Plato and Paul. After summarizing the preceding discussion, in
which Basil condemns various forms of excess (9.7-11), in “one word” (ἐνι δὲ λόγῳ),
that the whole body ought to be “despised” (παντὸς ὑπεροπτέον τοῦ σώµατος), Basil
qualifies his statement by adding that “it is necessary to cling” (ἀνθεκτέον) to the body,
but only insofar as it offers “service to philosophy” (ὑπηρεσίαν φιλοσοφίᾳ).131 As an
129
Paul uses this word only once in his extant literature, where he warns against “philosophy and empty
guile” (διὰ τῆς φιλοσοφίας καὶ κενῆς ἀπάτης, Colossians 2.8). See Note 147.
130
He is, of course, also demonstrating his own “gathering” metaphors; this will be explored more fully in a
subsequent chapter.
131
To Young Men, 9.12. See the discussion of ὑπηρεσία in the previous chapter, Note 94. Once again,
Basil exhibits the singleness of purpose that he believes the Christian life requires. See for example the
45
authority for this exceptional use of the body he names Plato (φησὶ Πλάτων), who is
“speaking in some degree similar to Paul” (ἐοικότα που λέγων τῷ Παύλῳ, 9.12).
This comparison likely serves Basil in two ways. First of all, Basil is attempting
to give a specific example of how Greek thinking can parallel the teachings of
Christianity. Vocabulary such as ἐοικότα and other words dealing with comparisons,
similarities, and similes abound in this text, and Basil is eager to point out intersections
between ideas Classical and Christian in order to bolster his fundamental claim of the
utility of Greek literature. In addition, Basil may be affixing Paul’s name as a sort of
signal to his Christian readers that he is indeed familiar with the Scriptures; he is not
using Classical literature as a substitution for canonical writings, but rather as preparatory
training for those who will later examine the Scriptures themselves.132 Along these same
lines, Basil may be insinuating that Paul is a standard by which Plato is being measured.
This would agree not only with Basil’s sentiment that the Scriptures are superior sources
of spiritual truth to which the initiated must eventually turn, but also that one must judge
non-Christian sources to discern to what extent they are to be regarded as true and
useful.133
Basil continues to develop this idea of Plato, that the body should only be a
concern inasmuch as it offers some service to the mind, by introducing, in quick
beginning of Section 9, where Basil recommends that one keeps “all leisure time apart from other things”
besides caring for the soul: Τί οὖν ποιῶµεν; φαίη τις ἄν. τί ἄλλο γε ἢ τῆς ψυχῆς ἐπιµέλειαν ἔχειν,
πᾶσαν σχολὴν ἀπὸ τῶν ἄλλων ἄγοντας;
132
See Basil’s use of προγυµναζόµεθα in 2.6.
133
Indeed, as mentioned above, this latter belief is one of the central tenants which Basil is expressing in
this work; see, for instance, 1.4-5.
46
succession, several metaphors; at least one of these metaphors comes from the realm of
sport and public spectacle. In order to clarify his view on the proper use of the body,
Basil offers an analogy which illustrates the foolishness inherent in rejecting his advice.
He compares those who “consider how the body may have it as well as possible” (οἳ τοῦ
µὲν σώµατος ὡς ἂν κάλλιστα ἔχοι φροντίζουσι) but who “disregard the soul”
(ψυχὴν. . . περιορῶσι) to “the ones busy about the tools, but giving no heed to the art
working through them” (τῶν περὶ τὰ ὄργανα σπουδαζόντων, τῆς δὲ δι᾿ αὐτῶν
ἐνεργούσης τέχνης καταµελούντων).134 In this analogy the body is reduced to a tool
through which the soul carries out its task, which, referring to the immediately preceding
passage (9.12), is philosophy. As a tool, the body requires a minimal of care in order to
function properly, but being overly concerned with the implements distracts one from the
task at hand. Accordingly, Basil advises that the opposite (τοὐναντίον) be done.135
One might expect that the opposite of paying too much attention to the body
would be to ignore it while focusing on the “art,” but Basil deftly changes the metaphor
which governs the suggested action. The opposite action that Basil describes is not to
ignore the body, but rather to pay careful attention to it; this idea, however, does not
contradict what has been said in the above analogy, but rather refines Basil’s exact
meaning. As a tool, the body must not be pampered indiscriminately. As “the assaults of
a wild beast,” the body must be actively engaged; indeed, one must “prune” or “chastise”
the body and “hold it down” (κολάζειν αὐτὸ καὶ κατέχειν ὥσπερ θηρίου τὰς
134
To Young Men, 9.13.
135
To Young Men, 9.14.
47
ὁρµὰς).136 Specifically, the target of the Christian should be “the uproar being produced
in the soul by it [the body]” (τοὺς ἀπ᾿ αὐτοῦ θορύβους ἐγγινοµένους τῇ ψυχῇ), and
the means of this restraining should be “reasoning,” which is “as a whip” (οἱονεὶ
µάστιγι, τῷ λογισµῷ). One must not, according to Basil, be “letting go every rein for
pleasure” (ἀλλὰ µὴ πάντα χαλινὸν ἡδονῆς ἀνέντας), while, like a charioteer who has
lost control of his team, allowing the mind to be led about, having been swept away
(περιορᾶν τὸν νοῦν, ὥσπερ ἡνίοχον, ὑπὸ δυσηνίων ἵππων ὕβρει φεροµένων
παρασυρόµενον ἄγεσθαι).
The idea of this metaphor, which recalls the brutal chariot races of the Roman
circus, is that, while the body is to be tolerated and even employed, pleasures are to be
severely restricted, lest their clamor interfere with the workings of the mind in its quest
for wisdom.137 Like a charging beast or a wild team, pleasures threaten the singleminded purpose which Basil demands of his learners.138 As Wilson has pointed out, “The
notion of the soul as a charioteer is one of Plato’s most famous ideas (Phaedrus 253254).”139 In this account, Socrates describes the soul as divisible into three portions: the
first two parts are horses, while the third is the charioteer himself (καθάπερ ἐν ἀρχῇ τοῦ
δε τοῦ τριχῇ διείλοµεν ψυχὴν ἑκάστην, ἱπποµόρφω µὲν δύο τινὲ εἴδη, ἡνιοχικὸν
136
Ibid.
137
For information regarding the chariot races of the Greek tradition, see Swaddling (1999), pp.81-87; for
the Roman spectacle, see Köhne (2000), pp.86-102.
138
This devout concentration has been discussed earlier in this chapter; careful attention to the necessities
of this life (and the next) is of great concern to Basil from the very beginning of this treatise.
139
Wilson (1975), p.66.
48
δὲ εἶδος τρίτον).140 One horse obeys the charioteer and does not strive against the reins,
while the other horse, when it spies an object of desire, “is no longer turned about by the
goads or the whip of the charioteer” (ὁ δὲ οὔτε κέντρων ἡνιοχικῶν οὔτε µάστιγος ἔτι
ἐντρέπεται).141 Basil is using his metaphor in the midst of a discussion of training the
body to submit, and Plato also incorporates the idea of mastering the “wicked horse”
through restraining punishments: “whenever the wicked [horse] suffering this often
ceased from his outrage, having been humbled he follows by this time the foreknowledge
of the charioteer” (ὅταν δὲ ταὐτὸν πολλάκις πάσχων ὁ πονηρὸς τῆς ὕβρεως λήξῃ,
ταπεινωθεὶς ἕπεται ἤδη τῇ τοῦ ἡνιόχου προνοίᾳ).142
Both Plato and Basil, then, use the metaphor of the fierce horses and their
charioteer/master to graphically depict the wild behavior of which human beings are
capable. In addition, both commend the efficacy of reason is common; that is, reason is
the tool to be used in training oneself for restraint (λογισµῷ in To Young Men 9.14, λόγῳ
in Phaedrus 253e1). There is, however, at least one interesting difference between the
two usages: Plato’s “wicked” (πονηρὸς) horse does not represent the same aspect of a
human being as do Basil’s “uncontrollable horses” (δυσηνίων ἵππων).143 For Plato, as
he asserts before amplifying his metaphor, is discussing the soul, the ψυχή, which has
been divided into three parts. That is, Plato is describing a relationship between separate
140
Phaedrus 253c7-d1.
141
Ibid., 254a3-4.
142
Ibid., 254e5-7.
143
See Phaedrus 254e6 and To Young Men 9.14.
49
yet interconnected faculties of the human mind. Basil, on the other hand, is employing a
very similar metaphor to express a division, not within the ψυχή, but between the body
(σῶµα) and the soul (ψυχή), for it is the body he has been discussing in the preceding
passages.144 Despite the fact that he soon refers to Plato by name as one who understands
the need to “prune (περικόπτοι, 9.15)” away the excesses of the body, it seems as though
Basil is here emphasizing the psycho-somatic division at the expense of recognizing
partitions within the ψυχή. Such emphasis is in accord with Basil’s very positive
portrayal of the incorporeal and mental; throughout his treatise, and especially in Section
9, Basil exalts the soul, the mind, and reason as forces that the Christian must use in order
to subdue the passions, pleasures, and the body.145
Basil, although employing, as has been shown, a variety of metaphors taken from
the realm of athletics and related fields, seems to discount the value of actual physical
training, at least inasmuch as it leads to excess. Immediately following his metaphor of
the chariot and unmanageable horses, Basil recalls the response of Pythagoras146 to one of
his followers who “through bodily exercises and grains” (γυµνασίοις τε καὶ σιτίοις,
9.14) was “growing fleshy” (κατασαρκοῦντα): “Will you not cease furnishing for
144
See To Young Men 9.12ff.
145
For Basil, the soul is a precious object to be guarded (διὸ δὴ πάσῃ φυλακῇ τὴν ψυχὴν τηρητέον,
4.3) rather than a source of distraction and evil; this role is taken by the body. See Proverbs 4.23 in the
Septuagint (πάσῃ φυλακῇ τήρει σὴν καρδίαν, ἐκ γὰρ τούτων ἔξοδοι ζωῆς), but also Matthew 15.19-20
(ἐκ γὰρ τῆς καρδίας ἐξέρχονται διαλογισµοὶ πονηροί, φόνοι, µοιχεῖαι, πορνεῖαι, κλοπαί,
ψευδοµαρτυρίαι, βλασφηµίαι. ταῦτα ἐστιν τὰ κοινοῦντα τὸν ἄνθρωπον, τὸ δὲ ἀνίποτοις χερσὶν
φαγεῖν οὐ κοινοῖ τὸν ἄνθρωπον). It may be significant, however, that Basil would have one guard the
ψυχή, whereas both Proverbs and Jesus are discussing the καρδία. It is likely that Basil has adjusted the
biblical uses of many terms in his interaction with Greek philosophy.
146
Or perhaps to Plato again; see Deferrari (1970), p.422 n.1.
50
yourself a harsher prison?” (οὐ παύσῃ χαλεπώτερον σεαυτῷ κατασκευάζων τὸ
δεσµωτήριον;). The preceding metaphor of the chariots presents the mind as restraining
the passions, but Basil is here portraying the opposite situation; here, the body is the
prison of the ψυχή (presumably the term implied by σεαυτῷ, as it is mentioned in
conjunction with the chariot and also below in 9.16). This mention of the prison recalls
9.2, discussed above, where Basil advises that his audience free their souls (τῇ ψυχῇ)
from the prison (ὥσπερ ἐκ δεσµωτηρίου) of the passions. In 9.2, as in the present
passage, the prison image is associated with eating as Basil suggests “serving the stomach
necessary things, not sweets” (γαστρὶ µέν γε τὰ ἀναγκαῖα ὑπηρετοῦντας, οὐχὶ τὰ
ἥδιστα).
The solution to the body/prison, however, varies between the passages. In the
earlier passage, the suggested method for freeing oneself was “philosophy” (διὰ
φιλοσοφίας λύοντας, 9.2), and this sentence, introducing Basil’s discourse on
asceticism, went on to relate the importance of making “the body stronger than [or ruler
of] the passions” (ἅµα δὲ καὶ τὸ σῶµα τῶν παθῶν κρεῖττον ἀπεργαζοµένους).
When Basil returns to the idea of the prison in 9.14-15, he does not mention philosophy
but physical methods of controlling the body instead. It has not been long since Basil
referred to both Plato and Paul (see 9.12), but in support of this advice he mentions only
Plato and his Academy. This may be because he did not find Paul entirely harmonious
with his own view; see for instance Colossians 2.20-23, where Paul appears to condemn
“self-chosen service, self-abasement, unsparing treatment of the body” (ἐθελοθρησκίᾳ
51
καὶ ταπεινοφροσύνῃ καὶ ἀφειδίᾳ σώµατος).147 Another possibility is that Basil is, as
often in this work, demonstrating how Greek literature and philosophy are relevant to the
Christian life, a goal for which repeated references to Pauline literature is unnecessary.
In any case, Basil lauds Plato’s decision to reside in an unhealthy location, an action that
Basil interprets as an attempt to limit the “comfort of the body” (εὐπάθειαν τοῦ
σώµατος, 9.15). Basil goes so far as to claim, “And I myself have heard from physicians
that good health at its height is precarious” (ἐγὼ δὲ καὶ σφαλερὰν εἶναι τὴν ἐπ᾿ ἄκρον
εὐεξίαν ἤκουσα).
Basil summarizes his preceding discussion with the following reminder,
introduced by the ὅτε τοίνυν that links this idea with the previous criticism of the body:
... ἡ ἄγαν αὕτη τοῦ σώµατος ἐπιµέλεια, αὐτῷ τε ἀλυσιτελὴς τῷ
σώµατι καὶ πρὸς τὴν ψυχὴν ἐµπόδιόν ἐστι, τό γε ὑποπεπτωκέναι
τούτῷ καὶ θεραπεύειν, µανία σαφής (9.16).
... such excessive attention to the body, useless to the body itself and
obstructing for the soul, for [the soul] to fall down before it [the body] and
to serve it, this is plain madness.
From this point, Basil’s argument progresses and his use of ἀγών-related metaphors
declines. The termination of this portion of his exhortation, however, is deserves
mention. By using ἐµπόδιος (“in the way of the foot”), Basil reminds the readers of the
JOURNEY
metaphor, and indeed he returns to this idea at the end of his section on
asceticism. Basil reasons that if one does not care for “the pleasures [perceived] through
the body” (τὰς διὰ τοῦ σώµατος ἡδονὰς, 9.17), one has no need of wealth or other
material possessions. According to Basil, once the desire for excessive wealth has been
147
Not all scholars accept that Paul was the author of Colossians; see for instance Ehrman (1997), p. 243.
52
conquered, one will not “pursue fawning and flattery” (κολακείας δὲ κιὰ θωπείας
διωξόµεθα, 9.24). To do so would be to “imitate the cunning and changefulness of
Archilochus’ fox” (τῆς Ἀρχιλόχου ἀλώπεκος τὸ κερδαλέον τε καὶ ποικίλον
ζηλώσοµεν). Instead of being ruled by a desire for renown, the “prudent man” (τῷ
σωφρονοῦντι, 9.25) ought “to make right reason the leader of his life” (τὸν ὀρθὸν
λόγον ἡγεµόνα ποιεῖσθαι τοῦ βίου) so that, should one face all sorts of troubles, one
will not “shift one’s ground” (µηδὲν... παρακινεῖν).
Here, then, Basil calls our minds back to his early exhortations to not be led astray
on the journey of life.148 In Sections 1 through 9 of his work, Basil has delineated the
idea of life as a journey, one that is filled with conflict and requires rigorous training and
effort. Through this process, he has drawn together relevant exempla and anecdotes from
Greek literature. The following chapter of the present work will examine the metaphors
that Basil has gathered that have to do with GATHERING itself, and it will be shown how
these metaphors of GATHERING tie his argument together, as well as provide an example
of the very process that he is promoting throughout his address.
148
See, for instance, the metaphor of the ship (1.4-5); see also the discussion of this metaphor in Chapter II
above.
53
CHAPTER IV
GATHERING
Near the very beginning of his address, Basil states his aim of instructing the
young men as to how they can benefit “through the words which [the ancients] left
behind” (δι᾿ ὧν καταλελοίπασι λόγων, 1.4). Even before this, however, the Christian
leader has quoted Hesiod, who praises those willing to accept advice (see 1.3). Basil is
doing more in this work than suggesting to a Christian audience a methodology for
utilizing Classical literature; the address itself is an elaborate example of what he is
proposing. His chief suggestion is that the young men be discerning, gathering from
Greek sources ideas and exempla that are useful while avoiding those that are detrimental
to the mission of the Christian life (i.e., preparing for the next life, as in 2.2-3 and
elsewhere). In order to expound on this suggestion, Basil himself gathers, from Classical
sources, metaphors that deal with gathering.
It is clear that Basil does not advocate giving one’s attention to all ancient
authors, but rather that one be discerning in selecting the appropriate examples. He
discusses both poets and writers of prose in Section 4, warning of the dangers that such
sources may pose. Near the end of this section, as he transitions from a discussion of the
dangers inherent in the project he is proposing to a discussion of virtue (in Section 5),
Basil introduces the metaphor of GATHERING in the simile of the bees. This image, one
of the most elaborate in his address, does not originate with Basil; earlier instances in
literature will be discussed below, following an overview of the image.
54
Basil analogizes the Classics sources to flowers and discerning readers to bees.
The first facet of this comparison that Basil explores is the varying degrees of utility that
the flowers offer to different types of gatherers. For “the remaining [beings],” that is,
those that are not bees, “the enjoyment of [or advantage to be derived from] the flowers is
as far as the sweet smell or the color” (τῶν ἀνθέων τοῖς µὲν λοιποῖς ἄχρι τῆς εὐωδίας
ἢ τῆς χρόας ἐστὶν ἡ ἀπόλαυσις, 4.7). Basil continues, “for bees, on the other hand, it
is possible also to procure honey from them [the flowers]” (ταῖς µελίτταις δ᾿ ἄρα καὶ
µέλι λαµβάνειν ἀπ᾿ αὐτῶν ὑπάρχει). The bees possess an extra facility that allows
them to accrue added benefit from the flowers, while others can only enjoy the sensual
experience. This metaphor of GATHERING encapsulates the chief thrust of Basil’s advice:
it is wise to gain wisdom from any source one is able. There is also an instance of
another theme we have seen elsewhere, the dichotomy of sensual pleasure and the care of
the soul. Whereas the bees gather useful material, it is implied that those who are not
bees merely partake in the superficial pleasures of the flowers, that which is “sweet and
pleasurable” (τὸ ἡδὺ καὶ ἐπίχαρι). Basil believes, however, that sensual indulgence
does not lead to “purification of the soul” (κάθαρσις δὲ ψυχῆς), which can only be
achieved by “dishonoring the pleasures [experienced] through the senses” (τὰς διὰ τῶν
αἰσθήσεων ἡδονὰς ἀτιµάζειν, 9.7). In short, Basil recommends a utilitarian approach
to literature, since the study of literature must be done, like everything else, with a view
to the soul and to the next life.149 In contrast to those who serve their senses, people who
resemble the bees work “for the soul” (εἰς τὴν ψυχὴν). The gathering that Basil is
149
See 2.2-3 and 9.1.
55
suggesting is not to be completed at random but rather in a purposeful way; this is not
surprising, since the same precept has been seen to govern his JOURNEY and agonistic
metaphors as well. Indeed, many metaphors, including the image of the ship, are
discussed in teleological terms in 8.2-3, where Basil states that people who participate in
all sorts of activities all pursue “the ends according to [or appropriate for] their art” (κατὰ
τὴν τέχνην... τέλους, 8.2). According to Basil, then, following certain examples from
Classical literature is a means to achieving an end (one that is informed and governed by
the Christian faith), and gathering such material is thus an integral part of reaching the
intended goal.
For those who are referred to as the “bees,” the Greek literary works (the
“flowers”) are not merely an aesthetic object (µὴ τὸ ἡδὺ καὶ ἐπίχαρι µόνον, 4.7), seeing
that they are also sources of “honey.” Here the use of honey in another metaphor shortly
before the current passage ought to be mentioned. In 4.2ff, Basil gives a warning
concerning how one should not go about the gathering process. Exposing oneself to foul
words leads to undesirable actions, according to Basil.150 He then goes on to compare
those who do not actively protect themselves against harmful exempla to people who
“take in destructive substances along with honey” (ὥσπερ οἱ τὰ δηλητήρια µετὰ τοῦ
µέλιτος προσιέµενοι, 4.3). The image of honey is used in much the same positive way
in this metaphor, and in both cases there are alluring sensations involved. In this earlier
example, pleasure is related directly to the aesthetic features of the Classical writings,
which are presented as potentially dangerous, since worse things (τι. . . τῶν χειρόνων)
150
ἡ γὰρ πρὸς τοὺς φαύλους τῶν λόγων συνήθεια, ὁδός τίς ἐστιν ἐπὶ τὰ πράγµατα, 4.2.
56
can be found “through the pleasure of words” (διὰ τῆς τῶν λόγων ἡδονῆς); the chiastic
word order emphasizes the idea that the beneficial and malicious contents of literature
might not always be easy to separate.
The image of a person ingesting poisons along with honey implies the need for
caution and selectivity. Basil argues that bees, too, do not visit all flowers in the same
way, and the ones that they do visit are not wholly taken by the bees (οὔτε ἅπασι τοῖς
ἄνθεσι παραπλησίως ἐπέρχονται, οὔτε... ὅλα φέρειν ἐπιχειροῦσιν, 4.8). The criteria
that the bees employ are practical; they only take what is appropriate for their task (πρὸς
τὴν ἐργασίαν λαβοῦσαι). It is important to note that Basil expects his readers to mimic
the bees, stating, “So according to the whole image of the bees it is necessary for us to
learn from the [Greek] words” (κατὰ πᾶσαν δὴ οὖν τῶν µελιττῶν τὴν εἰκόνα τῶν
λόγων ὑµῖν µεθεκτέον). This account of the bees is not simply advocating an
intellectual exercise; it is a metaphor that requires practical action. According to Basil, it
is incumbent upon Christians, if they “are wise” (ἢν σωφρονῶµεν), to take from
Classical literature whatever is “akin to the truth” (συγγενὲς τῇ ἀληθείᾳ) while passing
over the potentially dangerous remainder (ὑπερησόµεθα τὸ λειπόµενον).
This image of the bees, then, suggests that a Christian should not hesitate to
gather from Classical sources whatever is useful while avoiding what is dangerous; in
this way, the Christian should be able, according to Basil, to derive benefit from such
literature that others pass over carelessly. Before examining this metaphor in other
ancient sources, one further aspect ought to be mentioned. Basil’s view of literature, and
the ways in which it can be useful to his young men, involves the concept WRITINGS ARE
57
CONTAINERS.
This allows the metaphor of the bees to works successfully; since flowers
contain nectar and writings “contain” ideas and examples, writings can be compared to
flowers and ideas and examples can be compared to nectar. That writings are merely
“containers” that store away ideas that the authors have placed there is not a universally
accepted paradigm, nor is the idea that ideas and examples are “objects” that simply may
be “transferred” from one “location” to another. In Basil’s treatise, however, the above
ideas are underlying assumptions. These are spatial metaphors that portray the various
stages in the exchange of author-text-reader in a way that is quite different from either the
thoughts that the author has or the physical markings of a text. For Basil’s argument,
however, the metaphor that WRITINGS ARE CONTAINERS is very important, since Basil’s
suggestion of perusing Greek literature presupposes that each reader will find there
virtually identical accounts of virtue that will be consistently interpreted by the various
members of his audience.
It is possible to trace this figure of the bees back at least as far as Pindar (see his
passage below), and the image is used by Isocrates.151 In To Demonicus, Isocrates has
been discussing virtue and vice and, like Basil himself, mentions Hercules as an example
of the former. Hercules, who is rewarded “on account of his virtue” (διὰ τὴν ἀρετὴν,
§50) is to serve as one of the “exemplars” (παραδείγµασι, 51). In 51-52, Isocrates
advises, in ways very similar to those of Basil, that “it is necessary. . . to learn the best
things from the poets, and from other wise people” (δεῖ. . . τῶν ποιητῶν τὰ βέλτιστα
µανθάνειν, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων σοφιστῶν). At this point, Isocrates introduces the image of
151
Deferrari (1970) provides a useful list of references for this metaphor on p.391 n.2.
58
the bees and their extraction of useful material from the flowers. In his version of the
simile, the bees land on every flower (ἅπαντα µὲν τὰ βλαστήµατα, §52), whereas, in
Basil’s account, the bees are more selective (οὔτε ἅπασι τοῖς ἄνθεσι παραπλησίως,
4.8). Basil has modified this older version of the bee analogy in the same way that he has
altered the account of Odysseus and the Sirens; with both the Sirens and the bees, Basil
makes the being or beings that are analogous to his young men more cautious than in the
earlier example.152 That is, Odysseus, in Basil’s account, does not even listen to the
Sirens, but rather seals his ears. In the same way, the bees, as presented by Basil, do not
even approach flowers that have nothing useful to offer. In other respects, however,
Basil’s use of this image is very similar to that of Isocrates, and both men encourage their
readers to imitate the bees for the same goal of obtaining wisdom and useful examples of
virtue.
Lucretius, too, employs the image of the bees in Book 3 of his On the Nature of
Things. As he is praising and addressing Epicurus, Lucretius writes the following:
floriferis ut apes in saltibus omnia libant,
omnia nos itidem depascimur aurea dicta,
aurea, perpetua semper dignissima vita. (lines 11-13)
Just as the bees drink everything in the flowery glade, we likewise feed
upon every golden saying, golden, always most worthy of endless life.”
Here the simile is less complicated, for the interaction between the bees and individual
blossoms is not treated. Instead, the repetition of omnia and aurea, as well as the use of
the superlative dignissima, contributes to the idea that the bees consume everything in the
152
See 4.2 and the discussion of that passage in Chapter II.
59
saltus. While it is true that the positive portrayal of the dicta implies that everything that
the bees gather is good, nevertheless the Lucretian example lacks the element of selection
that was found in Basil’s and Isocrates’ usages. There is no mention of any danger that
might be associated with choosing the wrong flower, or the wrong portion of a flower;
this is likely the case since Lucretius is embedding the figure of the bee within praise of
an admirable person rather than using directly it to exhort others.
The image of the bees is seen to have even greater depth of meaning when
connections are made between the gathering of examples of virtue (such as Basil is
recommending) and the composition of poetry. As mentioned briefly above (see Chapter
II, note 67), Basil appears to be valuing more greatly the works of literature that portray
virtue than those that portray vice. In fact, the passage immediately following Basil’s
account of the poisonous honey discusses these matters (4.4-5). This distinction between
suitable and unsuitable material for art allows Basil’s GATHERING metaphors to be
extended to writers as well as to readers. Just as the reader must carefully select
instructive material from the literary piece, so too must the author reject many possible
topics when composing his or her work. That is, Basil may be arguing that the artist who
portrays virtuous actions is superior to the one that portrays vicious actions. This reading
finds support in the fact that Basil appoints depiction of immorality as the province of
those involved with the theatre, of which Basil obviously disapproves, perhaps for their
pretense (4.5). In addition, in 4.6 Basil condemns those writers who “fabricate words to
lure souls” (ψυχαγωγίας. . . λογοποιῶσι); he also urges his audience not to “imitate the
skill of the orators concerned with lying” (καὶ ῥητόρων δὲ τὴν περὶ τὸ ψεύδεσθαι
60
τέχνην οὐ µιµησόµεθα). For Basil, the best artists are those who imitate the world as
he believes it should be, according to his conception of virtue.153
Given his familiarity with a wide range of Classical sources, it is unlikely that
Basil would not have been familiar with the precedent metaphor COMPOSING POETRY IS
GATHERING FLOWERS/HONEY
when dealing with the image of the bees. An earlier
example of this metaphor can be seen in the following segment of an epigram that has
been attributed to Leonidas or Meleager:
Παρθενικὴν νεάοιδον ἐν ὑµνοπόλοισι µέλισσαν
῎Ηρινναν Μουσέων ἄνθεα δρεπτοµένην
῞Αιδας εἰς ὑµέναιον ἀνάρπασεν. . . .154
Hades snatched up into marriage Erinna [as she was] plucking the flowers
of the Muses, she a maidenly, youthful-singing bee among the poets. . . .
As Hopkinson points out (1988, p.255), this epigram “is an ingenious conceit based on
two familiar themes... the poet as a bee gathering sweet honey. . . [and] the young girl
abducted while gathering flowers. . . .” Death has seized the young poet in the middle of
her ποίησις, an act that here is represented as a compilation of units that have been
gathered for this purpose. In the metaphor of this epigram, the only threat (death) comes
from outside the world of bees and flowers, and thus no warning is issued that would
imply the existence of harmful entities among the Μουσέων ἄνθεα. When contrasted
153
It might be argued that Basil is advocating a morally idealistic, and therefore inaccurate, portrayal of the
world. What Basil seems interested in, however, is portraying the world as in prescriptive rather than
descriptive terms, and this implies that what the work ought to imitate accurately is a correct system of
morality (instead of moral reality).
154
Epigram 12, lines 1558-1560 of A Hellenistic Anthology, Hopkinson (1988).
61
with this epigram, Basil’s version of the metaphor again appears cautious and emphasizes
his reluctance to endorse all Classical literature without reservation.
In the epinician odes of Pindar and Bacchylides, the bee appears as a metaphor
related to the specific genre in which it occurs. While the latter compares an encomiastic
poet to a bee,155 Pindar employs the image of the bee in order to communicate a certain
facet of the encomia themselves:
ἐγκωµίων γὰρ ἄωτος ὕµνων
ἐπ᾿ ἄλλοτ᾿ ἄλλον ὥτε µέλισσα θύνει λόγον.156
... for the finest of victory hymns
flit like a bee from one theme to another.
Quick flight from one topic to another is mirrored here by the flight of the bee. It is not a
specific poet that is being analogized, but an entire genre instead. This close connection
between the bee and the production of literature further supports the conclusion that Basil
prefers literature that has been composed with an eye to virtue. According to Basil, the
poet and the reader have much the same task of gathering.
Basil’s account of the bees is immediately followed by another simile that
employs the same metaphor, WRITINGS ARE CONTAINERS:
καὶ καθάπερ τῆς ῥοδωνιᾶς τοῦ ἄνθους δρεψάµενοι τὰς ἀκάνθας
ἐκκλίνοµεν, οὕτω καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν τοιούτων λόγων ὅσον χρήσιµον
καρπωσάµενοι, τὸ βλαβερὸν φυλαξώµεθα. (4.9)
And just as, while plucking the flowers of a rose-bed, we turn away from
the thorns, so also, while reaping as much as is useful in such words, let us
guard against that which is harmful.
155
See Bacchylides, Epinician Ode 10.9ff.
156
Pindar, Pythian Ode 10.53-54. Text and translation from Race (1997), pp. 362-365.
62
Once again, Basil’s metaphor involves an element of danger. Unlike the flowers in the
other sources mentioned above, Basil’s flowers have thorns. Despite his acute awareness
of the danger of consuming inappropriate material along with useful examples (as can be
seen in a number of his metaphors, such as the image of the ship [1.5] and the poisoned
honey [4.3]) Basil insists on the value of the gathering project. It has been noted that
Basil transforms earlier metaphors to suit his purpose of educating young Christian men,
and in the following passage he explicitly advises this process of adaptation:
εὐθὺς οὖν ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἐπισκοπεῖν ἕκαστον τῶν µαθηµάτων καὶ
συναρµόζειν τῷ τέλει προσῆκε.... (4.10)157
Immediately from the beginning it befits us to oversee each of [the
branches of] learning and to fit them for our end....
Basil twice uses the image of a river in order to illustrate the process of gathering
ideas from various sources, yet the unique characteristics of the two streams reflect the
differences in the gathering methods that they represent. In 8.1, Basil reiterates that only
that which is useful ought to be taken in by the gatherer (παραδεκτέον. . . ἀλλ᾿ ὅσα
χρήσιµα). He then states that it is “shameful” (αἰσχρὸν) to reject harmful morsels of
food while having “no consideration” (µηδένα λόγον ἔχειν) for sources of learning,
“which feed our souls” (ἃ τὴν ψυχὴν ἡµῶν τρέφει). This image of consumption and
nourishment recalls the poisoned honey of 4.3 discussed above. Metaphorically, the
ψυχή is being envisioned as portal through which various ideas are entering; not to guard
this portal, argues Basil, leads to disaster. The undiscerning person is said to “rush in”
just like a “mountain-stream swollen with rain hurrying along everything chanced upon”
157
The similarities between this method of adaptation and the views of Paul will be briefly discussed in the
Conclusion.
63
(ὥπερ χειµάρρουν παρασύροντας ἅπαν τὸ προστυχὸν ἐµβάλλεσθαι). The term
ἐµβάλλεσθαι suggests rashness and is contrasted with the exercise of “reason” (λόγον,
8.2) in the next sentence, as well as with the “workmen” (δηµιουργῶν) that are
mentioned as people who pursue a well-defined “end” (τέλους). There are both spatial
and temporal aspects to this pursuit of τέλος; the pilot and the archer aim at a certain
location, while the skilled workers look forward to an end result.158 More importantly for
the present discussion, there is a spatial aspect to the image of the rushing river. This
word (χειµάρρουν) denotes a stream that is swollen due to rain or runoff from melting
snow. That is, the indiscriminate person is compared to an object that is normally docile
and that has acquired violent momentum due to the addition of excess material. The
metaphor that lies behind this simile is PEOPLE ARE CONTAINERS that hold ideas, since
IDEAS ARE VOLUMINOUS SUBSTANCES
that are capable of “filling” a person’s mind.
According to Basil’s view, when this material consists of the harmful examples of vice or
other inappropriate contents of literature, the nature of the reader is altered and caused to
stray from their path.
It is possible at this point to sketch the metaphorical structure that underlies much
of Basil’s argument. First of all, IDEAS ARE VOLUMINOUS SUBSTANCES, and they can
also be transported from one location to another. Authors place these ideas within texts,
since TEXTS ARE CONTAINERS. Finally, READING A TEXT IS A TRANSFER OF IDEAS (as
can be seen, for instance, in the image of the sweet poisons described above), and thus
READERS ARE CONTAINERS into
158
which these ideas can enter (like honey being ingested).
For the image of the ship, see 1.4-5 and Chapter II.
64
Evidently, Basil does not conceive of these idea/objects as being changed in any
significant way during this process. Otherwise, he would not describe his interaction
with ancient literature in such familiar terms as are found in 1.4, where Basil seems to be
dealing intimately with “the notable of ancient men” (τοῖς ἐλλογίµοις τῶν παλαιῶν
ἀνδρῶν), their ideas having been preserved through the texts they produced. It is this
fact, along with the metaphorical progression from author to text to reader, that allows
Basil to condemn authors who produce deception or unworthy examples, to praise those
who leave behind useful material conducive to virtue, and to warn readers to be cautious
when extracting the contents of ancient literature.
According to Basil, then, being “filled” with certain types of information leads to
recklessness like the river. Another metaphor that is closely linked with the river,
however, is meant to demonstrate the results of the prudent collection of Classical ideas.
Following his section on asceticism (Section 9), Basil commences his conclusion in
Section 10. He begins by acknowledging that he and his audience (the subjects of
µαθησόµεθα), who presumably are being considered as representative of the Christians
as a group, “will learn [the previously discussed material] more fully from our literature”
(τοῖς ἡµετέροις λόγοις τελειότερον µαθησόµεθα, 10.1). Basil advises, however, that
his readers should also consider ideas “from the lessons of those outside” (ἐκ τῶν
ἔξωθεν παιδευµάτων), assumedly from those outside the Christian faith. The image of
the river is then introduced in conjunction with the metaphor of gathering. People who
“carefully gather profit from each [source]” are said to receive “many aids from many
65
sides,” just like “great rivers.”159 Like the previous use of the river image, this instance
views the river as a confluence of small streams, which represent ideas and examples
from literature. This time, however, words like ὠφέλειαν and προσθῆκαι ensure that
the image has a positive impact.
The position of this image is important because is appears near the beginning of
Basil’s conclusion, in which he returns to his most important ideas from previous
passages and pursues further examples from literature in order to imitate the mighty
rivers just described. That is, the ideas that follow flow into Basil’s argument like the
streams that he is imagining; this link between the metaphorical language and the
subsequent Classical reference is established by γὰρ καὶ (10.2), which suggests that “the
clause in which καὶ γάρ stands is added as a new and important thought; where γάρ
alone would state the reason or the explanation with less independence and with slighter
emphasis.”160 A quote from Hesiod’s Works and Days (361-362) begins this stream of
metaphors that elaborate upon the idea of gathering by emphasizing the aim of this
pursuit. Hesiod speaks of “adding a little to a little” (τὸ. . . σµικρὸν ἐπὶ σµικρῷ
κατατίσθεσθαι, 10.2) in order to obtain something great, and Basil interprets this in
terms of “knowledge” (ἐπιστήµην).
This concept of gradually increasing one’s knowledge by small increments can be
found as one reconsiders Basil’s earlier examples and is closely tied to the perceived
159
τοῖς γὰρ ἐπιµελῶς ἐξ ἑκάστου τὴν ὠφέλειαν ἀθροίζουσιν, ὥσπερ τοῖς µεγάλοις τῶν ποταµῶν,
πολλαὶ γίνεσθαι πολλαχόθεν αἱ προσθῆκαι πεφύκασι, 10.1.
160
Smyth (1984), §2814.
66
τέλος of his life. The image of the river, of course, exhibits this notion of gradual
increase, but so do others, such as the simile of the bees, who gather a small amount of
material from a large number of sources. Furthermore, Basil’s original reason for
examining Classical literature involves his notion of preparation, which is carried out
little by little and in stages. In particular, Section 2 of his treatise urges the young men to
be mindful of the life to come, and to understand that, while “mysteries” (ἀπορρήτων,
2.5) of the Christian scriptures lead one into knowledge of this afterlife, the youth and
inexperience of Basil’s audience necessitates a perusal of the “shadows and mirrors”
(σκιαῖς καὶ κατόπτροις, 2.6) of non-Christian literature.161 The idea of gathering is
further tied to the idea of preparation, and to the athletic metaphors associated with it,
when Basil, referring to the Christian life as “the contest. . . the greatest of all contests”
(ἀγῶνα. . . πάντων ἀγώνων µέγιστον, 2.7), advises his young men that “it is necessary
to be conversant with” all the ancient writers from whom one they might obtain “some
aid in caring for the soul.”162 Since this gathering is done as “preparation” (τὴν. . .
παρασκευήν) for the contest, we see that the gathering and agonistic metaphors overlap.
For example, when discussing the study of virtue in Homer, the metaphors STUDYING
HOMER IS COMBAT TRAINING
and STUDYING HOMER IS GATHERING OBJECTS are both
consistent with Basil’s view. It is the idea of “preparation,” then, that is central to his
argument for using Greek literature: gathering examples of virtue and wisdom from non-
161
cf. the cave in Plato’s Republic 514a-520d and the mirror in 1 Corinthians 13.12.
162
...καὶ ποιηταῖς καὶ λογοποιοῖς καὶ ῥήτορσι καὶ πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ὁµιλητέον, ὅθεν ἂν µέλλῃ πρὸς
τὴν τῆς ψυχῆς ἐπιµέλειαν ὠφέλειά τις ἔσεσθαι, 2.7.
67
Christian sources is preparation for the study of the Scriptures, which in turn is
preparation for living the Christian life that Basil is describing through the use of
JOURNEY
and CONTEST metaphors. Ultimately, the Christian life is also preparation for
the life to come, which Basil considers to be the only goal suitable for his audience.
The examination of one final metaphor, which is given a prominent position near
the very end of Basil’s address, will show how this concern of Basil for the afterlife
integrates his JOURNEY, CONTEST, and GATHERING metaphors. From 10.3 to 10.6, Basil
discusses a saying of Bias to his son bound for Egypt:
ὁ µὲν οὖν Βίας τῷ υἱεῖ πρὸς Αἰγυπτίους ἀπαίροντι καὶ πυνθανοµένῷ
τί ἂν ποιῶν αὐτῷ µάλιστα κεχαρισµένα πράττοι· Ἐφόδιον, ἔφη,
πρὸς γῆρας κτησάµενος, τὴν ἀρετὴν δὴ τὸ ἐφόδιον λέγων, µικροῖς
ὅροις αὐτὴν περιγράφων, ὅς γε ἀνθρωπίνῳ βίῳ τὴν ἀπ᾿ αὐτῆς
ὠφέλειαν ὡρίζετο.163
Bias, for instance, when he was asked by his son, who was about to depart
to Egypt, what he could do that would gratify him most, replied: “By
acquiring travel-supplies for your old age,” meaning by “travel-supplies”
virtue, no doubt, though the terms in which he defined it were too narrow,
seeing that he limited to human life the benefit to be derived from virtue.
Basil will use this metaphor to bring together the most important concepts of his address,
but he begins by focusing attention on the term γῆρας. In order to emphasize his view
that “human life” (ἀνθρωπίνῳ βίῳ) is transient, Basil mentions three men renowned for
their impressive longevity. Significantly, two of these examples are from Classical
sources, while the third is taken from the Old Testament. Near the end of his argument,
Basil is taking his own advice and drawing useful examples from both Christian and nonChristian sources. In comparison to long lives of these three men, Basil reflects upon the
163
To Young Men, 10.3, translation by Deferrari (1970).
68
life to come, “gazing at the long and undecaying164 eternity, whose end one is in no way
able to comprehend with the power of thought. . . .” (εἰς τὸν µακρὸν ἀποσκοπῶν καὶ
ἀγήρω αἰῶνα, οὗ πέρας οὐδέν ἐστι τῇ ἐπινοίᾳ λαβεῖν, 10.4). Even the longest of
human lives, Basil is arguing, is fleeting compared to the boundless eternity that awaits
“the immortal soul” (τῆς ἀθανάτου ψυχῆς). As he has done throughout his address,
Basil now reiterates that it is this eternal afterlife at which his young men ought to direct
their attention, stating, “For which [eternity] I would advise you to obtain traveling
supplies. . . .” (πρὸς ὅνπερ κτᾶσθαι παραινέσαιµ᾿ ἂν τὰ ἐφόδια. . . , 10.5). Moreover,
this journey through life is “harsh and needs toil” (χαλεπὰ. . . καὶ πόνου δέοµενα).
The traveling supplies of virtue are thus helpful for life as a struggle, just as for life as a
journey.
Here, then, all of Basil’s themes are tied together before he closes his address with
a final simile, that his young men not be like those with terminal illnesses that refuse to
admit the counsel of physicians (10.7-8). According to Basil, in the journey of the
Christian life, one encounters many struggles. Careful preparation is required for this
journey, and the journey itself is preparation for the next life. One way to prepare oneself
for the journey is to learn from the Christian Scriptures, but one can prepare also for this
task by examining Classical literature and by gathering from this body of knowledge
useful examples of virtue.
One final connection remains to be drawn; the method of gathering and adaptation
that Basil advocates in this address is similar to that proposed by the Apostle Paul. In his
164
Literally, “without old age,” in contrast with the γῆρας mentioned above.
69
speech on the Areopagus, Paul begins his apology by recognizing the worldview of the
Athenians around him, rather than discounting all of their values offhand.165 Beginning
with their own system, Paul begins to show the Greeks how he believes Christian
theology to be superior to their own, and while he disagrees with their conclusions, Paul
does not invalidate all of their beliefs. Instead, he even quotes from non-Christian
literature in order to support his own argument for the Christian faith (see especially
verse 28). Like Basil after him, Paul has taken material from another tradition and used
this as a starting point for the exposition of his Christian doctrines. This speech at Athens
is representative of Paul’s self-proclaimed method, which is perhaps most clearly
delineated in 1 Corinthians 9.19-23, where Paul claims that he has adopted certain
characteristics or perspectives of a wide variety of people in order to more effectively
“save some” (τινὰς σώσω, 9.22). Such a task is not viewed lightly by Paul, who then
adds athletic metaphors (9.24-27) to describe the struggle and reward of the Christian
life. Basil’s approach is similar to that taken by Paul in that both men are not averse to
using certain elements from non-Christian thinkers and writers, provided, of course, that
this material is subordinated to their Christian goals.
165
See Acts 17.16-34.
70
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
We have seen that Basil the Great advocates the use of Classical Greek literature
by young Christian men as a means to prepare themselves for Christian texts and also to
obtain examples of virtue that can be imitated during times of temptation; furthermore,
Basil himself has freely gathered metaphors from earlier literature and altered them to
suit his current argument and his Christian values. It is true, however, that simply
reading about Hercules and his chosen path (for instance) does not ensure that one will
act virtuously. The relationship between the gathered literary passages and actual virtue
is explained in Basil’s system by the metaphor of athletic training as it appears in 2.6-8, a
passage previously considered. In this passage, Basil refers to material taken from nonChristian literature as that by which “we train a while beforehand for the eye of the soul”
(τῷ τῆς ψυχῆς ὄµµατι τέως προγυµναζόµεθα). The reader then learns that, just as a
soldier engages in activities that will help him as he performs on the battlefield, so too
will studying examples of virtue allow one to perform virtuously in the contest of life.
When noticing Basil’s familiarity with many Classical authors, and his extensive
references to certain ones of these, it is tempting to locate Basil within some particular
school or tradition, such as the Neo-Platonists.166 Recognizing that Basil may be working
within one or more of these traditions, it is also important to note that he has attempted
the very task posed to his young men, to gather information from many sources and yet
have it conform to the Christian worldview. It is beyond the scope of this paper to trace
166
Or the Second Sophistic more generally; see the discussion below.
71
Basil’s opinion of the Classical tradition and Classical education as it changes throughout
his life, though the place of his Address to Young Men in this evolution is briefly outlined
by John Rist, who writes the following:
It is important to recall yet again that although Basil alludes to the lives
and ideas of philosophers, they are philosophers safely distant from his
own age and usually, I submit, to be valued as stylists, or at most
moralists, rather than as thinkers. Neither Middle Platonic nor
Neoplatonic philosophers are offered as models, or used philosophically,
though Plutarch in particular is used extensively as a source. It is hard
when reading the address to avoid the impression that a literary education
is emphasized rather as the background or decoration of a cultured man
than as a basis for a Christian understanding.167
In light of the above discussion of Basil’s use of Classical metaphors, however, is
it not possible to conclude that Basil, at least in this address, does see a real affinity
between the Classical models and his Christian doctrine? He states as much at 2.6, and
especially in Section 3. In the latter passage, Basil contrasts Christian and non-Christian
education (τῶν παιδεύσεων ἑκατέραν) and suggests a botanical “image” (τῆς εἰκόνος)
in order to understand the relationship between the two. Just as a tree produces fruit that
is surrounded by the beauty of the leaves, so too “the truth is the fruit” (µὲν καρπὸς ἡ
ἀλήθεια, 3.2), but non-Christian literature can serve as the enveloping foliage. To
support this claim, Basil cites the biblical examples of Moses and Daniel, whom he
claims to have studied secular learning before turning to “the sacred teachings” (τῶν
θείων... παιδευµάτων, 3.4). In this passage, and throughout his address, Basil appears
to view Greek literature as a legitimate precursor to the Christian Scriptures, rather than
167
John M. Rist, Basil’s “Neoplatonism,” in Basil of Caesarea: Christian, Humanist, Ascetic. Fedwick
(1981), p.219.
72
merely as a component of a liberal education. While it is true that this address may hold
implications for Basil’s literary criticism (see Chapter IV), it is not true that “Basil offers
what is essentially a rhetorician’s or literateur’s view of the Hellenistic past. . . .”168
Instead, Basil adopts a personal and pastoral tone, attempting to offer sound advice to the
youth. It is, above all, a practical work, and all of the metaphors examined above are
metaphors to live by.
As his use of gathering metaphors suggests, points of intersection may be seen
between Basil’s method and the values of the Second Sophistic. The very fact that Basil
is arguing for the utilization of Greek literature, and that he is attempting to mimic Attic
style169, aligns him with the Sophists, who seek to preserve Classical Greek culture.170
As Anderson notes, “Sophistic writers were expected to be well read in at least the Greek
classics, and to be able to defend their positions with ancient authority, or adorn the
texture of their work with the décor of a well-defined canon of authors.”171 Like a wellprepared sophist, Basil has at his disposal an extensive canon of Classical material with
which to support his arguments. He also uses many of the same tools as the Sophists,
including “the simile, quotation, and exemplum which will supply so much of the
168
Ibid.
169
Anderson (1993), pp. 87ff. “Stylistically B. [Basil] is a typical Atticist: he follows the tradition, which
was well established by the middle of the second century A.D. and is seen at its best in the writings of
Lucian, of imitating in vocabulary and syntax the great writers of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.”Wilson (1975), p.12.
170
Anderson (1993), p.69.
171
Ibid, p.78.
73
essential repertoire and texture of sophistic writing.”172 Finally, Basil demonstrates the
same sense of familiarity with ancient authors that characterizes some of the Sophists.173
Basil chooses to adapt and modify the culture around him rather than
unreservedly adopting or merely excoriating it. As we witness his intermingled use of
Classical and Christian metaphors, we can begin to appreciate Basil’s relatively openminded (while distinctly Christian) perspective, and more broadly to contemplate the
enduring value of incorporating the Classics into any education, whether religious or
secular.
172
Ibid, p.49.
173
See Anderson (1993), Chapter 3: Communing with the Classics, especially pp.69-70. See also To Young
Men 1.4.
74
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