Self-Strengthening Movement
The Self-Strengthening Movement (洋务运动 or 自强运动), c 1861–1895, was a period of institutional reforms
initiated during the late Qing Dynasty following a series of military defeats and concessions to foreign powers.
To make peace with the Western powers in China, Prince Gong was made regent, grand councilor, and head of the
newly formed Zongli Yamen (Office of Foreign Affairs). By contrast, Empress Cixi was virulently anti-foreign, but she
had to accommodate Prince Gong because he was an influential political figure in the Qing court. She would, however,
become the most formidable opponent of reform as her political influence increased.
The majority of the ruling elite still subscribed to a conservative Confucian worldview, but following China‟s serious
defeats in the First and Second Opium Wars, several officials now argued that in order to strengthen itself against the
West, it was necessary to adopt Western military technology and armaments. This could be achieved by
establishing shipyards and arsenals, and by hiring foreign advisers to train Chinese artisans to manufacture such wares
in China. It was believed that the intelligence and wisdom of the Chinese civilization was superior to those of Western
“barbarians”, and thus China would first learn from foreigners, then equal them, and finally surpass them. As such, the
“self-strengtheners” were by and large uninterested in any social reform beyond the scope of economic and military
modernization.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement
Oracle Bones
Oracle bones (甲骨) are pieces of shell or bone, normally from ox scapulae or turtle plastrons, which were used for
scapulimancy – a form of divination – in ancient China, mainly during the late Shang dynasty. Diviners would submit
questions to deities regarding future weather, crop planting, the fortunes of members of the royal family, the military
endeavors, and other similar topics. These questions were carved onto the bone or shell in oracle bone script (甲骨文)
using a sharp tool. Intense heat was then applied with a metal rod until the bone or shell cracked due to thermal
expansion. The diviner would then interpret the pattern of cracks and write the prognostication upon the piece as well.
The oracle bones bear the earliest known significant corpus of ancient Chinese writing and contain important historical
information such as the complete royal genealogy of the Shang dynasty. When they were discovered and deciphered in
the early twentieth century, these records confirmed the existence of the Shang.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Bones
Chinese Civil Examination System
The imperial examination (科舉) was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select the best
administrative officials for the state‟s bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in
Imperial China and was partly responsible for changes in the power structure of the Tang and Song Dynasties that
would hold long after their dissolution. The system assisted in the replacement of what had been relatively few
aristocratic families with a more diffuse and populous class of typically rural-dwelling, landowning scholar-bureaucrats,
organized into clans.
Established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty, the system was used only on a small scale during the Tang Dynasty. Under
the Song dynasty, the emperors expanded the examinations and the government school system in order to counter the
influence of military aristocrats, increasing the number of those who passed the exams to more than four to five times
that of the Tang. Thus the system played a key role in the emergence of the scholar-officials, who came to dominate
society. Under the Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty, the system contributed to the narrowness of intellectual life and the
autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its 1905 abolition under the Qing
Dynasty. The modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_examination
Samurai
Samurai (侍) were the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: “In
Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany persons in the upper ranks of
society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau. In both countries the terms were nominalized to
mean “those who serve in close attendance to the nobility,” the pronunciation in Japanese changing to saburai.
By the end of the 12th century, samurai became almost entirely synonymous with bushi (武士), and the word was
closely associated with the middle and upper echelons of the warrior class. The samurai followed a set of rules that came
to be known as bushidō.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai
Meiji ishin (1868)
The Meiji Restoration (明治維新), also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of
events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. The goals of the restored government were
expressed by the new emperor in the Charter Oath. The Restoration led to enormous changes in Japan‟s political and
social structure, and spanned both the late Edo period (often called Late Tokugawa shogunate) and the beginning of
the Meiji period. The period spanned from 1868 to 1912 and was responsible for the emergence of Japan as a
modernized nation in the early twentieth century.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_Ishin
Mandate of Heaven in Chinese dynastic history
The Mandate of Heaven (天命) is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers. It is
similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings, in that both sought to legitimize rule from divine approval;
however, unlike the divine right of kings, the Mandate of Heaven is predicated on the conduct of the ruler in question.
The Mandate of Heaven postulates that heaven (天) would bless the authority of a just ruler, as defined by the Five
Confucian Relationships, but would be displeased with a despotic ruler and would withdraw its mandate, leading to the
overthrow of that ruler. The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best. The mere fact of a
leader having been overthrown is itself indication that he has lost the Mandate of Heaven.
The Mandate of Heaven does not require that a legitimate ruler be of noble birth, and dynasties were often founded by
people of mean birth (such as the Han dynasty and Ming dynasty). The concept of the Mandate of Heaven was first used
to support the rule of the kings of the Zhou Dynasty, and their overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty. It was used
throughout the history of China to support the rule of the Emperors of China, including „foreign‟ dynasties such as
the Qing Dynasty.
The Mandate of Heaven is a well-accepted and popular idea among the people of China, as it argues for the removal of
incompetent or despotic rulers, and provided an incentive for rulers to rule well and justly. The concept is often invoked
by philosophers and scholars in ancient China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that
otherwise offered no other check to this power. The Mandate of Heaven had no time limitations, instead depending on
the just and able performance of the ruler. In the past, times of poverty and natural disasters were taken as signs that
heaven considered the incumbent ruler unjust and thus in need of replacement.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven
Zheng He (1371-1433)
Zheng He (1371–1433), formerly romanized as Cheng Ho, was a Muslim Hui-Chinese court eunuch, mariner,
explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle
East, Somalia and the Swahili coast, collectively referred to as the “Voyages of Zheng He” from 1405 to 1433. As a
favorite of the Yongle Emperor, whose usurpation he assisted, he rose to the top of the imperial hierarchy and served
as commander of the southern capital Nanjing. These voyages were long neglected in official Chinese histories but
have become well known in China and abroad since the publication of Liang Qihao‟s “Biography of Our Homeland‟s
Great Navigator, Zheng He” in 1904. A trilingual stele left by the navigator was discovered on Sri Lanka shortly
thereafter.
Iwakura Mission 1871
The Iwakura Mission or Iwakura Embassy (岩倉使節団, Iwakura Shisetsudan) was a Japanese diplomatic journey
around the world, initiated in 1871 by the oligarchs of the Meiji period. Although it was not the only such “mission”, it
is the most well-known and possibly most important for the modernization of Japan after a long period of isolation from
the West.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwakura_Mission
Kang Youwei‟s idea of grand commonality
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kang_Youwei#Da_Tongshu
Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism is an ideology of society that seeks to apply biological concepts of Darwinism or
of evolutionary theory to sociology and politics, often with the assumption that conflict between groups in society leads
to social progress as superior groups outcompete inferior ones.
The name social Darwinism is alleged, sought to apply biological concepts to sociology and politics. The term social
Darwinism gained widespread currency when used in 1944 to oppose these earlier concepts.
Social Darwinism is generally understood to use the concepts of struggle for existence and survival of the fittest to
justify social policies which make no distinction between those able to support themselves and those unable to support
them. Many such views stress competition between individuals in laissez-faire capitalism; but the ideology has also
motivated ideas of eugenics, scientific racism, imperialism, fascism, Nazism and struggle between national or racial
groups.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Darwinism
Treaty of Nanjing (1892)
The Treaty of Nanking (or Nanjing) was signed on 29 August 1842 to mark the end of the First Opium War (1839–42)
between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Qing Dynasty of China. It was the first of what the
Chinese called the unequal treaties because Britain had no obligations in return.
In the wake of China‟s military defeat, with British warships poised to attack the city, representatives from the British
and Qing Empires negotiated aboard HMS Cornwallis anchored at Nanjing. On 29 August 1842, British representative
Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives, Qiying, Yilibu, and Niujian, signed the treaty. It consisted of thirteen
articles and ratification by Queen Victoria and the Daoguang Emperor was exchanged nine months later.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanjing
Fuzuzawa Yukichi‟s Escape from Asia
“The Rise of the West” as a historical narrative
Charter Oath (1868)
The Charter Oath (五箇条の御誓文, more literally, the Oath in Five Articles) was promulgated at the enthronement
of Emperor Meiji of Japan on 7 April 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed
during Emperor Meiji's reign, setting the legal stage for Japan's modernization. This also set up a process of urbanization
as people of all classes were free to move jobs so people went to the city for better work. It remained influential, if less
for governing than inspiring, throughout the Meiji era and into the twentieth century, and can be considered the
first constitution of modern Japan.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_Oath
Castle Towns in Tokugawa Japan
Castle Town
In Japanese castles, defensive aspects are seen even in the castle towns; among them, temple placement at strategic
points and street design are the most notable examples. In and around Fukuoka Castle, several Buddhist temples were
placed at strategic points. This was probably because temple buildings could be used as barracks, temple courtyards as
assembling places, and tomb stones from temple cemeteries could be used to build stone walls. Even after the
completion of Fukuoka Castle, temples were still moved to strategic points, and in consequence, the castle was fortified
by degrees.
In the castle town, many streets were planned to be T-shaped or L-shaped, and the streets that led to the Higashi-toriire
Gate and to the Kuro Gate were curved. This planning, which is typical of city planning in castle towns of the Edo Period
(1603-1868), weakened the enemy‟s psychological and strategic ability to attack while at the same time it enabled
temporary defensive lines to be constructed more easily. The layout of the streets made the modern city planning
difficult, and the Fukuokans are still having problems driving the severely angled streets which followed the street
design of the castle town. At the same time, however, it is one of the vestiges of Fukuoka Castle, which reminds the
people that they are living in the city which was developed out of this well-fortified Fukuoka Castle.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuoka_Castle#Castle_Town
Sun Yatsen (1866-1925)
Sun Yat-sen (12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925) was a Chinese revolutionary, first president and founding father of
the Republic of China (“Nationalist China”). As the foremost pioneer of Republic of China, Sun is referred to as the
“Father of the Nation” in the Republic of China (ROC), and the “forerunner of democratic revolution” in the People's
Republic of China. Sun played an instrumental role in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty during the Double Ten
Revolution. Although he was in St. Louis, Missouri at the time, he was appointed to serve as president of the Provisional
Republic of China, when it was founded in 1912. He later co-founded the Kuomintang (KMT), serving as its first
leader. Sun was a uniting figure in post-Imperial China, and remains unique among 20th-century Chinese politicians for
being widely revered amongst the people from both sides of the Taiwan Strait.
Although Sun is considered one of the greatest leaders of modern China, his political life was one of constant struggle
and frequent exile. After the success of the revolution, he quickly fell out of power in the newly founded Republic of
China, and led successive revolutionary governments as a challenge to the warlords who controlled much of the nation.
Sun did not live to see his party consolidate its power over the country during the Northern Expedition. His party, which
formed a fragile alliance with the Communists, split into two factions after his death. Sun‟s chief legacy resides in his
developing of the political philosophy known as the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and the
people's livelihood.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Yatsen
Chengde (summer capital of the Qing Dynasty)
Chengde (承德), previously known as Jehol or Rehe (熱河), is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People‟s
Republic of China, situated northeast of Beijing. It is best known as the site of the Mountain Resort, a vast imperial
garden and palace formerly used by the Qing emperors as summer residence.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengde
Anti-Manchu sentiments
Anti-Qing sentiment (反清) refers to a sentiment principally held in China against the Manchu ruling during Qing
Dynasty (1644–1912), which was often resented for being foreign and barbaric. The Qing was accused of destroying
traditional Chinese culture by banning traditional Chinese clothes (the hanfu) and forcing Chinese to wear their hair in
a queue in the Manchu style. It was blamed for suppressing Chinese science, causing China to be transformed from the
world‟s premiere power to a poor, backwards nation. The people of the Eight Banners enjoyed much better social
welfare than the non-Manchu population. The slogan “Oppose the Qing, Restore the Ming” (反清复明) was used
by Sun Yat-sen during the Xinhai Revolution which overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1912.
In the broadest sense, an anti-Qing activist was anyone who engaged in anti-Manchu direct action. This included people
from many mainstream political movements and uprisings, such as Taiping Rebellion, the Xinhai revolution, the Revive
China Society, the Tongmenghui, the Panthay Rebellion, White Lotus Rebellion, and others.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Manchu_sentiment
Hong Xiuquan (1813-1864)
Hong Xiuquan (1 January 1814 – 1 June 1864), was a Hakka Chinese who led the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing
Dynasty, establishing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom over varying portions of southern China, with himself as the
“Heavenly King” and self-proclaimed brother of Jesus Christ.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan
Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
The First Sino–Japanese War (1 August 1894 – 17 April 1895) was fought between Qing Dynasty China
and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea. After more than six months of continuous successes by the Japanese
army and naval forces, as well as the loss of the Chinese port of Weihai, the Qing leadership sued for peace in February
1895.
The war was a clear indication of the failure of the Qing dynasty's attempts to modernize its military and fend off threats
to its sovereignty, especially compared with Japan's successful post-Meiji restoration. For the first time, regional
dominance in East Asia shifted from China to Japan; and the prestige of the Qing Dynasty, along with the classical
tradition in China, suffered a major blow. The humiliating loss of Korea as a vassal state sparked an unprecedented
public outcry. Within China, the defeat was a catalyst for a series of revolutions and political changes led by Sun
Yat-Sen and Kang Youwei. These trends would later manifest in the 1911 Revolution.
The war is commonly known in China as the War of Jiawu (甲午戰爭), referring to the year (1894) as named under the
traditional sexagenary system of year reckoning.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Japanese_War_(1894-1895)