Buddhism, Religion, and the Concept of "God"
Author(s): Ilkka Pyysiäinen
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Numen, Vol. 50, No. 2 (2003), pp. 147-171
Published by: BRILL
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BUDDHISM, RELIGION, AND THE CONCEPT OF "GOD"
ILKKA PYYSIAINEN
Summary
It is herearguedthat,althoughtheBuddhaand thebuddhasare notregardedas
thecriteria
of"counter-intuitive
godsbyBuddhists,
theyclearlyfulfill
agents"as they
havebeenpresented
as
byPascal Boyer.To theextentthatreligioncan be understood
humanthought,
thatinvolvecounter-intuitive
action,andexperience
representations,
Buddhismdoes nothave to be theproblematic
touchstone
fora global conceptof
religion.
God andReligion
Westernfolktheories,
as well as theologicaltheories,
of religion
arebasedon theconceptof"God."Moreover,
as BensonSaler(2000)
has argued,eventhenon-theological
scholarly
conceptof "religion"
has been determined
effectof theJudeo-Christian
by theprototype
the
same
token
the
of
tradition;
by
concept "God"hascometooccupya
roleinit.Scholarshaveimplicitly
assumedthatsuchbeings
prominent
as forexampleVishnu,Zeus, Manitou,or Mithras,
all in somesense
belongto thesamecategory;
theyall are gods.Yetit has neverbeen
clarified
whatit is thatmakesgods gods.It seemsthat,althoughthe
Christian
God is considered
onlyone memberin thiswidercategory,
the
whole
has
actually
category beencreatedon thebasisoftheJudeoChristian
idea ofGod (Pyysiainen
andKetola1999;
1997;Pyysiainen
cf.also Kazanas2001).
Thatcallingall thesebeings"gods"maybe problematic
has been
realizedbymanyscholars,
andconceptssuchas "superhuman
beings"
(LawsonandMcCauley1990:61,82, 89, 112, 124, 165),"nonnatural
entities"
andKeil 1996),etc.havebeensubstituted
for"God."
(Barrett
This, however,in no way helps us explainwhatexactlyit is that
separatesthesebeingsfromotherkindsof beingsand unitesthem
intoa coherentcategory.
A new label does not solve theproblem;
BrillNV,Leiden(2003)
? Koninklijke
Also availableonline- www.brill.nl
NUMEN,Vol.50
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148
IlkkaPyysidinen
only a new theorycould do it. The conceptof the "supernatural"
is notoriously
and "superhumanity"
sharesthe same
problematic,
These
terms
are
mere
labels
withno theory
Saler
1977).
(see
problems
theobjectsthuslabeled.Superhuman
concerning
beingsareidentified
the set of characteristics
thatcountas
as such by mereintuition;
or"superhuman"
haveneverbeenspecified
(Pyysiainen
"supernatural"
andKetola1999;Pyysiainen
2001:9-23).
A somewhat
different
viewhas beenpresented
Guthrie
by Stewart
is
who
thinks
that
(1980; 1993; 1996)
by belief
religion typified
in humanlikebut nonhumanbeings.Such anthropomorphism
and
is inferential,
andour
animismderivefromthefactthatall perception
oforganization
themaximum
inferences
aredirected
towards
ascribing
we
tend
to
see
"faces in the
to our perceptualstimuli.Therefore,
thathappens,etc. This
clouds,"meaningand purposein everything
has been of evolutionary
advantageforus: it is forexamplealways
betterto mistakethe wind playingin the long grass fora snake
thanvice versa.Religiousbeliefsaboutnonhumanbut humanlike
of thisgeneraltendencyto animism
beingsare one manifestation
What distinguishes
and anthropomorphism.
religiousanimismand
from
forms
of
the
same
hasnot
other
phenomenon
anthropomorphism
beenspecified
Yethe is notwillingtodiscardthecategory
byGuthrie.
of"religion,"
butonlysees itas a construction
basedon theprototype
effectof some especiallysalientphenomena(cf. Boyer1996; Saler
2000; Pyysiainen
2002a).
involvedinconceptualizing
Therearethusgreatdifficulties
religion
we
as beliefin god(s),superhuman
agents,etc.,although intuitively
areessentialinreligion.As
thinkthatsomesuchbeings,nevertheless,
is well-known,
Buddhismhas been thefavorite
exampleof scholars
who have arguedthatwe shouldfindsome otherway of defining
thantheonebasedontheideaofbeliefingodsorsuperhuman
religion
1993). It may
beings(e.g. Durkheim1965:37-57;Herbrechtsmeier
be usefultore-examine
thequestionoftheBuddha'sdivinity,
therefore
in orderto finda newwayof approaching
theconceptsof"God" and
I
new
of religion;
construct
a
"definition"
shall
not
to
try
"religion."
ones
in definitions
we onlyreducethedefinedconceptsto undefined
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Buddhism,
Religion,and theConceptof "God"
149
without
thatmuchbenefit
fromthepointof viewof empiricalstudy
wouldbe gained.Theoriesare moreimportant
thandefinitions
(see
Boyer1994b:32-34).
TheBuddha,buddhas,and buddhahood
The Westerners
thatfirst
cameintocontactwithBuddhism,
guided
identified
theBuddhaandthebuddhas
bytheirChristian
background,
as god(s).Induecourseit,however,
dawnedonthemthattheBuddhists
did notconsiderbuddhasas gods (devas) (see, e.g., Windisch1917;
Lubac 1952;Schwab1984;de Jong1974; 1979).Butneither
arethey
merehumanbeings.As thelateJ.W.de Jong(1979:27) has pointed
man-Godis notenoughto accountforthe
out,thesimpledichotomy
specialstatusoftheBuddhaandthebuddhasin theBuddhist
religion;
buddhasrather
arebeingssui generisandthusforma thirdcategory,
in additionto "man"and"God."
EtienneLamotte(1948:37-49)has distinguished
threeresearch
traditionsvis-a-visthe figureof theBuddha:mythological,
rationalisand
Emile
Senart
and
Hendrik
tic,
Kern(1882(1882)
pragmatic.
tradition
in
1884:1:296-356),inspiredby the naturemythological
saw
the
of
the
Buddhaas a personification
comparative
religion,
legend
ofastralphenomena;
thereeverwas a perKernevendoubtedwhether
son called"Buddha."The rationalists,
in turn,
thatbehindthe
thought
elements
therewas a historical
kernel:theBuddhahadbeen
legendary
forhisearliestfollowers
ofethicsas well
onlya wisemananda teacher
as of somekindof "psychology"
1903:84-230;
(e.g. Oldenberg
Rhys
Davids 1880).The pragmatic
tradition
is bestexemplified
byLamotte
itemphasizesthatthelegendary
elements
(1948) himself;
belongeven
totheoldestrecordswe have,andthatitthusis noteasytodistinguish
factfromfantasy
in theBuddhalegend(also Lamotte1958:718-733;
cf.Thomas1975; 1971) (see de Jong1979:23-26).Yetalso Lamotte
has been criticizedforvaluingthe"canonical"textsas morerepresentative
of "true"Buddhism,
texts(Pye
comparedto non-canonical
1973).
Andr6Bareau'sdetailedefforts
itis verydifficult
notwithstanding,
to determine
how the variousbeliefsconcerning
the Buddhahave
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150
IlkkaPyysidinen
evolved(see Bareau 1953; 1962; 1963; 1969; 1970-1971; 1974a;
1974b; 1979; 1980). Bareauacceptedtheview firstputforward
by
for
that
JeanPrzyluski
13:365-429,
15:5-6)
(1918-1920:11:515-526,
his firstfollowersthe Buddhawas just a humanbeing.Duringthe
Mauryaperiod(322-185 BC) he thencame to be equatedwiththe
raija)and thuswas seen
king"(cakravartin
"wheel-turning
mythical
of
sorts
as a uniquebeing,or a "functional
(Bareu 1962:32-33;
god"
1963:361-362;1969; 1974a:288;1979:2,64, 72-73). Morerecently,
and explainthe
to interpret
therehave been a numberof attempts
and
Buddhalegendaccordingto its supposed"symbolicfunctions"
Elder
1983; Pyysiiinen1987;
meanings"(e.g. L6vy 1982;
"mythical
see Pye 1979).
theconcepthas so farnot
How livingBuddhists
actuallyrepresent
beenstudied,
(1966) paperon SinObeyesekere's
exceptforGananath
Sinhalese
of theBuddha.Intellectually,
haleseBuddhists'perception
felt
thattheBuddhais dead,butyetemotionally
Buddhists
recognized
workon
thathe is somehowpresentin his relics.Moreexperimental
Barrett
and
Justin
the
lines
suchconceptualization,
by
suggested
along
a seand Keil (1996) showedthrough
FrankKeil,is needed.Barrett
had two
studiesthatAmericancollegestudents
riesof experimental
ofGod: thetheological
kindsofrepresentations
conceptwas basedon
culturalknowledgeas forexamplethatGod is omnisuchrehearsed
etc.However,in fastonlinereasoningtaskspeoscient,omnipotent,
God could
used
representation;
ple unconsciously a morehumanlike
answerhad finished
forexampleanswera prayeronlyafterhe first
the
Barrett
another
(1998) subsequently
replicated study
prayer.
ing
in India,substituting
Brahman,Shiva,Vishnu,and KrishnaforGod
theresultswere
versionsofthestorieswereprepared);
(fourdifferent
shouldalso be doneto find
thesame.Suchexperimenting
essentially
intheironlinereasonof
"buddha"
the
use
outhowBuddhists
concept
ing.
The early Buddhisttexts,however,give supportto de Jong's
beliefs,theBuddhaandthebuddhas
(1979:27)claimthat,inBuddhist
To
of
sui
are a
generistype beings. providea coupleof examples,in
a
a TheravadatexttheBuddhareplies,whenasked,thathe is neither
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Buddhism,
Religion,and theConceptof "God"
151
god (deva),an "angel"(gandhabba),a "demon"(yakkha),nora humanbeing,buta buddha(Arnguttaranikdya
II 38-39). He is "unique,
without
a peer,without
matchincomparable,
unequalled,
counterpart,
I 22). To Cunda,the
bestofbipeds"(Arnguttaranikaya
less,unrivalled,
the
said
that
the
meal
offered
Buddha
byhim(whichevengoldsmith,
tuallykilledtheBuddha)was suchthatit could notbe digestedby
II
(i.e. theBuddha)(DTghanikdya
godsormen,onlybytheTathdgata
126-128).
beliefsis thesupposed
WhatmakestheBuddhauniquein Buddhist
thenatureof whichis only
factthatsomekindof innerexperience,
thesuffering
and frustrated
had transformed
veryvaguelydescribed,
one"
Yet
Gautamaintoa "perfectly
(sammasambuddha).
enlightened
all thetextslack precisionof whatexactlyis supposedto havehapofhis "enlightenment."
The
penedin Gautama'smindat themoment
wordbodhi("enlightenment")
appearsonlyin theMahdsaccakasutta
whereit is relatedhow the Buddha ponderswhethertherecould
In
be "anotherway to enlightenment,"
apartfromself-mortification.
in a probablymorerecentpassage,we read that
the Vinayapitaka,
one" (pathamaGautamahad recently
becomea "fullyenlightened
his
as something
taken
bhisambuddho); "enlightenment"
clearlybeing
notinneedoffurther
I 1).
(Vinayapitakaz
explanation
Even the wordnirvdnaappearsin the earliestaccountsof the
Buddha'sexperience
onlyinonepassage,intheAriyapariyesandsutta.
whilemeditating
Thereit is said thatafteryearsof vain attempts,
in the surroundings
of Uruvela,the Buddha immediately
attained
frombondage,nibbana,"thatwas notsubject
"theexcellentfreedom
At thatverymoment
to birth,aging,illness,sorrowand suffering.
is steadfast.
This is thelast
Gautamaknew:"My liberation
(vimutti)
birth;therewill be no more(re)births."
(Majjhimanikaya
I 167; see
Bareau1980).
andDvedhaAccordingtotheSuttasMahasaccaka,Bhayabherava
was precededby thefourstatesof meditation
vitakka,theliberation
his
the
three
abilities(fidna).TheBuddhadescribes
and
mental
(jhdna)
I
to freedom
experienceafterthethirdability:"WhenI was liberated
Brahma-life
livedandthetaskaccomplished.
knew:birthis destroyed,
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152
IlkkaPyysidinen
There will be no new life." (Majjhimanikaya
I 17-23, 114-117,
is completely
silentabout
247-249). Thus,theAriyapariyesandsutta
how the Buddha reachedhis nirvana,and the Mahasaccakasutta
describesthe liberationas due to the practiceof the fourjhanas
whichthe Buddha,however,alreadyhad
("statesof meditation")
practisedforyearswithoutsuccess.The jhana statesare described
formulathatappearsin theTipitaka86 times.They
by a traditional
forinsight
are givenfourdifferent
functions:
1) theyarepreparation
for
the
four
or
five
(vipassand);2) preparation
arapajhinas("formless
forthe "waysof livinglike Brahma"
meditations");
3) preparation
or 4) an independent
(brahmaviharas);
way to nirvana(Griffiths
1983:57-59,62-65).
- theabilitytoremember
As tothethreefidnas
one'spastlives,the
abilityto see howall beingsare(re)bornanddie,andtheabilitytounderstand
theasavas ("intoxicants")
as theyariseandaredestroyed
Buddhist;theothertwobelongto the
onlythelastone is specifically
traditional
listofsixparanormal
faculties
as theyareknown
(abhififia)
in ancientIndiansources(see Jayatilleke
1963:437-438;Jaini1974;
theknowledgeof theasavas
I 254-256). Therefore
Ariguttaranikaya
hasbeenseenas therealessenceof"enlightenment"
as heredescribed
(D6mieville1927:283,290-291;Bareau1963:79-84).
The fourasavas are: sensualpleasures,becoming,ignoranceand
(later)"views."Theseappearin theTipitakain stereotypical
descripfromthe
tionsofhowsomeoneachievednirvanabyliberating
himself
fiveconverts
whoattained
dsavas,as in thecase oftheBuddha'sfirst
to
the
Buddha's
nirvanabymerelylistening
teaching(Vinayapitakari
ofthenatureofthisliberation
is proI 10-20).No further
explanation
in
and
later
Buddhism
the
no
central
role
asavas
a
vided,
longerplay
1985:177;Masefield1986:85).At somepointin time,the
(Johansson
inthedestruction
ideathatthefourjhanas culminate
oftheintoxicants
has beenconnectedwiththeviewthattheinsightis based on an unof the"fournobletruths."
In thisway,a combination
of
derstanding
thesetwoalternatives
thetruenatureofthe
has cometobe considered
1986:95-98,100-104;cf.Schmithausen
(Bronkhorst
liberating
insight
1981:205).
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Buddhism,
Religion,and theConceptof "God"
153
Thereis also the(possiblylater)beliefthatGautamahad striven
fortheperfect
severalcyclesofrebirths,
which
through
enlightenment
he
that
before
his
last
rebirth
as
had
accumuGautama
implies
already
latedsuchreligiousmeritthathe couldforexamplechoosebyhimself
intowhichfamilyhe will be born(see Bareau 1962; 1963; 1974b;
thebeliefthatin distantpastsix otherbuddhashad
1980). Although
it
Gautama
preceded
maynothavebelongedto theearliesttradition,
mustpredatethesplitof thevariousschools,as thenamesof thesix
inthetextsofthevariousschools.After
buddhasareidentical
theSattra
oftheprevious
buddhaswasincreased
into24 (e.g.
period,thenumber
In theSatras,itis notyet
in theBuddhavanisa
andtheCariyapitaka).
that
all
can
strive
for
thecareerofa bodhibuddhahood;
implied
beings
is first
as an alternative
fortheidealof
sattva(buddha-to-be)
presented
in
Avadana
an enlightened
the
Sarvastivadin
literature
disciple(arhat)
II 225; Thomas1971:167-168;Foucher1949:148).
(Dtghanikaya
In Mahayana,theidea ofthebodhisattva
careerwas thenfollowed
by the idea of a "Tathagataembryo"or "wombof the Tathagata"
inherent
in all beings(Ruegg 1969:31-32).This
(tathagatagarbha),
inthreedifferent
idea canbe understood
ways:1) Allbeingsaretheinterior("womb")of Tathagata;2) Tathagatais identicalwiththeinner
essence("embryo")ofall livingbeings;3) theinneressenceofliving
oftheTathagata(e.g. theRatnagotravibhaga;
beingsis the"embryo"
see Ruegg1969;Pyysiainen
1993:108-110;King1991:48-56).
idea
The tathdgatagarbha is closelyrelatedtotheideaofa "Buddha
nature"(Chinesefo xing,Japanesebusshi).The idea thatall sentient
beingspossesstheBuddhanaturewas appropriated
bythefourmajor
schools
of
Chinese
and
was
thentransmitted
Buddhism,
indigenous
to otherEast Asianschoolsof Buddhism.The Sanskrit
of
equivalent
theChinesefo xing has beenmuchdebated,butnowbuddhadhdtu
is
rather
holdsthatall sentient
beagreedupon.Thisdoctrine
generally
are
do
not
realize
it.
Buddha
nature
theyjust
ingsalready buddhalike;
thusis understood
bothas thepotentialto realizebuddhahood,
and
itself(King 1991).Without
the
subtleties
of
thatbuddhahood
entering
I merelywantto pointoutthatthereis a diverMahayanadoctrine,
of
on
the
constituents
ofbuddhahood
anditsrelationship
sity opinions
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154
IlkkaPyysidinen
withotherimportant
terms.Thatsomekindofbuddhametaphysical
is
hoodexists, beyonddoubt;itis onlyitsconceptual
formulations
that
In
treatises
such
most
as
"budbasic
vary. manyMahayana
concepts
dhahood"and nirvanaare even said to be mere"wordsand signs"
and thusnotto correspond
to theUltimateTruth(paramartha
satya)
(see Pyysiiiinen
1993:104-124).Thathas nevermeantthatBuddhist
forspiritual
develpracticewouldhavebeengivenup as unnecessary
opment,
though(see Sharf1995).
theconceptions
theBuddha'snirvanaor "enAlthough
regarding
are in thissensevague,theyare,of course,of primary
lightenment"
in
whatmakestheBuddhaandthebuddhassomeimportance defining
one"; he is also
thingunique.The Buddhais a "perfectly
enlightened
himself
his
and
wants
to lead oth(unlike disciples),
enlightened
by
erstoenlightenment
(unlikethepaccekabuddhas,
buddhas").
"solitary
Whatever
and
characterize
the
are,they
nirvana perfect
enlightenment
buddhas.The traditions
picturetheBuddhaas havingfounda comto
withoutunequivocally
pletelynovelway "liberation,"
explaining
whatit actuallyconsistedof (see Majjhimanikaya
I 163-166,240theBuddhaapproachedthe
247; II 212). Afterhis "enlightenment"
fiveascetics,withwhomhe had practisedausterities,
and repliedto
theirgreetings:
"Monks,do notaddressTathagataby nameand by
theword'friend.'
Monks,Tathagatais an arahat,a perfectly
enlightened one. Listen,o monks,deathlesshas beenfound,I will instruct
I 8-10). Gautamahadbeyou,I willteachdhamma."(Vinayapitakah
comea "buddha,"
whatever
thatwas understood
to mean.The importantthinghereis thatitis possiblefortheBuddhisttohavethebelief
abouttheuniquenessof theBuddhaandthebuddhaswithout
having
discursive
beliefsabouttheprecisenatureofthisuniqueness;
theidea
of a Buddha-essence
can be used as a premisein reasoningwithout
thatthenatureoftheessenceis specified
(see Ahnetal. 2001).
Counter-intuitiveness
In the Buddhisttradition,
the Buddhaand the buddhasare unfrom
to
equivocallydistinguished thedevas ('gods'). It is, however,
be noticedthatthedevas are understood
thanwhat
verydifferently
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Buddhism,
Religion,and theConceptof "God"
155
God is in theJudeo-Christian-Islamic
traditions,
despitethefactthat
deva is relatedto theLatindeus. Both derivefrom
etymologically
*deivos('shining,sky'). (The Englishequivalentof deus, 'god,' derivesfromtheIndo-European
that
ghu-,'to call,invoke.')In denying
theBuddhawas a god,theearlyBuddhistswerenotof coursedenyGod; thisidea was notevenknownto them.
ingtheJudeo-Christian
were
thethencurrent
ideasofdevasandfsvaras
Instead,they
denying
In contrast
to the
('Lords') (see NMgarjuna's
IRvarakartrtvanirakrtih).
Buddha
was
a
human
then
Brahmanicgods,the
becamea
beingthat
buddha(whatever
it means).Yet in manyof thesomewhat
latertexts
he is morelikea heavenly
beingthatbecamea man,thantheotherway
around(see Pyysiiinen1993:144).In a sense,theBuddha,indeed,ocbeliefenvironment
a similarpositionas God in
cupiesin theBuddhist
theJudeo-Christian
beliefs.I shallreturn
tothissoon.
To theextent
thattheBuddhaandthebuddhasarebeingssuigeneris
andthusdiffer
from
humanbeings,we shouldbe abletospecify
whatis
itthatmakesthemdifferent
fromhumans.I suggestthattherecentthePascal
Boyer(1994a,b; 1996;2000a,b; 2001) offers
orizingby
good
therelationships
betweenbuddhas,gods,
meansof reconceptualizing
and humanbeings(see Pyysiainen2001:9-23). Boyerhas adopted
tree"andFrankKeil's (1979) way
FredSommers'(1959) "ontological
thisidea inempirical
workas thestarting
ofemploying
pointindevelvioopinghisideasof"intuitive
ontology"andsuchcounter-intuitive
in
found religions.Sommers(1959)
lationsagainstit as is commonly
distinctions
aremanifested
as predicate
restricthat
argues ontological
tions:anygiventermcan haveonlycertainkindsofpredicates;
thus,
to
some
of
these
allows
us
what
other
are
knowing
predict
predicates
reapplicable.Keil (1979; 1996),forhis part,has doneexperimental
in smallchildren.
searchon theevolutionof ontologicaldistinctions
His resultsby and largeseemto confirm
alSommers'suggestions,
used
the
are
different.
Even
are
though categories
slightly
preschoolers
this,howcapableof mentally
representing
ontologicaldistinctions;
is
intuitive
the
are
not
awareof
ever,
knowledge: subjects
necessarily
it.Yettheyare,forexamhavingit,andcannotalwaysconceptualize
if
kindsof predicates:
able
to
the
of
various
predict applicability
ple,
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156
IlkkaPyysidinen
cancry,thenitcanalso be tired;ifitis madeofmetal,itcan
something
also be fixed,andso on,evenwhenthesubjectsdo notknowwhatthis
from
is. The ontologicalstatusof a giventermis inferred
something
manner.
itcanbe usedin an appropriate
itsuse,andonceitis inferred,
The insightsof Sommersand Keil can be enrichedby arguments
of thehumanmind,deor domain-specificity,
aboutthemodularity,
science(e.g. Atran
andcognitive
psychology
velopedin evolutionary
1990;ToobyandCosmides1995;CosmidesandTooby1994;KarmiandGelman1994b;Sperber1994; 1996;
loff-Smith
1992;Hirschfeld
Mithen1998).It is on thisbasisthatBoyerhas developedtheidea of
thedivii.e. tacit,intuitive
"intuitive
concerning
knowledge
ontology,"
with
sionofobjectsintocertainbasicontological
together
categories,
there
that
of
mechanisms reasoning.
thecorresponding
Boyerargues
encoded
thataresomehowgenetically
evolvedmechanisms
arecertain
conditions.
in
normal
matures
andareboundtoappearwhena subject
thusplaya roleincognitive
factors
Contextual
although
development,
coded.
is genetically
development
listsoftheintuitive
has
ontological
varying
slightly
Boyer presented
that
to Keil's work,he writes "ontological
Whenreferring
categories.
ABSTRACT
like
OBJECT, LIVING THING, ANIMAL, EVENT,
categories
and so on are arrangedin a taxonomicaltreeaccordingto precise
formalconstraints"
(Boyer1994b:101).In his 1996 paper,he says:
betweensuchdomains
considerontologicaldistinctions
"Let me first
as PERSONS, ARTIFACTS, ANIMATE BEINGS, EVENTS and ABSTRACT
OBJECTS"
comprises
ontology
(Boyer1996:84).And,again,"Intuitive
'naive theories'of broad domains such as PERSON,ANIMAL,PLANT,
to his
or ARTIFACT" (Boyer 1998:878). Later,he writes,referring
the
uses
that
earlierwork,"Indeed,a 'catalogue'
categoriesof
only
and includesonlybreachesof physical
person,animaland artefact
associatedwiththosecategoriesvirtually
and cognitiveproperties
inthisdomain(Boyer1996; 1998)"(Boyer
variation
exhaustscultural
2000a:103). In yetanotherpaper,Boyer(2000b:198) distinguishes
betweenPERSONS, ANIMALS, PLANTS, ARTIFACTS, and NATURAL
to Boyer(2000a), distinguishes
OBJECTS. Barrett(2000), referring
andnatural
things.
non-living
persons,animals,plants,artifacts,
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Buddhism,
Religion,and theConceptof "God"
157
Whateverthe mostbasic divisionis, and how it is enrichedin
theimportant
maturation,
thingis thatit formsthenaturalbasis of
of variousreligioustraditions.
the counter-intuitive
representations
"Counter-intuitiveness"
is a technicaltermreferring
to violations
intuitive
about
expectations
against
ontologicalcategories;therefore,
"counter-ontological"
mayhave been a betterchoicethan"counteras (Boyer2001:65)recently
hasremarked.
Itis important
to
intuitive,"
realizewe areheretalkingaboutviolationsofnon-conscious,
intuitive
not
of
held
or
"worldviews."
expectations,
explicitly views,theories,
also does notmeanfunny,
or untrue;it
"Counter-intuitive"
strange,
thatcontradicts
panhumanintuitive
expectaonlymeanssomething
tionsofhowentities
behave.Theseexpectations
can be violatedeither
it intuitively
to a representation
a property
shouldnot
by transferring
it intuitively
shouldhave.Thus
have,or by denyingto it a property
are formedforexampletheideas of personalbeingswithout
a body
of
kinds
of
and
various
artifacts
that
have
etc).
psycho(gods,spirits,
logicalproperties
(e.g. a statuethathearsprayers).On thisbasis,we
able to construct
a "catalogueof thesupernatural,"
are,in principle,
i.e. to createby a simplecross-tabulation
a list of thevariouspossibleformscounter-intuitive
representations
(Boyer1994a,b; 2000a;
toBoyer,such
2000b:196-199;2001:61-71;Barrett
2000).According
the
constitute
counter-intuitive
representations
categoryof "religious
intuitive
ideas,"and conceptsthatmerelyconfirm
ontologiesareipso
counter-intuitiveness
as suchis nota suffifactononreligious,
although
forreligion(Boyer1994a:408;1994b:122,124;see also
cientcriterion
Atran1996:234;1998;PyysiBainen
2001:197-236).
thatmakesreligiousconceptsinterIt is theircounter-intuitiveness
itis theirintuitive
thatmake
properties
estingandattention-grabbing;
fromthem.Thus,in oraltransmission,
itpossibleto makeinferences
thatgivesreligiousconcepts
it is theiroptimalcounter-intuitiveness
incultural
selection.
andbeliefsan advantage
Theycontainone salient
whilein otheraspectstheyremain
violationof intuitive
expectations,
such
inferential
thatmakesthem
therefore
have
intuitive;
potential
they
usefulfroman everyday
pointofview.Forexample,a statuethathears
a physicalobject
involves
one
violationof expectations:
prayers
only
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158
IlkkaPyysidinen
thathears.A statuethathearsprayers
froma 100milesdistanceis too
an idea andtherefore
to surviveincultural
transcomplicated
unlikely
without
1994b:
2001:61mission,
113-119;
simplified
getting
(Boyer
we do notfindin folktraand Nyhof2001). Therefore,
89; Barrett
ditionsrepresentations
suchas "(a) cat thatcan neverdie,has wings,
is made of steel,experiences
timebackwards,
livesunderwater,
and
Russian"
(Barrett
1998:611).
speaks
In religiousrepresentations,
violationsof biologicalexpectations
mostoftenrelatetobirthanddeath:gods,saints,etc.arebornin some
unusualway,and also theirdeatheitherinvolvessomething
extraoror
do
all.
dinary, they notactuallydie at
Amongotherbiologicalviolationsof expectations
areextraordinary
size and otherbodilyabnora
malities, bodythatradiateslight,etc.Violationsofintuitive
physics
deeds:walkingupon
include,forexample,variouskindsofmiraculous
thewater,clairvoyance,
etc.Counter-intuitive
invisibility,
psychology,
foritspart,includesphenomena
suchas omniscience,
mind-reading,
etc.In manyinstances,
theviolationconcernsat oncetwoor all three
ofthesedomains(see Loomis 1948;Thompson1955-59;Pyysiiinen
in relicounter-intuitiveness
2002b).It is also to be notedthatfinding
does
not
to
mean
about
the
truth
or
giousrepresentations
sayanything
inthisrespectvariousinterpretative
meaningoftheserepresentations;
remain
possibilities
open.
I suggestthatrepresentations
of theBuddhaand thebuddhasare
fromrepresentations
different
ofhumansinthesensethattheyinvolve
counter-intuitive
elements.Yettheyare at thesametimealso similar
to representations
of humansin thesensethattheyincludethefolkpsychologicalidea of an agentcharacterized
by a belief-and-desire
elementsin it). This,however,
(withsomenon-standard
psychology
also meansthatrepresentations
of theBuddhaand thebuddhashave
muchin commonwithrepresentations
of gods: bothare counterI
intuitive
shall
not
consider
the
variousfictivebuddhasand
agents.
as their"superhumanity"
is in anycase so obvious.
bodhisattvas,
Thisviewexplainsourintuitive
ofBuddhismas a reunderstanding
thattheBuddhaandthebuddhasin
ligion,as well as theconception
somesensebelongto thesamecategory
as gods.It is theformalprop-
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Buddhism,
Religion,and theConceptof "God"
159
thatallowsus to classifytheBuddha
ertyof beingcounter-intuitive
withgods;thespecificcontent
ofrepresentaandthebuddhastogether
themfromrepresentionsoftheBuddhaandthebuddhasdifferentiate
tationsof gods.Counter-intuitive
also can be putinto
representations
kindsofuses.It seemstomethatrepresentations
different
oftheBudas representations
dha and thebuddhaspartlyservesimilarfunctions
of God in theJudeo-Christian
some
differences
traditions,
important
In thefollowing,
I first
providea fewexamplesofthe
notwithstanding.
of
the
Buddhaandthebuddhas;afterthat,
counter-intuitive
properties
I briefly
of representations
discussthefunctions
of theBuddhaand
on thepossibility
thebuddhas.Finally,I comment
of a globallyvalid
of
concept religion.
Counter-intuitive
properties
oftheBuddhaand thebuddhas
of theBuddhaand thebuddhasinvolvemany
The representations
kinds of violationsof intuitiveexpectations.
As it is not always
from
to
the
possible disentangle
biological
physical,orevenfromthe
I shallgiveexamplesoftheBuddha'sandthebuddhas'
psychological,
to classifythem.Yet it is
counter-intuitive
without
properties,
trying
discussedaboveareinvolvedinthe
clearthatall ofthethreecategories
of
the
counter-intuitive
representation Buddhaandthebuddhas.
As to thebirthof theBuddha,he is reported
to have residedin
theheavenof thehappygods,beforechoosingbyhimselfintowhich
intothewombofhismother.
familytobe born,andbeforedescending
The mother
thenin due coursebecamepregnant,
without
intercourse
withherhusband(Majjhimanikaya
III 119-124;Dfghanikaya
II 12In
the
later
her
dream
about
the
bodhisattva
sources,
(or
15).
entering
in
her
womb
her
form
a
out
side
the
of
from)
coming
through right
is
whiteelephant,
without
her
described
as
piercing side,
something
thatactuallyhappened.In forexampletheMahavastu,thebodhisattva
is said to be bornvirginally
on thestrength
of his ownkarmicmerit
andtohavecomedownfromheaventoearthinordertoenlighten
men
who havebecomeblind(MahavastuI 77-78, 113-115, 134). He is
fromtherightside of
bornin a "mind-made"
body(manomayakaya)
hismother,
without
that
side
yet
piercing
(MahdvastuI 117-118,174;
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160
IlkkaPyysidinen
II 18). TheBuddhathusno longeris a manwhobecamebuddha,buta
buddhawhobecameman.
The Buddha'sdeathalso involvescounter-intuitive
Before
imagery.
hisdeath,theBuddha'sskinis reported
to havebecomesomehowrathe
Buddha
then
that
this
was alwaysso whena buddiant;
explained
or was aboutto enterparinirvana(DTghanikaya
dha was enlightened
His
death
is also describedas havingbeenaccompanied
II 133-134).
theBuddhais reported
(DTghanikaya
byan earthquake
II 156).Finally,
nevertohaveanswered
hisdeath,
thequestionofwherehe willbe after
whichmayor maynotcountas a violationof intuitive
expectations
totheBuddhisttradition,
(cf.BeringandBjorklund
2002). According
thisviewhas thenlead to
nirvanadoes notmeansimpleannihilation;
theproblemof whathappensafteran enlightened
one dies andis not
reborn.Thisquestionis nevergivena clearanswerin Buddhisttexts
I 136-138;Mahapraji~paramita~Sistra,
(see Majjhimanikaya
p. 155
On
the
other
his
the
Buddha
is
after
believed
to
hand,
death,
Lamotte).
inhisrelics(see above).
be present
Buddhasalso are believedto appearin different
formsor bod"thebody
ies, suchas "thebodyof ownessence"(svcbhivikakiya),
of enjoyment"
and
"the
(sambhogakaya),
apparitional
body"(nirmanakaya),describedin Mahayanasources(e.g. Ratnagotravibhaga,
X 1). The bodyof own espp. 289-290, 324; Mahayanasamgraha
sence is theindivisibleand uncompounded
(asamskrta),inconceivable Dharma-body,
theBuddhist"Absolute."
The bodyof enjoyment
is a "magical"outflow
of
the
andmanifests
(nisyanda)
Dharma-body
Dharmaforthebenefit
of livingbeings.The apparitional
bodiesare
thebodiesofthevarioushistorical
buddhas.InthiswaytheBuddhaapwithout
fromtheDharmaeverbeingseparated
pearsinvariousforms,
pp. 326-331; MahayanasarigrahaX 1,
body (Ratnagotravibhaga,
X 6). Asafigaforexamplewritesthat,althoughthebodyof enjoymentand theapparitional
theTathagata'sbody
bodyare transitory,
(Tathagatakaya)is eternalbecause the othertwo bodies lean on
theDharma-body,
andjoy and apparitions
nevercease (MahayanaX
1993:132-137;Lamotte1958:689samgraha 37) (see Pyysiainen
690).
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Buddhism,
Religion,and theConceptof "God"
161
The Buddhais also said to havethe32 majorand 80 minormarks
themythical
as well
thatcharacterize
GreatKings(thecakravartins)
as buddhas.The marksinclude,forexample,thousand-spoked
wheel
on thesolesoffeet,webbedfingers
andtoes,penisin a sheath,
figures
a
etc.
like
40
lion's, teeth, (DighanikayaIII 142-145).This list
jaws
andmayalsohavebeen
derivesfromoldIndianfolkreligion,
probably
in
the
modified
to
what
was
seen
statues
ofBuddhamadein
according
Indiaaroundthebeginning
oftheCommonera (Thomas
northwestern
Lamotte
Bareau
1958:479-486;
1975:220-222;
1969:13).
The Buddhaalso is reported
to havehad paranormal
abilitiesand
to haveperformed
miracles,althoughhe is said to have emphasized
abilities.In additiontothe
thatone shouldnotboastwithparanormal
sixtraditional
tohave
(see above),heis forexamplerecounted
abhiifi"a
without
crossedtherivermiraculously,
a ferry
183-98).
(Dighanikaya
II
school("transcendentalists"),
for
TheMahavastuoftheLokottaravada
itspart,teachesthatthebuddhasareotherworldly
"There
(lokottara).
is nothing
in theBuddhasthatcan be measured
ofthe
bythestandard
to
but
the
seers
is
transcendent
world, everything
appertaining
great
(lokottara)"
(MahdvastuI 125).
oftheBuddhaandthebuddhasthusin manyways
Representations
violateagainstordinary
thekerontological
expectations,
yetretaining
of
nel theintuitive
belief-and-desire
Not onlybiological
psychology.
andphysicalbutalso psychological
are
expectations violated:theBuddha and thebuddhasare notconstrained
lawfulbiologiby ordinary
cal andphysicalprocesses,andalso theirmindsworkin non-standard
ways.AlthoughtheBuddhawas a humanbeing,thefollowers'representations
ofhimhave,in thecourseoftime,gradually
grownever
morecounter-intuitive.
oftheBuddhaandthebuddhasincludebothcounRepresentations
and normal,and odd butnotcounter-intuitive
intuitive
ter-intuitive,
The way theycombinegoes againstBoyer'sidea of a cogfeatures.
nitiveoptimum:
thereis notonlyone violationofbiologyor physics,
butseveral,and thisis so also withregardto psychology.
Thismight
be explainedby thefactthattheoptimum
onlyconcernsorallytranswhereconstraints
of memoryplay a role (see
mittedfolktraditions
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162
IlkkaPyysidinen
Rubin1997). Mnemonictechniques
of specialists,
and especiallythe
introduction
ofwriting,
makeitpossibleto storeandto transmit
radicounter-intuitive
ideas
that
in
transmission
cally
spontaneous,
ordinary
wouldeitherbe lostor transformed
intoa simplerform(see Sperber
hastheconsequence
1996:74;Pyysidinen
1999).Thislineofreasoning
was transmitted
that,as longas theBuddhisttradition
orally,theBuddhamusthavebeenrepresented
in simplerwaysthanwhatis thecase
inthelater,written
sources.He wasnotnecessarily
represented
byemis thathis
ployingpurelyintuitive
concepts;all thatcan be predicted
such
were
counter-intuitive
there
(if
were)
properties
simple.So, one
reasonforwhythelatertextspicturetheBuddhain moreradically
counter-intuitive
termsis thatearlier,in theoral transmission
of the
thiswas notyetpossible.
tradition,
Buddha,God,and religion
The category
of counter-intuitive
agentsis wide and varied.Gods
are onlyone exampleof counter-intuitive
beings.To theextentthat
it is at all possibleto forma coherentcategoryof gods,I suggest
thatgods play therole of "interested
parties"in humansocial life
know
and
understand
thathumans
(Boyer2001:189).They
everything
in it,and also are believedto intervene
do and think,are interested
us accordingto our
in humanactivities,
punishingand rewarding
deeds.Theythusare likeanypersonwithpower,exceptforthefact
thattheyhave counter-intuitive
Besides,representations
properties.
of gods are used in conceptualizing
and explainingsuch human
andpreferences,
whichareotherwise
difficult
knowledge,
dispositions,
Our moralknowledge,forexample,partlyconsists
to understand.
and inclinations
encodedin our mindsin
of panhumanpreferences
easier forus to considerour
evolution.It is, however,cognitively
moralintuitions
as someone'sviewpoint;this someoneis a god.
moralideastoa divinemindbothexplainstheseideas (their
Ascribing
andtheirbinding
existence
nature)andmakesiteasierforus toprocess
moralknowledgein themind(see Boyer2001:169-202;Pyysiainen
2001:158-193).
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Buddhism,
Religion,and theConceptof "God"
163
As Boyer (2001:170-174) pointsout, the relationship
between
canbe understood
inthreecomplementary
religionandmorality
ways:
besidestheinterested
can also be conceivedof
partymodel,morality
as setsofcommands
laiddownbythegods,oras basedontheexample
ofexemplary
orsaints.Inpractice,
itis the
beings,be theybodhisattvas
interested
model
that
is
most
What
is
trueof
party
widelyemployed.
also holdsformanyotheraspectsof sociallife;gods are an
morality
inevitable
partof it.Variousaspectsof thesociallifeareunderstood,
theideas of gods
explained,and mentally
represented
by employing
(see Boyer 2001; cf. Durkheim1965). By reconceptualizing
gods
as "counter-intuitive
we
arrive
at
a
agents,"
precise,theoretically
and empirically
testableconcept.In thisview,religionis
motivated,
typified
by the presenceof representations
(mentaland public) of
counter-intuitive
which
are
taken
agents,
seriouslyby the groupin
of social lifeas well as in
questionand are used in theorganization
life
I
Here
have
beenconcerned
not,however,
personal management.
witha detailedexplication
of thisidea (see Pyysidiinen
2001; 2002a);
I
have
instead,
onlywantedto showthattheBuddhaandthebuddhas
mostclearlybelongto thecategoryof counter-intuitive
beings,and
thatBuddhismthusneednotbe problematic
withregardto a global
of
not
even
when
considered
in thelightof its
concept religion,
only
written
sources.
HelsinkiCollegiumforAdvancedStudies
P.O. Box 4
FIN-00014University
ofHelsinki
Finland
ILKKAPYYSIAINEN
[email protected].
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