Informal Learning Guide
A systematic mix-method study of learning analytics for informal learning
in the workplace: The What, Why and How.
March 2015
I
WORD OF THANKS
This project is developed in cooperation with
The University of Leuven.
Project Team
Sophie Cuinen, Pieter Jan Heymans, Nina Meeus, Joke Van den
Wouwel, Yana Van Dorst, Caroline Vereycken and Saar Verwimp
Supported by
Prof. Dr. F. Dochy (University of Leuven)
Mr. P. Belpaire (EAPRIL)
Follow-up EAPRIL
Inneke Berghmans & Anke Claes
I
Table of Content
1.
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Research Questions .................................................................................................. 2
1.1.1
What are the different ways in which informal learning can take place? 3
1.1.2
Why do companies seemingly have so little attention for informal
learning? ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.3
Is informal learning recommended by research and why? ........................ 5
1.1.4
Is there a possibility to measure the efficiency? ............................................ 6
1.2
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 7
2.
Theoretical Framework .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1
Informal learning ....................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1
What is informal learning? ................................................................................ 9
2.1.2
The dynamic model of informal learning ..................................................... 10
2.1.3
Why informal learning? ................................................................................... 19
2.1.4
Conditions of informal learning ...................................................................... 22
2.1.5
Relation with formal learning ......................................................................... 33
2.2
Learning analytics ................................................................................................. 345
2.2.1
Analytics .......................................................................................................... 355
2.2.2
Learning Analytics............................................................................................ 36
2.2.3
Learning analytics for informal learning ....................................................... 38
3.
Methods ......................................................................................................................... 443
4.
Results and discussion .................................................................................................. 465
4.1
Questionaire............................................................................................................. 46
4.2
Interviews .................................................................................................................. 55
4.2.1
Organisation Culture ....................................................................................... 56
4.2.2
Organisational Structure ................................................................................. 61
4.2.3
Formal learning................................................................................................. 63
4.2.4
Informal learning .............................................................................................. 65
4.2.5
Learning analytics for informal learning ....................................................... 68
5.
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 72
5.1
What are the different ways in which informal learning can take place? ..... 72
5.2
Why
do
companies
spend
seemingly
so
little
attention
to informal learning? ......................................................................................................... 75
5.3
Is informal learning recommended by research? .............................................. 77
5.4
Is there a possibility to measure the efficiency? ................................................. 78
6.
Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 810
7.
Further Research ............................................................................................................. 82
8.
References....................................................................................................................... 85
II
ABSTRACT
__________________________________________________________
The problem statement given by EAPRIL covers learning analytics of informal
learning, or the question that there‟s a possibility to measure the efficiency of
informal learning. This mixed-method study examines the learning analytics for
informal learning in the workplace on the basis of a questionnaire and
interviews. The sample for the questionnaire consisted of 212 respondents and
the sample of the interviews consisted of ten people. An attempt is made to
formulate an answer to the following questions:

What are the different ways in which informal learning can take place?

Why do companies pay so little attention to informal learning?

Is informal learning recommended by research?

Is there a possibility to measure the efficiency of informal learning?
The results show that informal learning gets more attention than expected but
remains complex. In addition, measuring informal learning continues to be an
issue. Various ethical issues and the expanse of informal learning make it
difficult to convert these activities in figures. This study is relevant for the
management, learning & development (L&D) employees of companies to
organise to informal learning. Researches can also use this study as a basis for
further
research
on
the
learning
analytics
for
informal
learning.
III
Chapter 1: Introduction
1
1
Introduction
In cooperation with the organisation
EAPRIL we launched a research on
informal
project
learning.
group
The
previous
collaborating
with
EAPRIL showed that there is still a
large
uncertainty
effectiveness
of
about
informal
the
To achieve this goal, we conducted
first of all an exploratory literature
study. Here are our four resulting
research questions:
learning

and how this can be measured.
Informal
learning
is
Research Questions
1.1
in which informal learning
often
can take place?
marginalised in scientific research as

a result of lacking understanding
about the subject (Jeltsen, 2010). The
aim of this project is to bridge the
gap
between
practice-oriented
scientific

about

cater to the shortcomings that exist in
want
to
companies
seemingly
have
attention
for
so
little
informal
Is
informal
learning
Is
there
a
possibility
to
measure the efficiency of
the field of informal learning. With this
we
do
recommended by research?
informal learning and in this way
project,
Why
learning?
and
research
What are the different ways
informal learning?
acquire
knowledge about informal learning.
We
We will put specific emphasis on
linked with concepts such as informal
learning
the
learning, research on informal learning,
of
the contrast with formal and incidental
the
learning and execution-as-learning. In
emphasis on learning analytics, we
what follows, you will find the four
believe that we are more likely to
different research questions with a
excite organisations for the meaning
short scientific framing
prevailing
'measuring
analytics
given
business
is
knowing'.
logic
With
researched
learning
analytics
of informal learning.
2
1.1.1
What are the different ways in
which informal learning can
take place?
because each learning activity is
characterised by both formal or
informal properties (Kyndt & Raes,
To verify the effectiveness of informal
n.d.).
learning, it is important to first take a
look at the various ways in which
Second, informal learning can adopt
informal learning can take place.
different forms. A lot of researchers
First, informal learning includes a
and scientists have already tried to
wide range of practices and may
organise and name this variety of
take place on just about any place
forms. So ranks Eraut (2004) informal
and any time. In our further research
learning
we will try to bring this large amount
reactive
of practice to a manageable whole.
deliberate learning, in which the
Various factors such as intention,
distinction is the degree of intent.
consciousness
expectations
Implicit learning is learning without
determine whether we learn more
that we are aware of this and with
informal or formal. Every time there is
absence
learned formally, there will also be
about
informal learned (Eraut, 2004). It is not
Reactive learning is intentional and
that formal learning is „bad‟ and
takes place during an action leaving
informal learning is 'good'. One strives
little time to think. Finally, deliberate
to
between
learning has the final goal to learn. It
formal and informal learning, but to
generates new knowledge and there
conceive it as a continuum. So
is a clear commitment in activities
agrees Eraut (2004): "I prefer to
such
define
informal
solving (Eraut, 2004). In addition, the
learning axis that comes closer to the
input of Eraut (2004) stressed that
end than the formal end of the
informal
learning
takes
continuum" (Eraut, 2004, p. 250).
through
doing,
thinking
Researchers agree that the degree
communicating.
no
strict
and
distinction
informal
learning
of
implied
learning
learning
and
of
explicit
what
exactly
as
planning
to
finally
knowledge
is
and
learned.
problem
shape
and
of formalisation is the criterion here. A
strict distinction has been sworn off
3
These processes end in a particular
This can give a false picture about
outcome
the
such
as
a
product,
interaction, decisions and so on.
effectiveness.
Nevertheless,
informal learning appears
to be
constantly present in companies. So
Because of the fact we go through a
is said in the research of Borghans,
different
world
Golsteyn, & de Grip (2007) that 94%
thoughts
and
of
experiences,
each
of the time is spent on informal
learning process is different. This is
learning. This shows that informal
again
learning has a very large power.
an
encounters,
explanation
for
the
complexity of learning. As we like to
make a worthy contribution to filling
Baert,
up the lack of understanding around
(2008) state in their research that
informal
informal learning is only a few years
learning, we will mainly
Clauwaert
Bree
in
workplace. With this focused look, we
According to them, it was before
hope to lay a piece of the puzzle. In
these years considered as a useless
this research we will continue looking
investment that would not lead to
for
any benefit. From the 1980s on,
ways
in
which
informal
learning can take place. This both
however,
from a thorough literature review and
important.
practical
society
experiences
of
informal
learning in the workplace.
it
at
Van
focus on informal learning in the
the
advance
and
companies.
became
Our
knowledge-based
requires
become
companies
more
encouraging
increasingly
to
and
more
towards
their
Why do companies seemingly
have so little attention for
informal learning?
employees to think autonomously
Because of the large size of informal
entails, are an additional reason for
learning it is easy to overlook some
the attention deficit.
1.1.2
and to deal with new challenges.
The
costs
that
informal
learning
learning activities.
4
For example, a focus on learning and
Not all companies work with this
a big difference between productive
body of thought which is why there is
and
still not much investment in informal
educational
tasks
lead
to
learning a lot but with high costs.
learning.
These high costs can arise because
companies send their employees to
While
trainings
importance
and/or
workshops.
This
there
is
and
evidence
of
effectiveness
the
of
means that workers are not present
informal learning, many organisations
in the company and thus are not
don‟t
able to do their task, which will cost
Because of this, they still spend most
the company money. In addition, the
of their learning budget on formal
company must also pay the cost for
training sessions.
participating
and/or
in
training
workshops.
It
is
sessions
up
to
companies to provide productive
and educational tasks. In this way,
informal learning can occur with a
very
low
cost
and
no
loss
of
productivity (Borghans et al., 2007).
We can see
a shift here from
execution-as-efficiency to executionas-learning.
Execution-as-efficiency
mainly attaches importance to the
production of goods and less to
learning within the organisation. The
emphasis
making
is
on
profit.
organisations
producing
and
Companies
and
that
focus
on
execution-as-learning spend a great
deal of importance to learning in the
workplace (Edmondson, 2008).
1.1.3
see
this
importance
yet.
Is
informal
learning
recommended by research?
Based on the literature, we can
conclude
indeed
that
is
informal
learning
recommended
by
research. First of all, we noticed that
a lot of research is available, which
makes that there are all kinds of
definitions and forms formulated on
informal learning. The popularity of
this subject can possibly be linked to
the fact that researchers want to
make
people
aware
of
the
usefulness of informal learning. The
European Learning Compass (EAPRIL,
2014) found that there is very little
known about informal learning and
its effectiveness.
5
Baert et al. (2008) state in their
research that much research has
We noticed that research praises
been conducted on the necessary
informal learning and shows a great
conditions
interest.
learning.
to
stimulate
The
because
large
informal
informal
attention
is
learning
is
important for the development of
knowledge of the workers (Borghans
et al., 2007). Thus, the promotion of
informal learning contributes to the
development
collective
of
individual
competences
and
(Eraut,
2004). In addition, Kyndt, Dochy and
Nijs (2009) state that:
Informal
learning
is
more
when it comes to learning job
skills
knowledge,
and
obtaining
because
these
specific skills and knowledge
are less appreciated in formal
education and the learners
frequently lack the necessary
insight
to
put
theory
into
practice. Formal learning on its
own
is
not
sufficient
to
anticipate the evolutions in
Is there a possibility to measure
the efficiency?
Out of research we can conclude
that measuring informal learning is
not an easy task. The lack of a single
definition and framework makes it
thereby dangerous to overlook forms
of informal learning. Measuring the
efficiency of it will be a challenging
task.
efficient than formal training
related
1.1.4
The
European
Learning
Compass (EAPRIL, 2014) states that
some
important
key
concepts
emerged that we can use for a
further literature study on measuring
informal learning, also called learning
analytics . In this study of EAPRIL
(2014) the focus lays more on the
measurement of formal learning.
The possibilities to measure informal
learning after this short study still are
largely unknown. Further research is
needed to create more clarity.
society since it takes too long
to set it up (Kyndt et al., 2009,
p. 369-370).
6
1.2
Conclusion
From this we can put a light on the
Now that we have a conceptual
basis
of
some
concepts
and
questions, we will conduct an indepth literature review to further
investigate.
practical side of informal learning
and make connections between the
theory
and
practice
of
informal
learning and learning analytics for
informal learning.
7
Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework
8
2
Theoretical Framework
2.1
2.1.1
Informal learning
Informal
learning
happens spontaneously and
What is informal learning?
unconsciously
Informal
learning
phenomenon
is
a
linked
without
any priori stated objectives in
complex
with
often
terms of learning outcomes.
many
different interpretations in the existing
According
to
Baert
et
al.
literature. If we want to create a
(2000) informal learning is an
consensus we will need to base this
important determinant for the
on the same definition. Therefore, we
professionalisation
appeal to the definition given by
employees and organisations.”
Kyndt et al. (2009). They describe
(Kyndt et al., 2009, p.370).
of
informal learning as follow:
Informal learning includes a wide
“Informal learning is described
number of learning experiences. In
as an unplanned and implicit
this project we will mainly focus on
process with unpredictable
learning
within
companies
and
This
organisations. Workplace learning,
learningproces
which we regard as an overarching
results
(Hager,
“every
day”
1998).
has a self-evident character
term,
contains
and takes place in the daily
informal learning. Here we will mainly
working situation
(Tjepkema,
focus on the informal dimension of
2002; Van Biesen,1989). It is
this concept. We use the following
never organised or intentional
definition
from the learner‟s point of view
(Baert et al., 2008):
of
both
formal
workplace
and
learning
(OECD, n.d.). It is seen as the
development of the individual
through interaction with others
(Marsick and Watkins, 1990).
9
A
process
change
of
of
sustainable
the
competency
and more or less serious or
existing
profound (Baert et al., 2008,
reservoir,
respectively knowledge, skills
and attitudes of employees
P.20) (translated).
2.1.2
The dynamic model of informal
learning
and groups of employees. This
happens in situations at or near
To create a comprehensive picture
the workplace with objective
of informal learning, we use the
quality
dynamic model
implementation
and
of
Tannenbaum,
progress of the work as a main
Beard, McNall & Salas (2009). In this
objective.
„What‟
(learning
model, they talk about four main
outcome),
„how‟
(learning
components
that
affect
the
process) and „when‟ (learning
effectiveness of informal learning.
period) something is learned,
These components shouldn‟t be seen
initially lies in the hands of the
as sequential, but merely as factors
learning employee and in the
that exist in this model. The model
work processes in which he or
can be referred as dynamic since
she fulfils a role. Other actors in
these components are in constant
the
interaction
organisation
can
also
with
each
other.
In
encourage
addition, there is a division between
learning by the more or less
input factors, that affect the process
formalised
of informal learning, and output
facilitate
conditions
or
policy
in
the
creating
(working)
factors,
these
are
the
potential
environment of the employee.
outcomes of informal learning. Both
As a result a wide spectrum of
input and output factors can be
learningworkforms
divided
will
be
into
situational
/
characteristics
and
covered. Depending on the
organisational
degree of awareness of the
individual characteristics.
learner
the
competency
development can be more or
less intentional or incidental
10
The four key factors in this model, we
Increased motivation among
the
will use as a support when we look at
staff of an organisation, allows for
informal learning. Since it is a clear
more intent to learn, which in turn
and comprehensive model, we have
contributes to more effectiveness.
chosen to use this one.
Experience and action are central
concepts
of
informal
learning.
Tannenbaum et al. (2009) describe
experience and action as the means
through
which
takes
place.
situations
Figure 1. Key Factors of the model of
informal
learning
Experiences
are
individuals
new
where
ideas, based on learning objectives
and previous reflection, can test or
Tannenbaum (2009).
apply. The application of these new
The four components used in this
model
are:
intent
experience/action,
to
feedback
learn,
and
reflection. In what follows, we will
explain these four factors. We will
also discuss why and how each
component contributes to learning.
ideas is considered a key concept in
training
because
experiences
supports.
routinueuse
increased
this
expanding
These
activities
attention,
non-
require
a
more
thorough reflection and stimulate the
informal
learning
process
of
employees.
The intention to learn is represented
in this model as the motivation or the
recognition of a certain need to
learn. In the text of Tannenbaum et
al. (2009) there is argued that this
motivation in various studies is related
to
training,
learning.
effectiveness
and
The third concept of this model is
feedback. As mentioned above is
gaining experiences very important.
However, one should keep in mind
that
experiences
automatically
lead
does
to
not
correct
learning.
11
It is possible that one remembers
and consistency that the providers of
wrong
feedback
aspects
from
these
persist.
The
second
experiences or just a part of the
perspective defines the feedback-
experience. To avoid this, feedback
quality in terms of the content and/or
is
style characteristics.
an
important
Feedback
component.
provides
individuals
information to learn the right thing
The last component in the model of
from their experiences. In the context
Tannenbaum
of informal learning feedback can
reflection. This element clarifies the
be both direct and indirect. In the
relationship
case of direct feedback we think of
result
individuals who asks questions to
employees
Council
their
learning experiences. Reflection is in
Indirect
this model described as a conscious
colleagues
about
personal
performance.
feedback
can
people
asking
be
obtained
about
must
Tannenbaum
indicated
different
et
that
results
be
al.
research
about
this
made.
(2009)
helps
to
to
look
have
shows
improving
interpretations:
by
using
multiple
can
or
identify any possible pitfalls.
Input-factors
The model of Tannenbaum et al.
every feedback is conducive to the
factors
performance of others. A survey
effectiveness
conducted
(Tannenbaum et al., 2009).
Peeters,
one
self-criticism
(2009)
Gielen,
motivate
up
performance through feedback. Not
by
and
experiences. The concept can get
reflect
comment
and
action
is
their
of
However,
between
(2009)
effort to give meaning to one's
multiple
actions.
al.
by
experience and the consequences
their
et
is
further
that
can
of
enhanced
with
influence
the
informal
learning
Dochy, Onghena & Struyven (2010)
shows
that
perspectives
feedback.
there
for
The
exist
different
giving
effective
first
perspective
relates to the degree of accuracy
12
As
pointed
out
in
our
chosen
definition of informal learning there is
already support for the idea that
informal learning takes place in the
daily work situation, so in the context
in which someone practices his job
(Kyndt et al., 2009). It is here that the
employees are offered opportunities
to learn. However, what will be
learned, is influenced by both the
context in which the opportunities for
learning
personal
individual.
are
offered
as
characteristics
It
are
these
well
of
as
the
factors,
organisational and at individual level,
which will be discussed further on in
the model of Tannenbaum et al.
Organisational and situational
characteristics
First of all the model speaks about
the organisational and situational
factors. These factors relate to the
climate
learning
of
the
organisation,
opportunities,
the
time,
support/encouragement, tools and
processes and the strategic vision.
Below we will further clarify these
factors. When the organisation has a
climate where training and learning
are important, then this has a positive
effect on the effectiveness of training
and feedback. In addition, it would
also increase the transfer of these
trainings.
(2009).
Figure 2. Model of Tannenbaum et al. (2009).
13
It is however about the valuation of
for
a
discussion
formal learning in the organisation. To
moments.
and
feedback-
learn more about the influence on
informal
learning
is
additional
Another
factor
is
the
research is needed. However, we
support/encouragement
that
can safely say that the spontaneous
organisation
nature of informal learning ensures
who are aware of the importance of
that there is a need for other forms of
informal learning and the contexts in
support than when it comes to formal
which this occurs, will find themselves
learning (Tannenbaum et al., 2009).
more involved in supporting informal
provides.
the
Employees
learning (Tannenbaum et al., 2009).
A second organisational factor are
Tools and processes can also be
the learning opportunities that an
enabled in the organisation. This
organisation offers to its employees.
should increase the reflection of
Certain
an
employees and turn them on to
more
informal learning. This may go about
informal learning can take place. So
tracking diaries, personal learning
for example, the possibility would be
contracts and so on (Tannenbaum et
to ask for feedback to colleagues or
al., 2009).
characteristics
organisation
managers.
ensure
of
that
Many
of
these
characteristics, however, are unique
The last situational factor is the
to each organisation. As a result, it is
strategic
difficult to give a general overview of
embodies the organisation. In this
this. A
context,
third
factor is
the
time.
vision
it
is
of
learning
essential
that
the
Employees today are under constant
organisation
working pressure and have limited
importance of informal learning. Only
free time. How can we yet informal
then will the workers more receptive
learning? Executives would furnish
to informal learning opportunities.
by,
The organisation must create a good
for
example,
moments
for
informal learning can provide time
relationship
recognises
that
between
formal
the
and
informal learning.
14
In addition to the organisational
Chao
factors which are discussed in the
studies have pointed out that there
model of Tannenbaum et al. (2009),
are various different factors why
there still is a component that affects
adults participate in learning. For
informal learning: the business size.
example we have social relations
Research
large
(making friends and meeting others),
companies would invest more in
external expectations (fulfilling all the
formal training and small businesses
comforts
more
someone
shows
in
informal
that
learning
(Van
Klaveren, 2008).
states
and
that
several
conveniences
else
with
a
of
certain
authority), social welfare (the desire
to serve others and/or to serve the
Individual characteristics
Tannenbaum
(2009)
et
al.
community),
(2009)
also
professional
advancement
(the
desire
for
describe individual characteristics in
professional
their model. These characteristics
flight/stimulation (to relieve boredom
include
or the work routine and/or to flee the
motivation,
characteristics,
feedback
personal
self-awareness,
orientation
and
self-
home
progress),
situation)
and
cognitive
interest (learning to learn) (Chao,
efficacy.
2009).
A first individual attribute consists of
The personality characteristics of the
the motivation of the learner, in this
employee is the second factor cited
case the employee. Individuals with
in the model. Tannenbaum et al.
greater motivation to learn (intent),
(2009) cited four elements on the
to
personality
undertake
or
look
up
things
characteristics
of
(action), to reflect (reflection) and to
workers. They talk about the internal
receive
locus of control, self-worth, goal
feedback
will
be
more
participative in informal learning and
orientation
will benefit more from it.
First of all, the element internal locus
and
conscientiousness.
of control is further elaborated.
15
This refers to the degree in which an
As defined in the master thesis of
individual
Salmon (2009) this is about "task
believes
that
the
appearance of ratification is under
orientation
and
successfully
his or her control. Research shows
achieving
certain
objectives.”
that individuals with an internal locus
Individuals
of control are more motivated to
conscientiousness are well organised
learn. More employees are inclined
and
to believe that they can improve
responsibility. They have a strong
their skills and are therefore more
urge
motivated
Tannenbaum
to
developments
participate
to
a
great
perform.
et
sense
In
al.
of
addition,
(2009)
also
describes some positive aspects of
of
conscientiousness, namely that this
self-
would ensure a higher self-efficacy,
worth. This is about the affective
which is positive related to learning.
evaluation
A third factor is self-awareness of the
A
personality
benefit
have
possess
their
learning.
that
in
who
second
element
characteristics
of
Research
the
indicates
is
individual.
that
an
individual employees. Individuals are
employee with a high self-worth
naturally
inclined
not
to
view
participates more often in activities
themselves objective. As a result we
that promote development such as
often develop biases whereby we
mentoring.
link failures due to external factors
and successes to internal factors.
The third element is goal orientation.
These biases can be reduced by
This covers the goals that the learners
optimising the meta cognitive skills of
are pursuing and the behaviors that
workers. Self-awareness is part of this
they perform to achieve these goals.
meta cognitive skills (Tannenbaum et
Examples
al., 2009). This concept gets at least
learning
include
or
focus
the
focus
on
on
performing
three
different
definitions
in
the
(Tannenbaum et al., 2009). A final
literature. The definition we will apply
element
is the one Church (1997) uses.
consists
of
the
conscientiousness of workers.
16
Self-awareness here is formulated as
positive for formal learning. Research
the ability to reflect on your own
conducted by Dinther, Dochy and
behavior and to judge your own
Segers (2011) shows that self-efficacy
behavior and skills, that manifest
is a key factor for learning since it
themselves
in
workplace,
positively influences the motivation
accurately
(Church,
1997).
A
and learning. In addition, Woerkom
penultimate
factor
feedback-
(2003) cited that self-efficacy has a
orientation. This concept can be
positive effect on knowledge sharing
formulated as the tendency of the
and
employee to seek and appreciate
Bandura
feedback. Individuals with a clear
element of self-efficacy, namely that
feedback orientation detect more
this has a positive effect on the
frequently
confidence
the
is
discrepancies
between
asking
for
(1977)
of
feedback.
cites
a
the
Also
positive
employee.
self-perception and the perception
Research into the role of self-efficacy
of others about their behavior. This
in informal learning, however, is still
can help to improve their own
necessary.
behavior, to which others think it‟s
needed. Feedback is according to
Tannenbaum et al. (2009) seen as
Potential outcomes
Organisational outcomes
one of the key components for the
A context of informal learning in
process of informal learning.
organisations can exert a positive
influence on readiness / capabilities
The final factor that we mentioned
of
above is self-efficacy. This is in the
retention, the learning culture of the
text of Tannenbaum et al. (2009)
organisation and the agility to be
formulated as the faith in the abilities
flexible to cope with changes.
the
organisation,
employee
of someone to organise and to carry
out operations necessary to achieve
First
certain goals. The role of self-efficacy
readiness/capabilities to compete
is according to Tannenbaum et al.
on the market.
(2009)
already
demonstrated
of
all,
they
talk
about
as
17
This means that informal learning has
which they are collected and for
a
the
what they will be used for (Cooper,
possibilities and the readiness of the
2012). Several factors have ensured
organisation to respond on changes
that analytics are used more, such as
and
labour
increased availability, detail, volume
Retain skilled employees
and variability of data. Besides that,
ensures that the organisation can
the multiple series and the maturity of
secure
techniques
positive
influence
opportunities
market.
market.
its
position
This
is
in
on
the
in
the
labor
because
the
ensure
that
analytics
become easier and wider.
knowledge and skills of employees
play a central role in the ability to
Also
remain
companies
(Kyndt,
economically
Dochy,
competitive
Michielsen
&
Moeyaert, 2008).
an
increased
pressure
and
for
efficiently
educational organisations puts the
importance
of
foreground
(Cooper,
in
the
2012).
The
There is also a potential outcome
potential
that benefits the learning culture in
evaluate past actions and to predict
the organisation. A learning culture
the effects of future actions, so they
can be defined as a cultural system
can
that focuses on the production of
create
new knowledge for sustainable social
(Cooper, 2012). Analytics have great
and
potential for businesses. Yet many
economic
order
(McWilliam,
of
analytics
make
analytics
better
more
decisions
effective
and
strategies
organisations
a strong adaptability and flexibility. It
wealth of information they collect
is seen as a solution to maintain a
systematically. Collecting and storing
competitive advantage in times of
the data, is in fact one side of the
turbulence and uncertainty in the
story.
business
effectively use the collected data.
environment
(Baskerville,
is
more
don‟t
help
2010). The concept of agility includes
It
still
to
use
this
important
to
Mathiassen, & Pries-Heje, 2005). The
purpose
of
a
specific
kind
of
analytics depends on the context in
18
A challenge for management in
organisations is, to get the most
Motivation
benefit
already
from
analytics
the
can
insights
provide
that
(MacNeill,
2012).
is
a
been
Learning
factor
that
explained
new
skills
has
above.
motivates
employees to learn even more. Also,
self-efficacy was already discussed.
Individual outcomes
The process of informal learning can
Informal learning may also exert an
contribute
influence on individual factors. It can
efficacy, which again can contribute
exert
to a positive influence on formal
an
influence
performance,
motivation,
on
learning,
commitment,
self-efficacy
and
learning.
to
The
an
increased
influence
of
self-
self-
efficacy on informal learning hasn‟t
been sufficiently investigated. Finally,
adaptability.
informal
learning
informal learning. This learning can
workers. Thus, the experiences from
be
continuous
which knowledge and skills can arise,
learning. The employee can learn
contribute to a faster response from
different
the employee to certain situations
things
during
informal
learning. Performance can also be
adaptability
an
influence
within
the
exert
The first factor is learning as a result of
framed
on
can
of
(Tannenbaum et al., 2009).
improved by the knowledge gained
in the informal learning process.
Employees
learn
new
skills
and
2.1.3
Why informal learning?
knowledge that they can apply in
Informal
the
present in the workplace. Borghans
following
situations
projects
and
or
future
is
continuously
In
et al. (2007) showed that 94% of the
addition, there can be exerted an
time is spent on informal learning. The
influence on the commitment of
remaining
workers. Informal learning contributes
learning can be attributed to formal
to
mechanisms.
greater
challenges.
learning
dedication
in
the
percentage
of
the
organisation.
19
In addition there is the 70-20-10
If we compare informal learning with
model that argues the following:
formal
training,
it
appears
that
informal learning in the workplace is
70 percent of learning comes
more effective and leads to better
from-the-job
learning
experiences,
outcomes
than
formal
tasks, and problem solving; 20
learning (Van Ruysseveldt & Van
percent comes from feedback
Dijke, 2012). This is because informal
and
learning takes place in an authentic
examples
(good
and
bad); and 10 percent comes
setting
which
from courses and reading. In
development
otherwords, 90 % of learning is
knowledge. So argues Billett (1995):
informal and only 10 % is formal
“It is held that in a situated approach
(Mattox, 2012, p. 50).
to
learning,
promotes
and
the
transfer
authenticity
the
of
of
activity and circumstances assist the
We find agreement in the literature
development of knowledge and its
about informal learning possessing a
transfer” (p.2).
great force. However, we must be
Formal training often can‟t meet the
critical on the 70-20-10 model. There
ever-changing and complex work
is no certainty about the origin of the
context. Workplace learning may
model, and there
meet
is
a lack of
these
requirements
empirical evidence to support this
(Versleeghers, 2012). Where formal
model. Despite these shortcomings,
training is often a limited medium for
the model has had much influence in
the development of certain skills, the
practice and people have become
opportunity for workplace learning
more aware of the importance of
allows employees to develop the
informal
necessary knowledge and skills.
learning
in
organisations
(Kajewski & Madsen, 2013).
20
Further informal learning encourages
Finally, informal learning has the
productivity, economical growth and
advantage that one learns to fit in in
competitiveness of organisations in
the organisation itself because they
the long term, and it is favourable for
learn
employment and employability of
organisation. This is also called labor
labor (Van Ruysseveldt & Van Dijke,
socialisation:
2012). In addition to these beneficial
learning moments a new employee is
effects of informal learning, it is also
integrated in the company, he learns
important to indicate that informal
about the business and professional
learning is cost effective: one learns
culture
at much lower cost (Versleegers,
personality in terms of what is usual
2012).
within the profession (Koot & den
For
organisations,
this
is
about
and
the
culture
of
through
the
informal
develops
his
own
obviously an important argument for
Dekker, 1999) .
investing in workplace learning.
There are also positive factors of
The investment in informal learning
informal
also had positive effects for the
found in the model of Tannenbaum
workers.
et al. (2009). These will be added
Informal
opportunities
flexibility,
leads
allowing
learning
to
increased
employees
to
learning
which
can
be
below in table 1 (p. 20).
However,
there
are
also
adapt to organisational changes.
disadvantages to informal learning.
The opportunity for informal learning
Informal learning has a naturally
reduces stress, which in turn leads to
unnoted
greater well-being and health of
embedded in the daily activities that
employees.
a
it is difficult to recognise (Duerings,
work
2011). This makes it difficult to get
motivation (Van Ruysseveldt & Van
hold of informal learning and it is
Dijke, 2012).
difficult to measure (EAPRIL, 2014).
positive
Further,
stimulator
it
for
is
also
the
character.
It
is
so
Another disadvantage is that there is
no certificate or diploma linked to
informal learning (Frietman, Kennis, &
Hövels, 2010).
21
In this way it cannot be explicitly
2.1.4
Conditions of informal learning
demonstrated that an employee has
acquired a particular competency.
Finally, there is the risk that unreliable
information is exchanged during the
process
easy
of knowledge. It is
not
There are several conditions that
affect the informal learning process
and determine to what extent and in
what ways there is being learned.
to immediately transmit the
right information and knowledge to
others (Krauthammer, 2012).
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages with regard to informal learning.
22
We use the according to Baert et al.
According
(2008) described levels that have to
there
be included to get a global view on
properties that affect the continuum
the informal learning atmosphere:
of informal learning attitudes. Term of
the
the
office
the
correlates negatively with informal
workplace, the L&D-policy and the
learning opportunities. So, it was
learning infrastructure.
concluded that the longer someone
personal
positive
characteristics,
learning
climate
in
to
are
Versleegers
plenty
within
of
an
(2012)
individual
organisation,
is in service, the less informally is
learned.
Furthermore,
someone‟s
age has an influence on the learning
processes.
As
opportunities,
employees
regards
we
will
learning
know
young
encounter
more
learning opportunities because of
the higher training yields when one‟s
younger (Van Klaveren, 2008). A
Figure 3. Levels of Baert et al. (2008)
to gain an insight into the formal
learning atmosphere.
level into account . The micro level
covers the personal characteristics
and perceptions of the learner (Baert,
2008). To what extent and in which
an
employee
consequence
engages
in
informal learning, is related to his own
attitude and knowledge base.
of
this
statement is the fact that young
workers
might
encouraged
First, we must also take the micro
ways
possible
be
to
more
learning
actively
in
an
informally way. Age also has an
impact
because
on
the
learning
different
process
generations
engage in different forms of learning.
Kluwer (2013) concluded for instance
that the minus 30-year-olds have a
more pronounced preference for
informal
learning
and
learning
through social media. Gender is also
a personality trait which leads to
23
different
attitudes
and
learning
An initial investigation, carried out by
Versleegers
(2012)
the consultation company CARA
concluded that men have more
(2010), states that the transfer of
contact with the supervisor, read
informal
more
and
activities is the greatest when it takes
individually.
place in a framework of social and
According to this study, women have
personal interaction. The different
more opportunities to learn in various
contexts which stimulate informal
tasks
more
learning in the workplace the most,
learn
are employee/teaminitiated sharing
processes.
professional
learn
more
literature,
often
and
experience
encouragement
to
(Versleegers,
Owning
2012).
the
learning
to
job-related
sessions/collaboration
(75%),
English language skill increases the
mentoring (61%), coaching (61%)
communication which in turn leads
and performance support materials
to an increment of informal learning
and systems (53%). In addition Van
and learning from colleagues. An
Ruysseveldt and
Van Dijk
open, inquisitive attitude, is the most
concluded
an
influential factor for informal learning
workload stimulates the workplace
(Versleegers, 2012). On the micro
learning,
level the attitudes, perceptions and
moderate
personality of the employee are
requirement is that the condition
crucial
„autonomy‟ must be moderate or
for
the
informal
learning
that
especially
levels
increase
at
of
(2012)
low
in
and
workload.
A
process in a company.
high. On high levels of workload, the
The second level that Baert et al.
workplace learning can only be
(2008) considers as important is the
promoted when autonomy is high.
positive
the
They cite that organisations through
rich
task (re)design can aim for optimal
learning
workplace:
is
climate
there
in
a
environment being offered and does
combinations
there
autonomy for workplace learning.
rule
a
learning-friendly
of
workload
and
organisational culture? This level was
examined by a lot of researchers.
24
According to the relevant research,
long term. The disadvantage here is
the
of
that this approach requires more
workload and autonomy are the
investment. The question of which
most desirable: combinations which
approach provides the best solution,
preserve the energy of the employee
depends on the specific problem. If
intact, which offers time and room
we take a look at the learning
for
as
potential of both approaches, we
and
remark that the learning potential is
experiment and combinations which
greater when using the „appreciative
intend sufficient possibilities for active
approach‟. As cited above, this
intervention in the work situation.
approach stimulates the employees
following
learning
reflection,
combinations
activities
such
exploration
to
Furthermore,
according
to
the
address
problems
on
an
innovative way. This can be linked to
research of Kyndt and Raes (n.d.),
the
there are two ways of dealing with
„appreciative
conflicts
in
that a positive learning climate can
organisations. First, there's the ' gap-
arise in which employees can find
approach'. This means that problems
answers and solutions (Kyndt & Raes,
are being solved on the basis of
n.d.).
already
and
problems
existing
rules
learning
climate.
approach‟
The
ensures
and
procedures. Second, there is the
Baert et al. (2008) describe the third
„appreciative
level
approach‟,
which
as
the
L&D-policy
of
the
includes the encouraging of the
organisation which both relates to
employees to address problems in an
the informal as the formal learning. In
innovative way. The first approach
the text one defines it as follows:
has the advantage of being a quick
way
for
finding
a
solution.
The
disadvantage, however, is that in this
way the solution will render only at
short
notice.
The
„appreciative
approach‟ provides a solution in the
25
Formation,
training
and
Ideals to which an organisation must
education refer to the set of
strive to create a good learning
activities
policy, are a strong mission and
and
efforts
that
promote the learning process
policy
of professional and voluntary
management style, a decentralised
staff.
structure, an open communication
This
includes
the
of
their
development
competencies with a view to a
better,
a
more
vision,
system,
a
a
facilitating
learning
organisation
culture and learning employees.
high-quality
functioning in the performance
The fourth level that Baert et al.
of functions and duties that are
(2008)
part of the task and the mission
infrastructure
of the organisation, and with a
informal learning in the workplace.
view
the
According to these researchers the
employees to contribute to the
learning infrastructure is “the support
development of knowledge in
of all types of formal and informal
the organisation (Baert et al.,
learning- and regulation activities of
2008, p.24, translated).
team
to
enabling
describes
as
members
is
the
a
condition
–
learning
including
for
the
corresponding resources and people
Recently one speaks more about the
that provide support- and conditions
„learning policy‟ instead of the L&D-
that affect learning” (Baert et al., p.
policy because of the fact that it
27,
contains more the informal learning,
infrastructure is closely intertwined
formal learning and training. Baert et
with the context of the organisation,
al. (2008) also speak about input
which according to Frietman et al.
areas to stimulate informal learning.
(2010) is considered crucial. They
They propose a series of measures
argue
that organisations can undertake to
„managing
create
informal nature‟, it is important to pay
favourable
informal learning.
conditions
for
translated).
that,
This
because
while
learning
it‟s
retaining
about
the
attention to making changes in the
context of the work.
26
In addition, they argue that both
et al. (2010) created by two central
among
are
figures: the leader who facilitates,
prepared to engage in learning
provides feedback and takes care of
processes as with those who are
a shared vision, and the employee
not, a stimulating work environment
who is motivated and takes time to
increases
to
reflect. Also Baert et al. (2008) see
education. The researchers of this
the importance of these two key
study decide that „the preservation
figures who provide support for the
of the informal component‟ controls
workplace learning. As regards this
the border. This means that the
support, Baert et al. (2008) discuss
control is limited to the creation of a
that this occurs in the form of social
correct and challenging context to
support of the team leader who
learn. This is possible on the basis of
provides feedback, coaches and
certain structures and systems, such
encourages reflection. Furthermore,
as time to engage with each other,
top managers might contribute to
spaces for informal consultation and
creating favourable conditions for
proximity
also
workplace learning by motivating
indicate the fact that formal and
the team members, giving space for
informal
each
learning and experimentation, and
other mutually, and that these forms
monitoring work. The fellow team
of learning are only effective in their
members of colleagues can also be
reciprocity.
this
considered as a potential source of
research there is a need for the right
support. They might be a support by
climate and the right conditions for
giving advice and helping by the
informal learning. Tjepkema (2003)
search for explanations or solutions
considers
for tricky problems.
employees
the
of
who
participation
groups.
learning
They
influence
According
a
favorable
to
learning
environment as an environment with
Finally,
a high variation in tasks, the ability to
resources
collaborate with colleagues, and the
instructions, manuals and information
enrichment
systems
of
tasks.
Such
an
there
also
such
which
exist
as
provide
material
workplace
relevant
environment is according to Frietman
27
information and support workplace
This corresponds very strongly to the
learning (Baert et al., 2008).
last level of Baert et al. (2008).
Krauthammer (2010) also discusses
Firstly, there are things a manager
some of the things a manager can
can
undertake to encourage informal
informal learning.
do
for
himself
to
promote
learning in the organisation.
Figure 4. Levels of Baert et al. (2008) to gain an insight into the formal learning
atmosphere
28
Secondly, the manager can give
This motivation can be enhanced by
signals
creating
to
his
employees.
Furthermore, the manager has to
certain
on-the-job
experiences (Krauthammer, 2012).
pay attention to frequent interaction
with
the
Fourthly,
Secondly,
to
be
manager can give to his employees
entire
to support informal learning. This
organisation. Finally, the manager
coaching should both focus on basic
has to link informal learning with e-
skills
learning. These five elements will be
ambitious skills. These two skills are the
discussed further below.
building blocks of solid personalised
informal
employees.
learning
implemented
has
in
the
of
there
the
are
signals
employees
the
and
on
coaching. Furthermore, the actions
First of all, the manager himself can
and information exchange that take
undertake certain actions to learning
place in the workplace have to be
on an informal way. For example,
confidential. Indeed, the employees
when employees come up with new
are not always aware of certain
ideas, it is the managers‟ duty to
consequences of this knowledge-
welcome this and use these ideas for
sharing process. It isn‟t self-evident to
further
Several
transfer the right information and
employees will have the intention to
knowledge to others. It is important
share their knowledge and ideas with
the manager makes sure the passing
others. It is up to the manager to
of unreliable information is limited
stimulate and motivate the staff. With
and that the uncertainty about the
this, the manager is expected to
reliability
acknowledge
transformed to a certainty. Besides,
refinement.
the
importance
of
of
manager
the
the
also needs to transform the belief in
there‟s attention being paid to the
knowledge-sharing into motivation
social welfare of the employees.
by his employees.
Feeling good in the organisation is
to
the
ensure
is
learning within the organisation. He
linked
must
information
degree
that
of
psychological safety.
29
Psychological safety is described as
By providing this support, certain
the
doubts and fears of the employees
shared
belief
that
the
environment is safe for interpersonal
can
risk taking (Edmondson, 1999). The
manager has to help in guiding the
employees dare to give their opinion
various
or discuss errors without fear to be
employees
rejected
(Edmondson,
(Krauthammer, 2012).
addition,
there
opportunity
should
to
1999).
In
be
an
be
reduced.
Finally,
applications
to
the
of
decent
the
results
face-to-face
Thirdly, the manager has to invest in
interaction. This type of interaction is
interaction with his staff to promote
considered
than
informal learning in the organisation.
virtual encounters. Although virtual
It is important that the manager
interaction
and
helps his employees adapting to the
reduces certain costs, face-to-face
demands of the public and going in
interaction is preferred. It is up to the
interaction with the public. There is a
manager to develop a recognition
difference between merely informing
reflex to help others. The recognition
the public and inspiring. This step is
of others plays a very important role
very difficult for knowledge-sharers.
in the motivation of employees. To
But adapting to a public can have a
work properly, the compliments must
positive impact. Furthermore there
be given at a good time and in an
needs
appropriate way. In addition, the
opportunities
manager must show an openness for
behavior are maximised. Finally, it is
the
This
important to integrate the team logic
interaction
in the various working groups.The
more
takes
arising
openness
important
of
less
new
time
ideas.
encourages
to
be
for
between employees which is an
diversity
at
the
incentive
organisations
is
for
Furthermore,
it
informal
is
learning.
important
ensured
that
confidential
employees
often
in
low,
that
undervalued and too little exploited.
managers suggest concrete goals.
Managers can help by creating an
This is considered as a crucial support
environment in a team where the
managers van provide.
productivity is increased.
30
This can be influenced by stimulating
Boundary spanning can be both
working
horizontally and vertically, and can
groups
to
integrate
individuals with different styles and
take
place
between
expertise into a team (Krauthammer,
stakeholders. In addition, it can also
2012).
relate
to
the
demographic
Next,
informal
learning
implemented
in
must
the
be
entire
different
crossing
or
of
geographical
borders (Yip, Ernst & Campbell, 2011).
Furthermore
there
be
possibility
there
higher functions and managers, to
a
presenting
control
the
mechanism
knowledge-sharing
individuals,
the
organisation. Here it is crucial that
is
for
must
groups,
communicate
frequently
process. This means that you must
learn
each
enter into a kind of conversation with
responsible people for learning and
someone else or yourself to verify
top managers must be moving: they
that certain knowledge is correct.
should
Next there needs to be ensured that
promoter (Krauthammer, 2012).
from
move
from
and
other.
to
The
observer
to
there is a transactive memory system
present
at
the
the
Finally, the manager has to link
organisation. It is intended that all
informal learning link with e-learning
employees
possesses
and Learning Management System
which knowledge or skills. Finally, it is
(LMS). E-learning is seen by many
essential
organisations as a key component.
know
that
staff
who
the
in
organisation
engages in boundary spanning.
The right e-Tools can be used for
many
different
This means that the employees and
Furthermore,
executives
the
package that allows companies to
mental, physical or organisational
manage e-learning. Through LMS,
boundaries through the exchange of
employees can be registered for
information,
courses,
(Decuyper,
break
through
views
Dochy
Bossche, 2010).
and
&
Van
ideas
den
LMS
purposes.
is
courses
can
and
tests
available
a
software
be
made
can
be
decreased.
31
This creates a kind of online school in
Therefore this is one of the points of
which
interests when a company works with
both
the
learner
and
executive can follow the progress.
e-learning
There are, however, more complex
management systems works. One
learning management systems with
must always take into account the
more specialised functions. These
cost,
have a higher cost than a normal
(Krauthammer, 2012).
learning
management
feasibility
and
and
learning
limitations
system
(Jacobs, 2007).
Figure 5. Building blocks to create favorable conditions for informal learning
(Krauthammer, 2012, Baert et al., 2008).
32
2.1.5
Relation with formal learning
The relationship between formal and
informal learning can be considered
as reciprocal. On the one hand
promotes formal learning, informal
learning moments, informal learning
also
contributes
to
greater
effectiveness of formal training.
Because
of
the
relationship
between
reciprocal
formal
and
informal learning, it is a wrong notion
that
organisations
must
choose
between one of these two forms of
learning. In an organisation formal
training will always be needed and
informal
learning
enhance
the
can
effect
of
thereby
formal
learning (Marsick & Watkins, 2001).
We can conclude that informal and
formal learning are complementary
(Frietman
et
al.,
2010).
Several
researchers recommend not to make
a strict distinction between formal
and
informal
learning
but
to
summarise it as a continuum. Eraut
agrees: "I prefer to define informal
learning as learning That comes
closer to the end informal than the
formal end of the continuum" (Eraut,
2004, p 250.). It is generally agreed
that the degree of formalisation here
is the criterion. A strict distinction
swears it off because every learning
activity is surely characterised by
both
formal
and
informal
characteristics (Kyndt & Raes, n.d.).
Both formal and informal learning
opportunities should therefore be
viewed as important elements of
workplace learning. This comment
was made by Dale and Bell (1999)
who argued that informal learning
should
not
replace
the
formal
learning: "It is the synergy between
bone healing learning activities that
will
produce
(Versleegers,
effective
2012,
p.13).
growth"
Formal
learning can be regarded as a
building block to enable personal
development, while informal learning
promotes the development of formal
learning. Recent studies have also
found evidence that a combination
of
formal
increases
and
informal
learning
the
employability
of
workers.
33
All the above arguments make clear
These four components can possess
that a mix of formal and informal
characteristics of learning formal or
learning
informal. However, learning is not
in
the
workplace
is
necessary (Versleegers, 2012).
whether formal or informal. Weistra
(n.d.) sees this rather placed on a
This synergy between formal and
continuum.
informal learning is repeatedly cited
Learning can be formal or informal
by Weistra (n.d.). Learning by Weistra
greater or lesser extent.
(n.d.) divided into four components,
Below is an overview of the different
namely the learning process, the
features that may have formal and
location and setting, the learning
informal activities (Weistra, n.d.).
objectives and finally the learning
content.
Tabel 2. Degree of formality of learning activities (Weistra, n.d.)
34
2.2
2.2.1
Learning analytics
There are several communities of
analytics
Analytics
According to Greller & Dachsler
(2012) we live in a data economy
today. There is an increasing interest
for new data-collection techniques.
The motivations for collecting these
data are to improve the quality,
effectiveness and efficiency. One of
these data-collection techniques are
the analytics that will be discussed
below.
are different views and definitions for
the term. The term can refer to both
the product as well as the process of
data collection. We focus her mainly
on analytics as a process. We use the
definition of Slade and Prinsloo (2013)
describes
collection,
dissemination
can
be
seen
as
different perspectives because the
mutual boundaries are so vague. The
communities in which we mainly
based
our
analytics
research
and
are
social
web
network
analytics.
Web analytics is the collection of
data from the use of pages on the
web. We can distinguish two forms
here: on-site and off-site.
‘Analytics‟ is a broad term and there
who
that
analytics
analysis,
of
data,
as
use
from
the
and
for
example reports and descriptions,
with the aim to provide cognitive,
effective and administrative support
to organisations. This results in the
process-oriented question of how
data of informal learning can be
collected in companies.
For on-site web analytics they use the
web page of their own organisation.
It collects data of the activities of
workers on a certain site and shows
how much or how long they are
surfing on the site. Off-site web
analytics involves the use of other
sites, besides their own web page. It
is thus a wider network of services
and product (Cooper, 2012).
Social network analytics collect data
from the use of social networks.
Social
networks
are
increasingly
popular today and are used to
communicate between employers
and employees.
35
A study of COPD (2010) also shows
Marsick and Volpe (1999) mention
that 81% of the respondents believes
that
that social media provides dignified
subject
learning
employees
for
employees.
The
companies
to
than 82% of the workers are using
Organisations
social media in order to promote the
acquire
development of professional skills.
learning process.
focus
on
so
increasingly
focus
the
constantly
change,
consequence of this is that more
Besides
are
on
need
lifelong
to
learning.
therefore
knowledge
that
need
about
to
the
social
networking, social network analytics,
To
we
analytics we use the model of Greller
can
also
see
the
direct
interaction between people.
better
understand
learning
and Drachsler (2012).
This
model
dimensions
provides
that
six
affect
critical
learning
analytics: internal limitations, external
constraints, stakeholders, objectives,
data
Figure 6. Two types of analytics side
by side
2.2.2
and
dimension,
instruments.
multiple
For
each
interpretations
can be given. Internal limitations may
include
the
competencies
of
employers. These competencies may
Learning Analytics
eliminate or improve the collection of
The analytics discussed above can
be specified in learning analytics.
These learning analytics are data
collected in an educational context.
Although the business world today
strongly focusses on collecting data,
the domain of learning analytics is
not
well
known
advantages
are
yet.
Yet
associated
learning
analytics.
constraints
can
External
prevent
the
collection of learning analytics. These
are for example the norms and
conventions
that
apply
in
the
business or in the community where
the company is located.
many
with
collecting these data.
36
The
instruments
collect
A final critical dimension are the
learning analytics can also have a
stakeholders involved in the process
positive and a negative impact on
of learning analytics. We can divide
the learning analytics. In addition,
these
there is also an influence on the type
categories. For example, there are,
of data and the purpose for which
on the one hand, data and clients
this
(objectives).
and on the other side data subjects.
Datasets can be open (public) or
Data clients are individuals who
closed
benefit from the collected learning
data
is
used
used
(accessible
for
to
a
limited
stakeholders
analytics.
either reflection or prediction.
individuals from whom these learning
these
were
two
subjects
derived.
groups
may
are
two
number of people) and used for
analytics
Data
into
the
However
overlap.
Sometimes the data subjects are
data clients as well.
Figure 7. Critical dimensions of learning analytics (Greller & Drachsler, 2012)
37
The collection of learning analytics is
The
on
practice-based
therefore a dynamic and complex
Compass
process, taking into account multiple
analytics for informal learning than
processes and factors. An example
was the case in this investigation. We
of this are the many ethical and legal
will explain the relevant information
issues of learning analytics that must
of the European Learning Compass
be taken into account. MacNeill
for our research below (EAPRIL, 2014).
found
Learning
other
learning
(2012) points in the CETIS Analytics
series on the importance of these
According to the European Learning
issues during research, for example
Compass
the clarity of definitions, voluntary
analytics is relevant to learning trends
participation,
and
the
possible
consequences, and so on.
to
uncovering
measure
learning
learning
and
development extensions in Europe. In
the European Learning Compass it is
2.2.3
Learning analytics for informal
learning
concluded that 75% of the identified
analytics are related to classical
training. It is derived that in Europe
The European Learning
Compass
there is still a main focus is on formal
training activities. Only 40% of the
Although that the European Learning
informal learning model corresponds
Compass (EAPRIL, 2014) is focused on
to
learning analytics for formal learning,
analytics. This (hidden) analytics of
they also frequently refer to results,
informal
including
linked to the contextual analysis of
informal
learning
learning.
analytics,
After
of
studying
the
contemporary
learning
organisational
are
factors.
learning
especially
Individual,
literature around informal learning,
outcome (effectiveness), and school
we
climate
have
collected
a
lot
of
measurements
are,
information to add to the European
according to the European Learning
Learning Compass (EAPRIL, 2014).
Compass, under-represented.
38
This results in a dominant focus on
The comparative data analysis shows
traditional measurements, while new
that there is only the intention of the
developments
learner and the other three factors
of
the
informal
workplace learning in organisations
are not measured.
are ignored. This proves once again
that there is a demand for further
There is thus a gap between the
research (EAPRIL, 2014).
theoretical and the practical focus
areas.
The
by
Tannenbaum
The results of the learning analytics in
formulated components, individual
the
Compass
learning characteristics and informal
(EAPRIL, 2014) are compared with
learning outcomes are not sufficiently
the informal learning framework of
integrated into the already existing
Tannenbaum et al. (2009).
learning analytics.
Carried out by the data there came
Future
some analysis learning analytics for
according to the European Learning
informal learning to light, which are
Compass, aim for an integration of
compared
different
formal and informal measurements
contextual factors of the model of
to a clear comparison that is usable
Tannenbaum et al. (2009). Generally
for the learning and development of
it is decided that 40% of the found
workers (EAPRIL, 2014).
European
Learning
with
the
measurements
must,
learning analytics corresponds to the
model and the remaining 60% do not
In line with this conclusion there is
fit
the
model
research on the relevance of a
of
Tannenbaum
(2009)
European benchmark tool. To what
represents four crucial components
extent will a European reference
that affect the success of informal
framework
learning. In short these are: the intent
developing such a calibration tool
of the learner, the experience or
EAPRIL (2014) proposes to put the
activities, feedback and reflection.
focus on a macro or on a micro level.
model.
The
et
al.
get
meaning?
With
39
When companies want to compare
Whereas the learning analytics that
in general and want to form a global
are used here, gauge a (process-
view it is relevant to map the hot
oriented) data-collection that tries to
topics of a company. If one wants to
map informal learning and wants to
gauge concrete benchmarks and
demonstrate its relevance. Because
best practices, a macro-level analysis
of this difference in definition there
is less essential and an analysis at
follows an overview below, about
micro level is recommended. This
the additional literature study of
requires that the context will be
learning
charged and contact has to be
informal learning (EAPRIL, 2014).
made with the human resource (HR)
managers. Finally, it is recommended
to increase the visibility by setting up
online profiles to build a strong
network.
This learning analytics will contribute
to creating a relevant benchmark to
increase
the
comparability
(in
numbers) between companies.
Even though the European Learning
Compass offers some very relevant
insights for our research, it is still
important
to
accentuate
difference
in
starting
learning
analytics
on
a
point.
The
that
are
formulated by EAPRIL are focussed
on a product (consisting of digits)
that
would
comparability.
allow
international
analytics
concerning
Further literature study about
learning analytics for informal
learning
The
European
Learning
Compass
(EAPRIL, 2014) focused mainly on
learning analytics of formal learning
in organisations.
Yet, recently there is a growing
attention for informal learning in
companies. If we want to translate
this informal learning to learning
analytics, we must seek out new
ways of measurements.
Therefore we must consider whether
it is possible to measure this informal
learning process. Formal learning is
relatively easy to measure since the
material is well defined and it is
possible to propose certain goals to
the measurements (Mattox, 2012).
40
According to Mattox (2012) it is a
Querying the presence of these
Prometheus task to organise the
types
contents of informal learning in a
informal learning in companies and
meaningful structure. This makes it
may
almost impossible to be able to
effectiveness (Mattox, 2012). Despite
register its effect. Moreover, it is more
the fact that informal learning is
practical to think into the different
difficult to chart, MacNeil (2012)
types of informal learning, such as:
discusses there is a way to collect 'Big
can
tell
make
us
us
more
reflect
about
on
its
Data‟.
Figure 8. Different types of informal learning (Mattox, 2012).
41
He understands a large collection of
According
detailed data from which patterns
visualisation and static information
can be derived (MacNeil, 2012, p. 6).
helps to pursue goals and does it
He
the
make possible for learning processes
program 'RescueTime', which shows
to lead to learning and training. This
how much time is spent on the
also leads to a certain 'quantified
computer. The HR manager can get
self', which means that people come
visibility on those activities that are
to
the most common. Thus there are,
collection
according
a
behavior (Duval & Facilitates, 2012).
tools which make it
In other words they argue that
indicates
to
number of
possible
for
instance
MacNeil
classify
self-knowledge
of
data
(2012),
through
the
about
their
measuring informal activities can be
effectively, to influence workers, to
a driving force to focus more on
abstract activities to take a first step
certain (relevant) areas. Also, they
in the measurement of learning. Of
indicate that a tool that visualises
course we must, with this type of
turns
initiatives
be
understandable and organised. This
issues
allows both the learner as the one
associated with this, as mentioned
who want to stimulate, such as the
before (see 2.2). Rights, such as "the
HR manager, to find their way in the
privacy law”, must for the mapping
complex word of informal learning
of
(MacNeil, 2012).
and
of
these
the
MacNeil
time
aware
to
(2012),
to
interventions,
the
ethical
personal
activities
be
out
to
be
more
usable,
charged accurately (MacNeil, 2012).
For more clarity in the field of informal
In
addition,
this
type
learning
a
literature study, edit and spread a
measurements
can
lead
visualisation
of
(unconscious)
activities.
to
of
we
questionnaire
will,
based
and
on
this
qualitative
interviews.
42
Chapter 3: Methodology
43
3
Methods
In addition, we relied on interviews
In our study we used questionnaires
with a smaller sample of ten HR staff
and interviews. The sample of our
or managers, including seven men
survey
and
exists
of
212
respondents
three
women.
With
this
working in different organisations.
qualitative interviews we aimed to
Among these employees were 120
gather more in-depth information.
men, 56.6%, and 92 women, 43.4%.
We formulated open questions in an
We aimed to reach the widest
interview
possible international audience. To
have strived to keep our sample
achieve this goal, we translated our
representative.
questions
the
maintain the validity and reliability of
questionnaire was kept limited and
our research. The quantitative data
accessible. All the questions had
are
multiple response options.
qualitative data. Therefore, this study
in
English
and
guide.
Furthermore,
This
in
complementary
order
for
we
to
the
could be regarded as a mixed
method study.
44
Chapter 4: Results & Discussion
45
4 Results and discussion
which employees want to stay up to
date.
4.1
Questionaire
They
classroom
have
less
training
need
and
for
have
a
To be able to interpret and analyse
preference
the
(Kluwer, 2013). This is in line with the
results
from
our
online
for
informal
learning
questionnaire, we will compare this
results
with the theoretical framework. We
demonstrates that the vast majority
will discuss both the main overall
(93,03%) of the employees, wants to
results
commit on informal learning.
as
make
comparisons
of
our
survey
which
between different groups based on
gender, business size and age.
Although 93,03% of the employees
Our online survey shows that 93,03%
indicate that informal learning is
of
important,
the
employees
learning
important
find
and
informal
want
to
76,16%
the
results
believe
there
show
is
that
enough
optimise this in his or her organisation.
support for informal learning. Informal
It
that
learning thus wins in popularity but it
the
isn‟t yet supported by a lot of
is
considered
employees
essential
recognise
importance of informal learning if
organisations.
one
Indicator we know that HR managers
wants
to
experience
the
From
the
Learning
effectiveness. It‟s thus favourable
are
that so many employees indicate
encouraging informal learning and
that there is
knowledge
a
positive climate
limited
in
the
sharing
process
within
of
and
around informal learning. We can link
outside the organisation. Although
these findings to a research made by
the
CARA (2010) which shows that 90% of
learning,
the respondents encourage informal
importance
learning
(Kluwer, 2013).
because
they
find
it
employees
HR
tend
still
to
to
informal
attaches
formal
more
learning
necessary for the development of
knowledge (CARA, 2010). There is a
big shift discernible in the way in
46
This may explain why only 76,16% of
In fact, it argues that men report
the employees indicates there is
more
sufficient support for informal learning
women.
learning
opportunities
than
vis-à-vis the 93,03% the respondents
who find informal learning important.
In
addition
to
sex,
we
have
compared the results over the two
In the results of this questionnnaire
largest age categories: the 50- to 60-
there is a perceptible difference
year-olds (20,8%) and the 21- to 25-
between the sexes. In the results of
year olds (18,9%). When asked if
the
„informal learning is important and I
following
question:
„Informal
learning is important and I want to
want
optimise this in my organisation‟
organisation‟
90,91% of men answered that this is
difference between the two age
applicable. 95,9% of the women
groups: it is appropriate for 93,93% of
indicated that this was the case.
the
Although the difference is small, we
91,42% of the older respondents.
can link it to a finding from the
Research
Learning Indicator. This study shows
between informal learning and age
that informal workplace learning,
shows conflicting results. The Learning
more specifically the learning of
Indicator
colleagues and managers, is more
employees have a different view at
popular among women than men
training and development than older
(Kluwer,
colleagues. So minus 30-year-olds
74,74%
2013).
of
organisation
In
the
addition,
men
provides
think
only
the
enough
have
to
young
optimise
there
is
respondents
on
the
argues
a
preference
this
my
no
big
and
for
relationship
that
more
for
in
young
pronounced
informal
learning
support for informal learning. In the
(Kluwer, 2010). Other research shows
category of women this is 78,09%.
that
Although this difference is rather
involved in informal learning (Berg &
small, the difference is contrary to
Chyung, 2008).
older
employees
are
more
the investigation of Van Ruysseveldt
and Van Dijke (2012).
47
The results of our survey indicate that
Finally, we can also look at the
the young generation finds informal
business size. From
learning somewhat more important,
know that big companies invest
but the difference is so tiny that we
more in formal training and small
conclude that both generations are
companies bet more intensive on
on the same line.
informal
There is a difference in generations
2008). For this we find no evidence. In
when looking at their opinion on the
the large companies 94,94% of the
level of support for informal learning.
employees said they find informal
Of the 21- to 25-year-olds 93,93% says
learning
there is enough support. When we
maximise this in the organisaton. In
look at the 50- to 60-year-olds we see
the
that there is only 74,14% who thinks
percentage is lower, 87,18%. As for
there is enough support. Thus we can
the support, the large companies
see that the younger generation is
with 76,76% and the small businesses
experiencing more support. This can
with 76,93% are on the same line.
be linked to the fact that a lot of
They both seem to judge that the
companies invest more in young
organisation
employees
support for informal learning.
because
the
training
learning
important
small
research we
(Van
and
Klaveren,
want
companies,
provides
to
this
sufficient
output is higher. In the field of
informal learning one will therefore
Next the tangible and intangible
for example actively encourage the
resources were investigated. These
direct
between
resources make it possible for the
experienced staff and young and
employees to refine their knowledge.
less
(SEO
88,95% of the employees feel that
Economisch Onderzoek, 2008). This
the organisation provides sufficient
may explain why young employees
resources to improve knowledge. As
experience
regards material resources, the vast
contact
experienced
more
staff
support
learning on an informal way.
when
majority (85,4%) uses ICT resources to
learn.
48
This is in line with the results of the
In addition to the material sources,
Learning Indicator showing that the
an
importance of online applications
immaterial resources. The results of
increases. 74% of the respondents
our survey show that 32,93% of the
says
employees consider autonomy as
that the importance of e-
learning
and
webinars
increases
the
organisation
most
can
also
applicable.
offer
Both
men
(CARA, 2010). As regards to social
(37,63%) as women (26,76%) place
media, 50% of our respondents make
autonomy
use of this. This is less than expected if
Mentoring is at the last place (7.19%)
we
the
followed by coaching (4.17%). These
investigation of CARA (2010). This
two forms of learning are most often
shows that 81% of the respondents
referred to as not applicable. This
believe social media offers valuable
statement
is
learning opportunities for employees.
compare
the
82% of the employees uses social
investigation of CARA (2010). This
media to promote the development
research
of professional skills (CARA, 2010). Our
mentoring and coaching 61% of
survey shows that only half of the
workers believe that this is a good
employees is convinced of the value
approach for informal learning. In this
of social media as a tool to develop
investigation
knowledge. In terms of gender and
mentoring
age
second
compare
there
difference
this
is
no
found
with
meaningful
the
surprising
results
showed
of
and
and
first
when
we
with
the
that
both
CARA
coaching
third
place.
place.
by
(2010)
get
a
When
the
focussing on gender, we see that
different groups. This is contrary to
most men find mentoring (8.42%) the
the results of the Learning Indicator:
least applicable and most women
resulting
is
the receiving of feedback (6.58%).
especially popular with the younger
Also in terms of age there are some
generation and that they use this
differences in answers.
that
between
in
social
media
most frequently to stay up-to-date
(Kluwer, 2010;CAA, 2010).
49
Of
the
majority
minus
finds
25-year-olds,
the
50% of the employees indicate that
autonomy
(34.38%)
the company expects to be able to
(33.33%)
and
search for solutions in a creative way.
most
36.6% of respondents reported that
participation
cooperative
(33.33%)
applicable.
the
Mentoring3.03%)
will
solve
problems
communication (3.03%) is the least
systematic
way.
5,2%
applicable according to the young
problems are not being solved and
generation. The 50- to 60-year-olds
8,1% indicates that problems are
find
most
solved in another way, such as via a
Participation
mix of systematic and innovative
communication
applicable
(9.68%)
(37.5%).
and
the
receiving
and
they
in
says
a
that
feedback
methods. These results prove that the
(9.38%) is the least applicable. There
„appreciative approach‟ is dominant
is little research available about
according to half of the respondents.
immaterial
practice.
Which approach is most appropriate
Therefore we cannot compare our
depends on the type of problem, but
results relative to other practice-
in
oriented research.
approach‟ leads to greater learning
resources
in
If we look at business size, we see
that
small
companies
think
cooperation is the most appropriate
(29,73%). The big companies choose
autonomy
(35.42%)
as
the
most
appropriate. Most small businesses
any
case
the
„appreciative
potential (Kyndt & Raes, n.d.). We
can conclude that the majority of
respondents gets the chance to
participate in decision making and
to look for creative solutions, which is
a stimulator of the learning process.
find mentoring the least applicable
When asked if informal learning is
(8.11%)
measured in the organisation, 35,09%
and
big
participation
companies
(4.12%)
and
cooperative (4.08%).
replies
that
this
is
definitely
not
applicable and 8,65% indicates that
it is weakly applicable. On the other
In
addition,
the
way
in
which
hand, 4.09% says that measuring
organisations deal with problems has
informal
an influence on the informal learning.
applicable.
learning
is
certainly
50
The
group
responding
that
the
Looking at age, none of the 21-to 25-
measurement of informal learning is
year-olds
well applicable, is 14,62%. In addition,
measurement of informal learning is
17.54% says that it is applicable. This is
certainly applicable. At the 50-to 60-
in line with the research conducted
year-olds, 5.71% believes that it is
by Kluwer (2013). This research shows
certainly applicable. On the basis of
that very few HR managers measure
this results we can conclude that the
the impact of a training at the team-
older
and business results. Concerning this
number is also very low, is more
research,
aware
employees
don‟t
indicate
generation,
of
the
that
although
measurement
the
the
of
experience that their organisation
informal learning in the workplace.
controls if what has been learned, is
Little to no research on this subject is
being applied and if there is a result
available. It is because of the lack of
after a training. This is reflected in our
research on this theme that this
results.
project was started.
Furthermore, we can make some
The
interesting comparisons on the basis
measurement of informal learning is
of the answers to this question. In the
followed by a short question which is
women's
part
(36,11%)
answers,
responds
the
majority
of
the
about
previous
one.
the
This
the
question examines the ways in which
measurement of informal learning is
informal learning is measured. The
weakly
most
applicable
that
question
within
their
common
example
is
organisation. Among the men, the
evaluation. One of the answers is the
majority (38,38%) replies that it is
following
absolutely not happening. Despite
measurement
the results mentioned above, 64,09%
through the employee evaluation
of all respondents indicates that
process where scores are given in
learning analytics are being used,
function of the achievement of job
whether or not in minimum level.
related and specific goals.
one:
"The
comes
only
indirectly
51
“This
includes
the
we are in a break time like lunch,
acquirement of knowledge required
coffee break etc. We talk and
to
in
advice about our strengths and
function
weaknesses in these times. But there
perform
accordance
indirectly
the
function
with
the
description.”
is
Baert et al. (2008) cite there are
certain
immaterial
resources,
provided by the organisation, which
can increase the effect of informal
learning.
Kyndt
and
indicate
evaluation
Raes
as
(n.d.)
learning
condition or immaterial resource that
affects
informal
workplace.
learning
In
the
in
the
literature,
evaluation is seen as a learning
condition which has an effect on
informal learning, while in practice it
is seen as a tool to measure the
effects of informal learning. Other
answers
to
the
question
are:
performance appraisals, handing out
awards
for
the
persons
who
contribute the most to innovation,
the number of publications in peerreviewed
scientific
conversation
to
journals,
a
appreciate
performances, surveys, (qualification)
tests and a separate database for
skills. Another answer that stands out
no
systematic
evaluation
of
informal learning. In short, informal
learnings
are
measured
in
an
informal way”. We can link this
reaction
to
the
investigation
of
Frietman et al. (2010) who say that
the
management
of
informal
learning is limited to the creation of a
correct and challenging context to
learn. They emphasise that this is a
result of the fact that, despite the
„control‟,
the
informal
nature
of
learning has to be preserved.
Next
there
is
probed
infrastructure
of
the
to
the
organisation.
63,16% of the respondents finds that
the infrastructure of the company
offers
sufficient
opportunities
for
informal learning as well as for the
development of the employees. Both
for gender as for age there are no
remarkable differences in the given
responses. In each category the
majority indicates „sufficient‟.
is; “We discuss on something about
our goals and results of work when
52
As
mentioned
above
there
are
The
dominant
view
in
the
according to Baert et al. (2008)
organisation about learning is also
different
conditions
affect
one of the factors that can affect
informal
learning
the
the informal learning. De Cremer
that
and
development of the employees. The
(2008),
infrastructure of the organisation can
Marsick & Watkins (2001) argue there
influence
are
these
conditions;
the
Edmondson
(2008)
different
and
approaches
personal characteristics, the positive
organisations
learning climate, the L&D-policy and
stronger the faith of the organisation
the
Also
in the interest of learning, the more
Frietman et al. (2010) confirm this:
employees are stimulated to learn.
according
must
When the emphasis is rather on
address the context of learning. This
production, usually the presence of
can be done on the basis of certain
informal learning will be lower. 42.69%
structures and systems, such as time
of respondents indicate 'learning in
to engage with eachother, spaces
the organisation should be interesting
for
both for the individual employee and
learning
to
informal
infrastructure.
them,
one
consultation
and
can
the
notice that there is still some work to
dominant
existing
only
organisation. We didn‟t find any
22,81% of the respondents find that
important differences in the results of
the infrastructure of their organisation
this question in terms of age, sex or
offers many opportunities for informal
business size. This means that in
learning.
practice the majority of organisations
But
since
14,04%
of
our
vision
within
the
the
own
the company offers no opportunities
between purely the importance of
for
learning and the profitable function.
development.
and
The
last
a
as
are
learning
for
'
respondents find that the structure of
informal
looking
itself
The
proximity of groups. In practice we
infrastructures,
organisation
adopt.
component
compromise
which
can
contribute to informal learning is the
organisation of training activities in
the organisation.
53
91.8% of the respondents indicate this
This because of the complementarity
happens on frequent or annual basis
of the two forms of learning. Informal
or in necessary cases within the
learning can be seen as a support of
organisation. In general, 57,46% of
the
the respondents indicate there are
reinforce the effect. In practice, we
training activities being organised on
see that the majority of respondents
a
pay attention to the organisation of
regular
basis.
One
of
the
formal
learning
and
respondents says: “Yes frequently in
learning
team meetings, plus in so called
understand its importance. There is
open access (open to all employees)
only a small minority who doesn‟t. In
courses and trainings on very diverse
the
subjects”. Only 3.06% of respondents
respondents
says there are no training activities
formal
being organised. The majority of
organised.
respondents
an
however, 6,9% replies that it doesn‟t
answer themselves, say that the
belong to the activities of their
training activities are organised on
organisation.
who
formulated
request. This is in function of career
development and the needs that
arise in a particular job. One of the
respondents says: “Employees can
propose learning activities, courses,
etc. anytime; most of them are
granted”.
What
also
comes
up
several times, is that there is a
Training
which
&
Development
workers
are
free
budget
to
use.
Marsick and Watkins (2001) cite it is
wrong to think that organisations just
have to bet on informal learning or
opportunities
may
men's
race,
100%
indicate
training
and
of
the
there
are
activities
Among
the
being
women,
Research shows conflicting results
concerning the business size and
investment in formal training. Based
on the Learning Indicator we would
expect
more
small
in
organisations
training
than
invest
large
companies do (Kluwer, 2013). Other
research shows that large companies
spend most time and money in
formal
training,
while
small
companies bet on informal learning
(Van Klaveren, 2008).
just on formal learning.
54
In our survey all of the employees of
3. Determining overarching
small organisations indicated there is
themes
training being organised. In large
4. Revisiting themes
companies
5. Defining and naming the
this
is
96,9%
of
the
respondents. On the basis of these
themes
findings we can conclude that both
6. Linking and comparing the
large and small companies invest as
different interviews resulting in
much in formal training, as it is a small
a final report.
difference.
4.2
In addition to the general information
Interviews
about
The qualitative research, consisting of
interviews
with
HR
staff,
was
encoded on the basis of thematic
analysis. Based on this method we
can detect patterns, themes and
core
concepts
possible
to
descriptions
which
analyse
and
makes
this.
experiences
it
The
of
respondents are housed in a theme
which makes it easier to compare
the answers. This analysis consists of
six steps:
1. The collection of the data
2. Generating initial codes
the
respondent
and
organisation, of which the data are
described above, we also encrypted
other
themes.
overarching
distinguish
The
themes
are
remaining
that
business
we
culture,
company structure, formal learning,
informal learning and finally learning
analytics of informal learning. These
themes
that
are
analysed
per
interview are 'theory driven' or 'data
driven'. In the attachment you will
find a schematic representation of
the answers given in the interviews.
The findings are interpreted below.
55
Table 3. Codes and themes
4.2.1 Organisational culture
The
organisation
culture
For example, all the interviews show
of
an
organisation is a theme that both the
interviewees and the theory consider
as very important. Research shows
five
components
the
concerning
corporate
culture:
communication, collaboration, vision
of
learning,
motivation.
problems
and
that HR employees join in the vision
of
Kyndt
en
recognise
that
essential
Raes
(n.d.)
and
communication
in
a
Communication
is
is
company.
an
important
condition of the informal learning of
employees (Kyndt & Raes, n.d.). Also
Marsick & Volpe (1999) agree that a
good corporate culture is colored by
an effective communication system.
In nine out of ten interviews there is
also indicated that communication
has a large share in the company
and
that
there
is
mutual
communication.
56
The
interviews
show
that
Two HR employees appeared to
performance
appraisals
are
organise this kind of performance
organised
for
mutual
appraisals in their company. They
communication. These are usually
think this method of communication
described
is very effective for organising mutual
as
conversation
a
two-directional
between
employees
communication.
Only
one
and management in which one can
interviewee indicates that there exists
speak
and
a gap between what is persued and
is
the reality. "One-way traffic comes
important that both of them during
shows up way too much", is what
this conversation are placed on an
he/she says.
about
difficulties
experiences
while
working.
It
equal level so that there can be
mutual feedback and one should be
Seven out of ten interviewees literally
able to be critical. The respondents
mention
often didn‟t agree whether this type
communication'.
of conversation leads to a more
according to Frietman et al. (2010) a
formal or more informal direction. We
non-threatening
can organise these moments as a
lowers
formalisation
opportunities
between
to
the
the
of
This
'open
creates,
atmosphere
barriers
so
take
place
that
informal
that
provides
learning
informal
learning
However, it should be listed here that
Besides,
'open communication' is a broad
individuals.
will
presence
performance appraisals can provide
term
a good transparency between the
interpretations. The fact that „open
various positions in the company as
communication‟ isn‟t the same for
well as create a condition that
one HR as for the other, should be
makes conversation possible. The
taking in consideration when looking
setup
at
of
conditions
a
good
can
climate
greatly
and
thus,
these
has
results.
many
faster.
Still
different
this
„open
promote
communication' gets form by using
informal learning and increase its
different communication channels,
effectiveness (Baert et al., 2008).
which, according to the majority of
HR staff are used in their company.
57
According to numerous research,
Cooperation,
such as the one by Frietman et al.
according to Frietman et al. (2010) a
(2010), Kyndt en Raes (n.d.) and
psychologically
Duerings (2011) cooperation is an
gets according to this qualitative
influencing
research
factor
for
informal
which
safe
partly
creates
environment,
form
within
learning. It is remarkable that all
companies. In addition, cooperation
employees say that cooperation is
does not only take place within the
present
company
in
their
company.
The
differences between them lie in the
intensity
of
the
collaboration
itself
but
also
in
the
broader context.
cooperation,
across
different
During the interviews, four out of ten
departments or within the same
companies
department and the extent to which
importance
the nature of the task requires to
indicated
work in a team. Two interviewees
company. Networking is seen as both
state
expanding
there
is
little
cooperation.
insisted
of
they
the
on
the
networking
and
use
their
own
it
in
network
of
Further, two HR managers mention
contacts by personal interactions
that there is cooperation between
with others as expanding the network
different departments and at two
on social media. According to a
organisations
respondent to be successful it is
cooperation
there‟s
within
only
the
same
necessary
that
on
people
both
use
their
internal
and
department.
Within
the
different
network
organisations
there
are
different
external level. People should build a
forms of cooperation that go from
good
very
company with the employees but
extended
to
rather limited.
relationship
also
the nature of the task and job
important to create and maintain
committed them to work together to
good contacts.
the
task
to
a
other
companies
the
Three interviewees expressed that
bring
to
within
it
is
successful
conclusion.
58
In order to acquire a good internal
In addition, someone indicated that
networking program, the company
cooperation takes place but the
of one of the respondents uses the
executives don‟t always have a clear
social networksite Yammer. In this
view on it. Finally, two interviewees
way the employees can come and
stressed the fact that cooperation
remain into contact with each other.
can be both positive and negative.
The research of CARA (2012) shows
These
that 81% of workers acknowledge
research.
questions
ask
for
further
Cremer
(2008),
the importance of social media at
work and that as a result, 82% are
Research
using these networks. This would be,
Edmondson (2008) & Watkins and
according to the research positive
Marsick (2001), indicate that the
for the professional development.
organisation culture is determined by
Networking
can
of
de
also
be
the vision on learning. Research
analytics
in
shows that if companies recognise
companies, such as social network
the importance of learning and
analytics which we can use to
succeed to create and manage a
measure
interaction
consensus, employees will be more
between people (Cooper, 2012).
open for learning (Tannenbaum et
Despite all the companies working
al., 2009). From the interviews can be
together
inferred
advantageous
to
the
direct
there
reservations
are
still
formulated
interviewees.
One
HR
some
by
that
the
majority
of
the
companies focusses on production.
employee
According to Edmonson (2008) this
mentions that knowledge today still
production
means power and this often puts
informal learning. Although initially a
borders
production-oriented
on
the
collaboration
orientation
suppressed
and
learning-
between colleagues. This may also
oriented attitude are opposites, there
mean
are
a
learning.
restriction
for
informal
many
production-oriented
companies that also focus on a
stimulating learning climate.
59
Several times the responses out of
The
the interviews show that learning
problems systematically but leads to
leads
less
to
increased
production.
'gap-approach'
long-term
will
solve
effect.
Therefore learning and production
appreciative
may not actually be seen separately.
an innovative way of dealing with
One
problems which will in the long term,
interviewee
states
that
if
approach
The
learning would yield, there would be
render more.
no longer invested in it. In addition, it
interviewees affirm that they work in
is
an innovative way, keeping in mind
striking
indicate
that
their
six
respondents
ten
the situation and the stakeholders.
dominant view or that they have one
Yet there were three surveyed HR
but without the employees knowing
employees who experienced a limit
anything about it. Nevertheless, more
to this innovative approach. They
than
handle
importance
has
out of
no
half
company
Seven
comprises
acknowledge
of
informal
the
learning,
the
innovative
solution
method for small problems but state
which Tannenbaum et al. (2009)
that
names 'strategic vision'. The 'strategic
must be tackled systematically and
vision' is a situational factor of the
according to the rules. This leads to
corporate culture that will ensure
the
that
more
definitely try to use an „appreciative
receptive for informal learning. It can
approach‟ by solving problems. Still,
therefore be concluded that the
there are limits that are imposed
absence of a dominant view not
towards this innovative approach
immediately has an influence on
from the top of the companies. These
whether or not to recognise and
limits may also mean a limit to
encourage informal learning.
informal learning. If you want to be
Dealing with problems is based on
able to implement this transcend
the research of Kyndt en Raes (n.d.),
innovative
who argue that problems or conflicts
structure of the company needs to
can be solved in two ways.
be adjusted.
employees
will
be
large,
overarching
conclusion
that
approach,
problems
companies
the
entire
60
In three out of ten interviews the term
Autonomy in the workplace can be
motivation
such a motivating factor. Two of the
for
informal
learning
seemed very important. According
ten
to some of the respondents attitude
autonomy can be an advantage to
and
the
motivation
are
essential
interviews
motivation
showed
for
that
learning.
This
components in order to qualify for
autonomy can take form in flexible
the job. Moreover, they also stated
work hours or the chance to work at
that employees that are unwilling to
home. Autonomy in the execution of
invest in learning are unable to do
the
their job properly. Motivation was
workers themselves will go looking for
according to the respondents very
solutions which leads to learning of
important to be productive. This
others. Further , autonomy provides
motivation would make the workers
time and space to reflect on the
more incentive to informal learning
work process and experimentation
and informal learning moments more
(Van Ruysseveldt & Van Dijk, 2012).
work
can
also
ensure
that
effective. Motivation can also ensure
that workers will contribute faster in
conversation with others to share
knowledge with each other. In the
text of Tannenbaum et al. (2009)
there is argued that this motivation in
various studies is related to training,
effectiveness
and
learning.
Increased motivation among
the
staff of an organisation, allows for
more intent to learn, which in turn
contributes to greater effectiveness.
It
is,
of
course,
also
to
the
management team to stir up the
motivation
of
the
employees
to
4.2.2 Organisational structure
Research
shows
that
business
structure
following
important
the
theme
contains
the
components:
infrastructure and the presence of a
L&D
department
and
HR
department.
Infrastructure is cited in a number of
studies as very important for the
promotion of the informal learning
atmosphere.
learn.
61
For instance, in the investigations of
In connection with open spaces and
Baert et al. (2008), Frietman et al.
stimulating workplace infrastructure,
(2010) and Tannenbaum et al. (2009)
eight out of ten respondents admit
this element is cited. It is one of the
that
conditions
this
is
present
in
their
that
influences
the
organisation. One person mentions
learning
process
and
that it is not present and another
determines to what extent there is
respondent says that this is essential
learned. According to Frietman et al.
in a company but that there is too
(2010) the learning infrastructure is
little
permeated with the organisational
examples that are most frequently
context. Changes that can be made
cited are: joint open offices, kitchens
in the context of the work, steer
and relaxation areas where people
learning while retaining the informal
can sit comfortably. Very often, the
nature.
workers
informal
There
stimulating
significantly
is
stated
working
that
a
environment
increases
attention
in
paid
the
to
this.
companies
The
are
encouraged to have lunch together,
the
this can be in the form of company
participation in training. This control
restaurants, kitchens or some kind of
means that there is a right and
cafeteria where everyone can go
challenging
learn.
during intermission. The phenomenon
Examples here are: time to get into
of open space, open offices, open
dialogue and spaces for informal
spaces is also very popular. Half of
consultation. It says that when there
the respondents indicate the use of
are certain structures and systems
open
available, informal learning will be
communication. Seven respondents
reinforced by workers indirectly. Baert
mention there are informal spaces or
et al. (2008) and Tannenbaum et al.
open
(2009) also give some examples:
employees can stay during breaks
open office, networking, relaxation
and continue the conversation.
context
to
offices
spaces
to
encourage
present
where
areas…
62
When we look at the presence of an
Related
L&D department it is striking that there
activities,
are very many different names of it:
respondents refer to the 70-20-10
Training & Development, Talent &
model of Charles Jennings when
Development,
asked
Research
&
to
the
three
whether
formal
out
training
of
ten
there are formal
Development or internal University.
training activities being organised
Although there is a a variety of
within the organisation. The content
denominations, there is a focus on
of this model is already covered in
the
the
same
development
concepts:
and
learning,
expansion
theoretical
framework.
It
is
of
important that one keeps in mind
knowledge, skills and competences.
that there is no certainty about the
Often this section is part of the HR
origin of the model and that there is
department. Just over half of the
a lack of empirical evidence to
respondents indicates that there is a
support this model. One respondent
HR department in the company.
answers that the practical field is
These departments can be big with
aware of this; "Charles Jennings is a
many employees, for example 34,
person you definitely need to look
but can also be very limited where
up. One of his starting points is 70-20-
there are for example only two staff
10, he brought this old concept back
members employed.
in the attention in business circles,
although it has not been scientifically
4.2.3 Formal learning
proven." Thereafter seven out of ten
training
organisations turn out to invest in
activities, courses, on the job training
formal learning activities but agree
and
that informal learning is encouraged
The
components
meetings,
formal
turn
out
to
be
important to the theme of formal
by this at the same time.
learning.
63
This shows that the ideas of the
The best is that there are formal
majority
respondents
trainings
correspond to findings in theory: that
whereby
on
learning
strengthen
informal
Watkins, 2001).
of
one
the
hand,
opportunities
formal
promote
within
an
organisation,
informal
its
learning
effect
will
(Marsick
&
learning and on the other hand that
informal
learning
contributes
greater
effectiveness
of
to
formal
However, when we look at the
organisation
of
courses
100%
of
training (Frietman et al., 2010). Of the
respondents replied that this applies
remaining
two
to their business. This means that one
respondents who did invest in formal
respondent, who cited earlier that
training
not
they do not invest in formal training
associate this with the informal side
activities, underestimates the synergy
of learning. one out of the ten
between
respondents said not to invest in
learning within the organisation. The
formal learning for the sake of minor
majority of respondents says that
impact and the number of resources
courses are organised for meeting
that it takes away. This respondent is
certain (legal) curricula or to achieve
proving to be a fervent supporter of
basic competencies.
three,
there
activities,
but
are
does
formal
and
informal
the 70-20-10 model previously cited.
The
visions
of
respondents
on
the
last
formal
three
training
On-the-job training has not been
reported
by
two
the
respondents.
of view, the least good. This is
respondents one contributor states
because
that they have tried out ' ob-rotation'
relationship
is
reciprocal
formal
eight
and
but that it didn't work well for them.
informal learning, making it a wrong
The remaining seven respondents
idea
prove all to be doing it and are
that
between
a
the
ten
activities are, from the literature point
there
Of
of
organisations
have
to
choose between one of these two
experiencing positive feelings.
forms of learning.
64
There are several examples of ' on-
For the majority, the stimulation of the
the-job training' cited that are being
HR
used in practice: job-rotation, job-
possibility to get in touch with each
coaching, performance coaching,
other. For example, some companies
development-coaching,
career
set up instances such as conference
coaching, outplacement coaching
rooms or meetings where employees
and learning-on-the-job. It has been
can
clear that in practice there are many
discussions. Others use social media
variations on training activities that
platforms
are organised within the company
together. We can clearly see the link
itself.
with the importance of the corporate
employee
is
gather
and
to
structure
guided
engage
bring
in
by
the
in
employees
enabling
informal
Eight out of ten respondents confirm
learning (Baert et al., 2008). One of
that they organise meetings and
the respondents indicates they are
consultation within the company.
working with mentorship programs.
One
New
speaks
both
about
official
employees
are
temporarily
meetings and about spontaneous
coached by an employee who has
consultation. In some organisations it
been active in the organisation for
happens weekly, in others monthly
several
and in still others only two times a
ensures a transfer of information as
year.
well as the opportunity to learn from
each
4.2.4 Informal learning
years.
other.
This
This
cooperation
way,
new
gets
the
about
the
employee
not
The subject informal learning involves
opportunity
to
both
HR
company, but also confronts his
employee in the company and their
coach with a new point of view. The
critical
learning
ability to provide feedback to each
process. Nine out of ten respondents
other is very important for a learning
indicate the company made serious
environment.
the
stimulation
attitude
to
of
this
an
only
the
learn
efforts as to stimulate its employees.
65
Practices
such
as
mentorship,
They
believe
managing
informal
informal activities and meetings can
learning is wrong since, according to
promote this, which will boost the
them, this involves transforming the
informal
informal aspect into a formal one.
learning
process
(Tannenbaum et al., 2009).
Therefore,
they
believe
it‟s
to
regulate
the
contradictory
Nevertheless, there are some critical
informal, for this should only be ruled
comments to be made with regard
by implicit and unplanned affairs.
to informal learning. First, four out of
Research shows that informal and
ten
their
formal learning are to be placed on
company makes use of the 70/20/10
a continuum. The criterion to indicate
model. Three of them report a critical
their place on the continuum is
attitude
is
formalisation (Kyndt & Raes, n.d.). If
not
we want to stimulate and manage
scientifically substantiated. Despite
informal learning, it is no longer
this criticism, they still think it is an
possible
important principle because it has
„informal‟
made clear that learning involves
implies a shift to formal learning.
more than sole lecturing. This is in line
Further, these three respondents also
with what we found in literature.
believe the informal learning culture
There, it is also argued that the
is
model – apart from its limitations –
Therefore, they don‟t agree with
has been very influential because it
regulating
made
opportunities.
respondents
indicate
regarding
necessary
because
people
importance
of
this
model
it
aware
informal
is
of
the
to
spoiled
define
this
learning.
by
this
as
Hence,
pure
this
formalisation.
informal
learning
learning
(Kajewski & Madsen, 2012). A second
Furthermore, the interviews proved
critical remark is related to the
the
measurement of informal learning.
learning in the workplace is very
Three out of ten respondents are
important.
respondents
believe
informal
indecisive when trying to measure
and stimulate informal learning.
66
Even though most companies show
people
great interest, most of the learning
knowledge in formal networks, they
budget is still being invested in formal
acquire 20% due to feedback and
training.
two
examples and 70% as a result of
respondents, this might be explained
informal moments (Mattox, 2012).
by the fact that most organisations
According to this respondent, the
answer to audits, extern parties that
investment
monitor the organisation. Companies
essential
are
can't
According
required
to
employees
to
prove
have
knowledge
by
certifications
in
10%
formal
because
ensure
the
of
their
training
otherwise
occurrence
is
you
of
acquired
informal learning moments. This is a
certain
clear-cut example of the fact that
employees
formal and informal learning are
showing
the
their
obtain
obtained. These competences can
complementary.
also be acquired through informal
learning
learning, however, since the informal
informal learning, and vice versa.
aspect
Moreover,
informal
learning moments are needed in
opportunities
also
order to validate that knowledge.
effectiveness
of
Further,
informal
Taking the equality of both forms of
learning is not tangible, also has
learning into account, it seems rather
another
odd that organisations invest more in
is
not
the
tangible,
fact
that
formal
consequence.
Many
organisations know informal learning
can
be
promoted
by
After
opportunities
all,
formal
encourage
learning
stimulate
formal
the
training.
formal training.
creating
enjoyable spaces. Of course, this
Finally, one contributor had a very
requires
and,
specific view on informal learning. He
because there are no clear effects of
believes informal learning is only
the informal learning, organisations
meant
prefer to invest their money in formal
employees, also called the young
training sessions. One respondent has
potentials.
a
lot
of
money
for
the
top
layer
of
another explanation. In his company,
the 70-10-10 principle is being used:
67
In this perspective, informal learning
Six out of ten respondents indicated
is not expected of everyone but only
that they actively use social media to
of the top 10 to 15%. Management
refine the knowledge of employees.
will
informal
The examples they cite are Twitter,
learning opportunities of these young
Facebook, a talkingbox via Intranet,
potentials
Yammer,
then
stimulate
because
the
this
is
an
Wiki,
Lynk
elementary step in preparing them,
communication
in making them adapt to and feel at
website. Five respondents out of
home in the company. In scientific
these six, believe that social media is
literature
this
socialisation.
forums
and
on
the
is
called
work
quite well established in the business
This
defines
their
because
it is
critical
to
lifelong
learning to fit in with the organisation
learning. One respondent indicated
by familiarising with the culture of the
that the implementation of social
organisation (Koot & den Dekker,
media
1999).
development.
4.2.5 Learning analytics for informal
informal learning
The last topic is learning analytics for
informal learning. This includes social
media, web analytics and feedback
and evaluation.
In the literature, social media is
regularly referred to as an existing
tool to bring informal learning on the
is
fairly
The
new
but
in
fact
that
an
employee has the opportunity to
exchange knowledge through many
different media and has the ability to
surf from site to site, is making it an
extremely difficult task to measure
the effect of this form of learning
(Mattox, 2010). Nevertheless, it is
possible to get a view on them by
making use of web analytics, and
social network analysis.
map. One of the forms of informal
learning is virtual knowledge sharing.
This means that you can acquire new
knowledge by surfing on websites
and knowledge sharing on social
networking sites (Mattox, 2012).
68
Web analytics is the data collection
difficult and actual issue which is
about the activity on the web. „Web
connected with web analytics. After
analytics‟ is divided into „on-site‟ and
all, there are still a lot of people who
„off-site‟, depending on whether the
share this opinion and consider this
data is about activity on your own
method as unethical (Cooper, 2012).
website or about activity occurring
elsewhere on the web that is about
Feedback
your products and services (Cooper,
important
2012, p. 6). Besides web analytics
surveyed. Six out of ten respondents
there is also social network analysis.
indicate that this is important within
“Social network analysis is concerned
the company. They report that this
with
occurs
the
people,
relationships
often
between
captured
in
their
and
evaluation
processes
that
between
reciprocally
but
were
employees
also
between
communication networks but also in
employees
other forms of interaction such as
feedback and evaluation one aimes
trading" (Cooper, p. 10). Three of the
to gain insight into the development
ten respondents say that they are
of the employees. One looks where
using
their
employees are good at and where
company. They find this an effective
they can evolve. Three of the six
way to gain insight into informal
respondents
are
learning. In addition, they show that
encourage
social
this makes it possible to find out
learning. The respondents do not
which
which
report is that this feedback and
respondents
evaluation is also useful to verify
report that web analytics and/or
whether employees the right learning
social network analysis isn‟t used in
from experiences, this is what we
their business. Four of them also state
found in research of Tannenbaum et
that they have their doubts about
al.
web analytics. They think this violates
indicated
the privacy of the employees and
evaluation are also used to capture
refuse to use it. This is indeed a
the effects of informal learning.
web
analytics
employees
information.
Seven
in
possess
(2009).
and
are
managers.
doing
and
Three
that
that
With
to
informal
respondents
feedback
and
69
One
respondent
believes
that
can‟t
be
evaluation and feedback. Here is the
"measured" by using a measuring
manager responsible: it is up to the
tool. Instead of measuring, informal
supervisor to assess the employees
learning is something you have to
evolve on an annual basis.
feel.
learning
Besides the search for a specific
contains often certain philosophies
instrument to assess informal learning,
and attitudes that employees must
it is according to these respondents
assimilate. It is up to the manager to
also a matter of good feedback and
sense and determine whether the
evaluation to gain insight into this
employee
implicit learning process.
informal
learning
After
all,
has
Informal
absorbed
these
proces
is
things. Furthermore, he indicates that
Based
there
selected
is
frequent
companies
of
use
in
evaluations
many
primarily
on
a
matter
of
the
synthesis
of
the
L&D
reports,
several
and
dominant and reoccurring themes
feedback to gain insight into the
within Europe were identified in the
informal knowledge. By the use of
Learning Matrix. These findings are
self-evaluations
should
presented in this section. A thematic
reflect on their own learning. This
overview of the Learning Categories
evaluation is then discussed several
and
times a year with the management
Analytics
line. They try to follow the proces of
findings
informal learning and to determine
informal learning. Then the top three
whether there is progress or not. The
Learning Categories are presented
other two respondents also believe
and analyzed.
employees
the
associated
is
given,
regarding
Learning
followed
formal
by
and
that following the informal learning
70
Chapter 5: Conclusion
71
5 Conclusion
We have compared these sources
At the start of this research we
formulated
on
the
basis
of
an
exploratory study four key questions,
for which we have tried to find an
answer
in
the
investigation.
course
of
the
For this purpose we
have carried out a more extensive
literature review, a survey and semistructured interviews. Listed below
are the different responses that we
against the practice to determine to
what extent these are applicable
and accessible in companies. We
concluded, on the basis of the
literature study and the research
carried out, that no clear-cut answer
to this question is possible. This is
because informal learning includes a
broad spectrum of activities. Below
we draw some relevant examples.
have obtained from our research.
Several factors that are needed for
5.1
What are the different ways in
informal
which informal learning can
about our questionnaire. As it turned
take place?
out, 88,95% of respondents find that
there
To clarify the notion of informal
learning
as
comprehensive
as
possible, we first focused on theory
driven information about informal
learning. The literature showed that
both material and immaterial sources
play a role in informal learning. Some
instances
of
these
sources
are
learning
enough
were
brought
material
and
immaterial resources present in their
company in order to support informal
learning. The most commonly used
material sources are ICT resources.
However,
only
50%
of
the
respondents see social media as an
important tool of informal learning.
are
communication, participation and
collaboration within the company.
72
This is in contrast to the research of
The interviews also indicate multiple
CARA (2010) which shows that 81% of
forms
workers
showed
acknowledge
the
of
informal
learning.
that
This
especially
importance of social media at work
communication
and that as a result, 82% are using
important
these networks. In addition, there are
interviewees boost communication in
also
their organisation to better organise
some
defined.
The
component
autonomy
receive
immaterial
at
remarkable
most
is
the
that
important
degree
the
their
sources
component.
transfer
of
as
The
an
ten
information.
An
important discovery is that mutual
employees
communication seldom takes place.
However,
seven
out
of
ten
interviewees reinforced the presence
youngest generation of employees
of 'open communication‟. Despite
don't see communication as the
the fact that this is a high number,
main
we must take into account the
while
that
A
the
medium,
is
seen
of
organisation.
finding
the
is
the
older
generation does. On the other hand,
ambiguity
of
participation is very popular among
Participation and collaboration, as
the youngest groups, while for older
ways of informal learning, rely heavily
employees it isn‟t. These findings
on job-characteristics and corporate
show that age indeed plays a role in
structure. In some organisations there
informal learning in the workplace.
is
Generally both men (37,63%) as
departments. in other companies this
women (26,76%) place autonomy in
can
the first place. Mentoring is the
department.
penultimate place (7.19%) followed
difference
by coaching, in last place (4.17%).
cooperation,
These two forms of learning are most
indicate to organise this way of
often referred to as not applicable.
informal learning.
cooperation
be
this
concept.
between
limited
to
Despite
in
all
the
HR
different
a
single
there‟s
a
level
of
employees
This is a surprising finding if we
compare
the
results
with
the
investigation of CARA (2010).
73
Cooperation, which according to
Nevertheless, 63,16% states that the
Frietman et al. (2010) creates a
infrastructure
psychologically safe environment, is
opportunities for informal learning
according to this qualitative research
while only 14.04% of our respondents
partly
companies
find
one
HR
company offers no opportunities for
employee mentions that knowledge
informal learning and development.
today still means power and this
Finally, the importance of formal
often
the
training should not be overlooked.
collaboration between colleagues.
Seven out of ten organisations invest
In addition, the infrastructure of the
in formal learning but at the same
company‟s infrastructure can also
time they affirm that it boosts the
aid the former and other ways of
informal learning. This shows that the
stimulating
ideas
formed
themself.
within
However,
puts
borders
on
informal learning. Most
companies
have
of
the
sufficient
structure
the
majority
of
of
the
our
contacted
respondents are consistent with what
were explicitly aware of this and take
is found in theory: that both formal
care
open
learning promotes informal learning,
infrastructure in their organisation.
and on the other hand that informal
This involved mainly open desks and
learning
informal areas such as a coffee
effectiveness
corner.
(Frietman et al., 2010). This is because
to
we
that
offers
create
From
including
the
a
the
more
questionnaire,
experience
of
contributes
of
to
greater
formal
training
there is a reciprocal relationship
employees in companies, it turns out
between
that there is still work to the existing
learning, making it a wrong idea that
infrastructures. Only 22,81% of the
organisations must choose between
respondents
the
one of these two forms of learning.
infrastructure of their organisation
The synergy between formal and
offers many opportunities for informal
informal learning in companies is
learning.
therefore too often underestimated.
find
that
formal
and
informal
74
5.2
Our
Why do companies spend
seemingly so little attention to
informal learning?
research
has
shown
that
companies pay more attention to
informal learning than we would
expect from the literature review.
There are several benefits associated
with informal learning and for that
reason, which makes that there is a
lot of attention (table 1, p. 20). For
example, the questionnaire shows
that 93,03% of workers want to
stimulate informal learning.
Next to this conclusion, the interviews
also show that many companies
want to give this way of learning a
boost.
Even
though
literature
indicates that a production driven
attitude
stands
stimulating
in
front
attitude
for
of
a
informal
learning, we see something different
emerging
from
the
interviews
(Edmonsdon, 2008). The fact that
learning
production
leads
to
is
repeated
increased
in
the
Concerning the support, we notice
interviews several times. Therefore,
that 76,76% of the small companies
learning and production may not
and 76,93% of the big companies
actually be seen separately.
share the view that the organisation
gives sufficient support for informal
learning.
75
For example, a respondent said that
The solid, conservative structure that
a right attitude and motivation to
characterises
learn is necessary to be eligible to
makes
work for the company because the
informal learning difficult.
many
deploying
companies
and
measuring
employees who are more motivated,
are more encouraged for informal
A
learning.
informal
They
believe
that
cautionary
note
here
learning
is
is
that
gaining
employees who do not want to learn
popularity, but is not (yet) actively
at their job cannot perform well
supported by a lot of organisations.
enough on the job. It is true that
Although
production is still the main focus in
indicate to find informal learning
companies but this is more and more
important, the results show that only
often going hand in hand with
76,16% believes
informal learning.
support to do this. Despite the large
In
addition,
the
majority
of
respondents in the interviews says
that employees have the opportunity
to participate in the decision-making
93,03%
of
employees
there is
enough
amount of advantages, there are
also some drawbacks to informal
learning. These can be found in the
theoretical framework table 1 (p. 20).
process and to help in the search for
creative
solutions,
which
is
a
stimulator of the learning process. Yet
this
innovative
method
clashes
against the limits of the penetrated
structure which is often imposed.
76
5.3
Is
informal
learning
recommended by research?
The literature shows us that informal
learning is an effective form of
In addition, the interviews show that
learning. Its benefits, that emerge
four
from different studies, can be found
companiesrely
in the theoretical framework (Table 1,
model. Three of them report that this
p.20). The studies from our literature
model
show
the
critically since it is not scientifically
the
substantiated. Therefore, one should
learner
both
as
advantages
benefits
for
for
out
of
ten
on
should
be
interviewed
the
70-20-10
approached
organisation. It is the case that the
scientifically
literature is trying to highlight the
learning in order to support the
quality of education in all its aspects.
conclusion
Madsen,
conclude
investigate
70-20-10
2013).
(Kajewski
Finally,
that
informal
we
&
can
literature
recommends informal learning.
77
Is there a possibility to measure
the efficiency?
Only three out of ten interviewees
Just like the wide variety of opinions
for measuring informal learning. One
on this subject in the literature, the
of the ten respondents indicates that
answers of the respondents within our
measuring
informal
learning
research
contain
impossible,
since
his
opinions.
Only
5.4
a
range
4.09%
of
of
those
refer to evaluation as a method used
in
is
opinion
informal learning is about internalising
that
philosophies
measurement of informal learning
Furthermore,
within their organisation is certainly
respondents indicate that certain
applicable.
the
measuring methods such as web
complexity and the ignorance in
analytics is a violence on privacy.
practice
Seven respondents report that web
respondents
indicate
This
around
reflects
the
learning
and
four
out
ten
analytics
of the respondents who indicate that
analysis are not used in their business.
the
Both the literature and our practical
of
informal
research
applicable or applicable, indicate
informal learning is a very thorny
the following ways for the origin of
issue. There is no all-encompassing
informal
performance
method to measure the effects in a
appraisals, handing out awards for
quantitative way. From our practical
the persons who contribute the most
research it has become clear that
to
of
informal learning can be interpreted
peer-reviewed
in different ways. As a result, there is
innovation,
publications
the
in
number
a
appreciate,
measuring it, which everyone fills in
qualification
tests and a separate database for
variety
of
measuring
scientific journals, a conversation to
surveys,
wide
that
network
learning is certainly applicable, well
learning:
confirm
social
of
analytics for informal learning. 36.25%
measurement
and/or
attitudes.
methods
for
on his own way.
skills.
The method that is most referred to
by the respondents of the survey is
evaluation.
78
It should be taken into account that
informal learning directly, if it already
when measuring informal learning,
woud be possible, but to measure
this learningproces threatens to lose
the conditions of informal learning.
its
Thus, companies can better invest in
informal
character.
Informal
learning can thus become formal
stimulating
learning
learning conditions instead of the
processes
if
some
gets
measuring.
recommended
a
unconscious
focus
Therefore
not
to
while
it
the
(indirect)
informal
(direct) informal learningsproces.
is
measure
79
Chapter 6: Limitations
80
6 Limitations
Our
sample
included
212
Because of our limited work period
respondents, however we must be
and the complex data of informal
careful
learning, there are some limitations
answered all questions. Besides that,
associated with this study. The several
we didn‟t had the opportunity to find
restrictions can be divided into three
out from what nationality and sector
categories: the general limitations,
the respondents were. More diversity
the limitations associated with the
in our sample, possibly would have
questionnaire
led to different answers. After a
and
the
limitations
associated with the interviews.
because
not
everyone
reflection on the questionnaire, we
discovered
some
pitfalls
in
the
asked.
The
First of all, we had a limited period of
questions
time
the
added value gflossary, for example,
questionnaire and to carry out the
was to create consensus but instead
interviews. This is why the sample of
numerous
both questionnaires and interviews
this glossary . It possibly would have
are
been better if we had incorporated
in
less
order
to
varied
distribute
and
extensive.
that
were
respondents
overstriked
Furthermore, because of this lack of
the
time, we could not delve into some
questions.
interesting articles and perspectives.
Thirdly, there is also a restriction in the
What we consider as interesting and
interviews. Our sample is less varied
valuable for further investigation will
than hoped because of the lack of
be explained below in the section
time. The ten interviewees are all
'further research'.
from Belgium, notwithstanding that
definitions
into
the
various
some interviewees are part of an
Secondly, there are some limitations
international company. However, a
found
clearer
in
the
questionnaire
that
potentially affect the interpretation.
comparison
national
and
respondents
would
between
international
have
been
useful.
81
Chapter 7: Future Research
82
7
Future Research
As mentioned above, there are some
Hereby it is recommended for further
interesting results that we haven‟t
research
deepened out due to lack of time.
measurement of informal learning
For instance, there can be a more
within the companies. Thus, one can
varied
consider how these measurements
sample examined with a
better
distinction
between
to
examine
the
take place.
nationalities and sectors. This makes
a
more
informed
comparison
possible.
In general, it would be interesting to
further analyse our results with a view
to possible correlations. Because we
Several
respondents
the
focused on the four key questions of
interviews cited multiple forms of
our research there are many other
learning
correlations
and
from
coaching
such
as
who
haven‟t
been
technical learning and on the job
reviewed yet. In addition, our report
coaching, which we hadn‟t found
especially highlights the positive note
before in the literature. It is preferable
of informal learning. However both
to conduct further research to more
the literature as the interviews report
forms of learning and coaching and
some possible disadvantages and
this
borders of informal learning. Further
in
connection
with
informal
learning.
research
complete
Furthermore,
the
answers
of
the
questionnaire showed some methods
of
may
provide
picture
a
of
more
informal
learning, taking into account the
reality and capitalist borders.
the measurement of informal
learning, which are used in practice.
The
It is recommended to identify this
Jennings
measurement
to
both the research and interviews. The
consider the extent to which they are
scientific basis of this model is not yet
useful and effective.
really demonstrated.
strategies
and
70-20-10
model
appeared
of
Charles
frequently
in
83
Further research into this model is
We want to create a clearer picture
necessary in order to demonstrate
of informal learning with this study,
the accuracy.
nevertheless
it
remains
a
big
challenge to explore this complex
element. With this report we already
made a good foundation for further
research on the learning analytics of
informal
learning.
84
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