Drowning of the 2150 m reef off Hawaii: A casualty of global
meltwater pulse 1A?
Jody M. Webster 
 Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, California 95039, USA
David A. Clague 
Kristin Riker-Coleman 
 Department of Geological Sciences, University of Minnesota Duluth, Duluth, Minnesota 55812, USA

Christina Gallup
Juan C. Braga Departamento de Estratigrafı́a y Paleontologı́a, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
Donald Potts Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA
James G. Moore U.S. Geological Survey, MS 910, 345 Middlefield Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
Edward L. Winterer Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, USA
Charles K. Paull Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, California 95039, USA
ABSTRACT
We present evidence that the drowning of the 2150 m coral
reef around Hawaii was caused by rapid sea-level rise associated
with meltwater pulse 1A (MWP-1A) during the last deglaciation.
New U/Th and 14C accelerator mass spectrometry dates, combined
with reinterpretation of existing radiometric dates, constrain the
age of the coral reef to 15.2–14.7 ka (U/Th age), indicating that
reef growth persisted for 4.3 k.y. following the end of the Last
Glacial Maximum at 19 ka. The drowning age of the reef is roughly
synchronous with the onset of MWP-1A between 14.7 and 14.2 ka.
Dates from coralline algal material range from 14 to 10 cal ka
(calibrated radiocarbon age), 1–4 k.y. younger than the coral ages.
A paleoenvironmental reconstruction incorporating all available
radiometric dates, high-resolution bathymetry, dive observations,
and coralgal paleobathymetry data indicates a dramatic rise in sea
level around Hawaii ca. 14.7 ka. Paleowater depths over the reef
crest increased rapidly above a critical depth (30–40 m), drowning
the shallow reef-building Porites corals and causing a shift to deepwater coralline algal growth, preserved as a crust on the drowned
reef crest.
Keywords: Hawaii, coral reef drowning, deglaciation, meltwater pulse
1A.
INTRODUCTION
A well-developed series of submerged reefs is preserved around
the Island of Hawaii (Moore and Fornari, 1984). They developed in
response to rapid subsidence associated with the continued accumulation of volcanic material on the Hawaiian ridge and eustatic sea-level
fluctuations over the past 500 k.y. (Ludwig et al., 1991). Moore and
Fornari (1984) suggested that the reefs began forming during sea-level
falls leading to glacial periods, when the rate of sea-level change was
similar to the rate of land subsidence and stable shoreline conditions
prevailed. Each reef drowned during the subsequent deglaciations due
to the combined effects of rapid sea-level rise and continued subsidence
(Moore and Fornari, 1984; Moore and Campbell, 1987). Potentially,
the reef tops contain important information about the timing and paleoenvironmental conditions during different deglaciations.
The focus of this paper is the 2150 m submerged reef off Hawaii.
Moore and Fornari (1984) dated this reef as 13.3 14C ka (radiocarbon
age), indicating that it drowned during the last deglaciation. A major
advance in our understanding of climate dynamics is the recognition
that sea-level rise during the last deglaciation was not smooth and
continuous, but was characterized by at least two dramatic meltwater
pulse events, identified as meltwater pulse 1A (MWP-1A) (14.2–13.8
ka) and MWP-1B (11.5–11.1 ka), based on data from Barbados (Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al., 1990). Since the subsequent reanalysis of the
Barbados sea-level curve (Clark et al., 2002; Weaver et al., 2003) and
new results from the Sunda Shelf (Hanebuth et al., 2000), Argentine
Shelf (Guilderson et al., 2000), Huon Peninsula (Cutler et al., 2003),
and South China Sea (Kienast et al., 2003), debate has continued concerning the precise timing, amplitude, and rate of sea-level rise of
MWP-1A. The well-documented 14C plateau (Edwards et al., 1993)
and limited U/Th coral records during this interval have hampered
efforts to constrain this important climate event. Despite the controversy, MWP-1A is a real feature of the postglacial eustatic sea-level
history (Peltier, 2002), characterized by a very rapid (40–50 mm/yr)
sea-level rise, beginning between 14.7 and 14.2 ka.
Because shallow-water coral reefs cannot accrete vertically faster
than ;10–20 mm/yr (Neumann and Macintyre, 1985; Montaggioni et
al., 1997), we argue, using new radiometric, bathymetric, and sedimentary data, that the 2150 m reef off Hawaii drowned as a direct
result of unusually rapid sea-level rise associated with MWP-1A, rather
than mean sea-level rise during deglaciation, and island subsidence.
NATURE AND EXTENT OF THE 2150 M REEF
The 2150 m reef offshore Hawaii forms a consistent break in
slope extending 150 km from the Kohala Peninsula to Kealakekua Bay
(Moore and Fornari, 1984) (Fig. 1). Submersible dives and bathymetric
surveys (Moore et al., 1990) identified the 2150 m reef off Ka Lae
(South Point). There are few data indicating the presence of the 2150
m reef off the eastern coast of Hawaii, although a survey by Clague
et al. (1998) imaged a prominent reef-like structure off Hilo at 2125
to 2150 m that presumably extends northwest along the broad shelf
toward Kohala.
Off Kawaihae, the 2150 m reef is composed of three distinct
bathymetric levels (reefs 1–3; Figs. 2A, 2B). Rising steeply from the
base of the slope at 2240 m, the top of the main reef structure (reef
1) is at 2160 to 2150 m. The second bathymetric feature (reef 2) is
1 km landward of the main reef at 2125 m. A bathymetric depression
consistent with lagoon and associated patch-reef morphologies (Campbell, 1984) is landward of reef 2. The third feature (reef 3) is 1.8 km
landward of the main reef at 2105 m (Figs. 2A, 2B). Bathymetric and
backscatter characteristics (Clague et al., 1998) indicate that these two
features may also be coral reefs, although, based on the morphology
of the seaward edge of the third feature, we cannot exclude the possibility that it is a lava flow.
DIVE OBSERVATIONS AND SEDIMENTARY FACIES
In 2001, ROV dives (Tiburon) were carried out off Kawaihae
(T276) and Kealakekua Bay (T291) (Fig. 1). Combined with the previous Makalii and Pisces submersible dives, there are 8 dives, .20 h
of video, and 60 samples from the 2150 m reef (reef 1) off Kawaihae,
West Hualalai, Kealakekua Bay, and Ka Lae (South Point) (Fig. 1).
q 2004 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Permissions, GSA, or [email protected].
Geology; March 2004; v. 32; no. 3; p. 249–252; doi: 10.1130/G20170.1; 4 figures; Data Repository item 2004039.
249
Figure 1. Hawaii and offshore bathymetry showing known (solid
line) and probable (dashed line) extent of 2150 m drowned reef and
positions of submersible dives and sampling sites (black arrows).
New radiometric dates are from dives T276 and T291. Solid box denotes location of high-resolution EM300 bathymetry and backscatter data off Kawaihae (see Fig. 2). Bathymetry data are after Clague
et al. (1998) and Smith et al. (2002).
Dive observations and bathymetric data show that the 2150 m reef
consists of four morphologic zones (see Data Repository1): (1) forereef slope; (2) reef wall; (3) upper reef slope; and (4) reef crest (,2150
m) (Fig. 2B). At Kawaihae and Kealakekua Bay a distinct pavement
is exposed as a 20–30-cm-thick crust at the break in slope between the
reef crest and the upper reef slope.
Samples from the crust on the reef crest clearly record a deepening
sequence (Figs. 3A, 3B). Submassive Porites corals are commonly
overgrown by 10 cm crusts of coralline algae formed by thin encrusting
thalli and minor warty plants that grew one over the other (Figs. 3A,
3B), and topped by thin crusts (1–2 mm) of living pink coralline algae
(Sporolithon and Lithothamnion), bryozoans, and solitary corals. Sandwiched between the algal layers are encrusting foraminifera (Gypsina
or Acervulina? sp.), bryozoans, and layers of micrite (Fig. 3C). The
main coralline algal genera within the crust are Mesophyllum and Lithothamnion (Fig. 3C), associated with Sporolithon, Lithoporella, and
plants of the L. pustulatum species group, and Peyssonnelia sp. In
modern reefs around Hawaii, massive Porites grow in depths ,50 m
but are abundant only in depths ,20 m (Maragos, 1977). In contrast,
the recorded algal genera are the main components of the deepest (.60
m) present-day coralline algal assemblages in the Hawaiian Islands
(Adey et al., 1982). The thin encrusting to warty morphology of the
algae also suggests low to moderate energy and deep settings (Bosence,
1983, 1985). Similar algal frameworks form modern buildups in deep
fore-reef settings (60–110 m) in the southern Great Barrier Reef (Marshall et al., 1998), Gulf of Mexico (Minnery et al., 1985), and Pleistocene deep-water buildups in the Huon Gulf, Papua New Guinea
(Webster et al., 2004). Based on their morphology and species composition, the Hawaiian coralline algal crust limestone developed in
deep fore-reef settings (.60–200 m).
1GSA Data Repository item 2004039, Figure DR1 (dive observation photographs) and Tables DR1 and DR2 (radiometric data and methods), is available
online at www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2004.htm or on request from editing@
geosociety.org or Documents Secretary, GSA, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 803019140, USA.
250
Figure 2. A: Color shaded relief map showing 2150 m reef off Kawaihae (Clague et al., 1998). B: Bathymetric profile (A–B) shows
three distinct reefs at 2150 m (reef 1), 2125 m (reef 2), and 2105
m (reef 3) and likely lagoon and patch-reef features. Following morphologic zones are identified: fore-reef slope (FRS, 2250 to 2190
m), reef wall (RW, 2200 to 2170 m), upper-reef slope (URS, 2170
to 2150 m), and reef crest (RC, <2150 m).
RADIOMETRIC DATES
For comparison with the U/Th ages (ka), all radiocarbon ages (14C
ka) were converted to calibrated ages (cal ka) using the program CALIB 4.3 (see footnote 1). There are 21 radiometric dates available, 10
from the top of the 2150 m reef and 11 from the slope and flanks
(Fig. 4). The ages of corals collected in situ from the reef crest range
from 15.2 to 14.7 ka, indicating that the 2150 m reef stopped growing
after this interval.
Coral samples from below the reef crest (i.e., slope and flanks)
were collected as loose talus, so their original positions and implications for sea-level reconstructions are uncertain. That they were loose
and their reconstructed paleowater depths too deep (;100–200 m) for
coral reef growth (Fig. 4) suggest that these corals were derived from
more landward, shallower locations. However, except for two samples,
the ages of the loose corals are consistent with the age range defined
GEOLOGY, March 2004
Figure 3. Samples recovered from 2150 m reef. A: P5-67-3, 2175 m,
shallow reef-building Porites lobata? encrusted by coralline algae.
B: T291-R15, 2150 m, close-up of the deepening sequence. C: T276R7, 2156 m, crusts dominated by thin layers of Mesophyllum, Lithothamnion, and Peyssonnelia, with encrusting foraminifera, bryozoans, and interlayered micrite.
by the in situ corals from the reef crest (Fig. 4). Presumably these
corals tumbled down from the 2150 m reef crest, whereas the two
younger corals (13.9–13.4 ka) were transported from a shallower,
younger, landward phase of reef growth.
Another striking pattern is the age difference between the corals
and deep-water coralline algal material. The algae are mainly younger
than the adjacent coral samples from the reef crest, ranging from 14
to 10 cal ka with an average of 12.3 cal ka. Combined with a cover
of similar living corallines, these data indicate that the coralline algae
crust formed 1–4 k.y. after the demise of the shallow reef-building
corals and has continued forming to the present day.
TIMING OF REEF DROWNING—SYNCHRONOUS WITH
GLOBAL MELTWATER PULSE 1A?
The drowning history of the 2150 m reef during the last deglaciation is summarized in Figure 4. Following the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) ca. 19 ka, relative sea level rose at 8 mm/yr
(5.5 mm/yr eustatic sea-level rise and 2.5 mm/yr subsidence; Fairbanks,
1989; Bard et al., 1990; Moore et al., 1996). Contrary to previous
concepts of drowned reef formation (Moore and Fornari, 1984), the
2150 m reef was able to keep pace with this initial sea-level rise,
approaching within ;10 m of sea level prior to MWP-1A (14.7–14.2
ka). During this event paleowater depths increased dramatically to ;35
m in ,;500 yr. The rate of sea-level rise during MWP-1A was 50–
40 mm/yr (Clark et al., 2002; Hanebuth et al., 2000), 5 times the
maximum vertical accretion rate for modern coral reefs in the Hawaiian
Islands (Grigg and Epp, 1989). This rate of sea-level rise, combined
with the increase in paleowater depths beyond a critical depth (.30–
40 m; Grigg and Epp, 1989), would have drowned the 2150 m coral
reef within decades to centuries. The coral ages (15.2–14.7 ka) from
the reef crest indicate that the cessation of coral reef growth was effectively synchronous with the onset of MWP-1A.
Following reef drowning and the termination of MWP-1A, paleowater depths increased more slowly as sea-level rise and subsidence
continued (Fig. 4). By ca. 12 cal ka, depths over the crest were .60
m, well beyond the range of normal coral reef growth. Carbonate accretion shifted to deep-water coralline algal growth, preserved as a thin
crust. Algal growth continues today on the drowned reef crest at its
present depth of 2150 m. Based on previously published vertical accumulation rates for similar crustose coralline algal frameworks (0.04
GEOLOGY, March 2004
Figure 4. Drowning history of 2150 m reef (reef 1) during last deglaciation. All available calibrated radiocarbon and U/Th ages from
submerged Hawaiian reef are plotted against relative sea-level records from Barbados, Tahiti, Huon Peninsula, Sunda Shelf, and intertidal notches off Oahu. Using published estimates of subsidence
rates for Hawaii (2.5 mm/yr), we reconstructed original position of
2150 m reef crest and samples prior to drowning. Filled red symbols
represent in situ coral and coralline algal samples collected from
reef crest. Space between reef crest, subsidence pathway (gray line),
and sea-level records approximates paleowater depth above reef
crest during last deglaciation. Likely subsidence paths of 2125 m
(reef 2) and 2105 m (reef 3) features are also shown. MWP—meltwater pulse.
mm/yr; Reid and Macintyre, 1988), the crust on top of the 2150 m
reef is unlikely to have accumulated more than 50 cm over the past
12 k.y., consistent with the sample and dive observations.
Less direct evidence for episodic and dramatic sea-level rises during the last deglaciation in the subtropical North Pacific Ocean comes
from off Oahu. Fletcher and Sherman (1995) identified four paleoshorelines preserved as submerged intertidal notches at 2120, 290,
258, and 224 m (Fig. 4). They interpreted these features as erosional
notches formed during periods of slow sea-level rise and preserved by
rapid sea-level jumps at 20, 16–14, 13–11, and 9–7 ka. Oxygen isotope
data from an adjacent high-resolution sediment core (PC17) record a
dramatic decrease (0.6‰) in d18O between 15–13 14C ka and 12–11
14C ka (Lee and Slowey, 1999). Similar decreases in d18O at about the
time of MWP-1A have been observed in sediment cores from the Gulf
of Mexico (Leventer et al., 1982), Bermuda Rise (Keigwin et al. 1991),
and corals from the western Indian Ocean (Colonna et al., 1996). Without more data (e.g., independent sea-surface temperature [SST] proxies) and better age control, it is not possible to determine if the Oahu
d18O excursions reflect changes in SST and/or freshwater flux associated with MWP-1A. However, we note the general synchroneity of
these data with the drowning age of the 2150 m reef, the apparent age
of the 290 m paleoshoreline, and the timing of MWP-1A. We also
speculate that the two apparent reef structures (reef 2 and 3) landward
of and shallower than the 2150 m reef off Kawaihae may preserve a
251
record of growth and drowning during more recent rapid sea-level-rise
events (e.g., MWP-1B; Fig. 4).
CONCLUSIONS
The new data constrain the drowning age of the 2150 m reef off
Hawaii to ca. 14.7 ka, indicating (1) that reef growth persisted for 4.3
k.y. after the end of the LGM, and (2) that the drowning age was
synchronous with the onset of MWP-1A. During this dramatic paleoclimate event, paleowater depths increased rapidly above a critical
depth, drowning the coral reef and causing a shift to deeper coralline
algal growth. Our data provide evidence for the occurrence and timing
of MWP-1A ca. 14.7 ka in the subtropical North Pacific Ocean, consistent with recent data from the Sunda Shelf, South China Sea, and
Huon Peninsula. Furthermore, we propose that the chronologic and
paleobathymetric relationships recorded in the 2150 m reef may serve
as a model for interpreting the drowning history of other older and
deeper submerged reefs, which may also have drowned during as-yet
unidentified global meltwater pulses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the ROV Tiburon pilots and the crew of the R/V Western Flyer
for their skilled operations during data collection and processing. We also thank
Nadine Golden for her help with the figures.
REFERENCES CITED
Adey, W.H., Townsend, R.A., and Boykins, W.T., 1982, The crustose coralline
algae (Rhodophyta: Corallinaceae) of the Hawaiian Islands: Smithsonian
Contributions to Marine Sciences, v. 15, p. 1–74.
Bard, E., Hamelin, B., and Fairbanks, R.G., 1990, U-Th ages obtained by mass
spectrometry in corals from Barbados: Sea level during the past 130,000
years: Nature, v. 346, p. 456–458.
Bard, E., Hamelin, B., Arnold, M., Montaggioni, L., Cabioch, G., Faure, G.,
and Rougerie, F., 1996, Deglacial sea-level record from Tahiti corals and
the timing of global meltwater discharge: Nature, v. 382, p. 241–244.
Bosence, D.W.J., 1983, Coralline algal reef frameworks: Geological Society of
London Journal, v. 140, p. 365–376.
Bosence, D.W.J., 1985, The ‘‘Coralligene’’ of the Mediterranean—A recent
analogy for Tertiary coralline algal limestones, in Toomey, D.F., and Niteck, M.H., eds., Paleoalgology: Contemporary research and applications:
Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 376 p.
Campbell, J.F., 1984, Rapid subsidence of Kohala volcano and its effect on
coral reef growth: Geo-Marine Letters, v. 4, p. 31–36.
Chappell, J.M., and Polach, H., 1991, Post glacial sea-level rise from a coral
record at Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea: Nature, v. 349, p. 147–149.
Clague, D.A., Reynolds, J.R., Maher, N., Hatcher, G., Danforth, W., and Gardner, J.V., 1998, High-resolution Simrad EM300 Multibeam surveys near
the Hawaiian Islands: Canyons, reefs, and landslides: Eos (Transactions,
American Geophysical Union), v. 79, p. F826.
Clark, P.U., Mitrovica, J.X., Milne, G.A., and Tamisiea, M.E., 2002, Sea-level
fingerprinting as a direct test for the source of global meltwater pulse 1A:
Science, v. 295, p. 2438–2441.
Colonna, M., Casanova, J., Dullo, W.-C., and Camoin, G., 1996, Sea-level
changes and d18O record for the past 34,000 yr from Mayotte Reef, Indian
Ocean: Quaternary Research, v. 46, p. 335–339.
Cutler, K.B., Edwards, R.L., Taylor, F.W., Cheng, H., Adkins, J., Gallup, C.D.,
Cutler, P.M., Burr, G.S., and Bloom, A., 2003, Rapid sea-level fall and
deep-ocean temperature change since the last interglacial period: Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, v. 206, p. 253–271.
Edwards, R.L., Beck, J.W., Burr, G., Donahue, J.M., Chappell, J.M., Bloom,
A., Druffel, E.R.M., and Taylor, F.W., 1993, A large drop in atmospheric
14C/12C and reduced melting in the Younger Dryas, documented with
230Th ages of corals: Science, v. 260, p. 962–968.
Fairbanks, R.G., 1989, A 17,000 year glacio-eustatic sea level record: Influence
of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation: Nature, v. 342, p. 637–642.
Fletcher, C.H., and Sherman, C., 1995, Submerged shorelines on Oahu, Hawaii:
Archive of episodic transgression during the deglaciation?: Special issue
of Holocene cycles: Climate, sea-level, and sedimentation: Journal of
Coastal Research, v. 17, p. 141–152.
Grigg, R.W., and Epp, D., 1989, Critical depth for the survival of coral islands:
Effects on the Hawaiian Archipelago: Science, v. 243, p. 638–641.
252
Guilderson, T.P., Burckle, L., Hemming, S., and Peltier, W.R., 2000, Late Pleistocene sea level variations derived from the Argentine Shelf: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems—G3, v. 1, 2000GC000098.
Hanebuth, T., Stattegger, K., and Grootes, P.M., 2000, Rapid flooding of the
Sunda Shelf: A late-glacial sea-level record: Science, v. 288,
p. 1033–1035.
Keigwin, L.D., Jones, G.A., Lehman, S.J., and Boyle., E.A., 1991, Deglacial
meltwater pulse discharge, North Atlantic deep circulation, and abrupt
climate change: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 96,
p. 16,811–16,826.
Kienast, M., Hanebuth, T., Pelejero, C., and Steinke, S., 2003, Synchroneity of
meltwater pulse 1a and the Bolling warming: New evidence from the
South China Sea: Geology, v. 31, p. 67–70.
Lee, K.E., and Slowely, N.C., 1999, Cool surface waters of the subtropical
North Pacific Ocean during the last glacial: Nature, v. 397, p. 512–514.
Leventer, A., Williams, D.F., and Kennett, J.P., 1982, Dynamics of the Laurentide ice sheet during the last deglaciation: Evidence from the Gulf of
Mexico: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 59, p. 11–17.
Ludwig, K.R., Szabo, B.J., Moore, J.G., and Simmons, K.R., 1991, Crustal
subsidence rate off Hawaii determined from 234U/238U ages of drowned
coral reefs: Geology, v. 19, p. 171–174.
Maragos, J.E., 1977, Order Scleractinia, stony corals, in Devaney, D.M., and
Eldredge, L.G., eds., Reefs and shore fauna of Hawaii, Section 1: Protozoa
through Ctenophora: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 64,
p. 158–241.
Marshall, J.F., Tsuji, Y., Matsuda, H., Davies, P.J., Iryu, Y., Honda, N., and
Satoh, Y., 1998, Quaternary and Tertiary subtropical carbonate platform
development on the continental margin of southern Queensland, Australia,
in Camoin, G.F, and Davies, P.J., eds., Reefs and carbonate platforms in
the Pacific and Indian Oceans: International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication 25, p. 163–195.
Minnery, G.A., Rezak, R., and Bright, T.J., 1985, Depth zonation and growth
forms of crustose coralline algae: Flower Garden Banks, northwestern
Gulf of Mexico, in Toomey, D.F., and Niteck, M.H., eds., Paleoalgology:
Contemporary research and applications: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 237–
246.
Montaggioni, L.F., Cabioch, G., Camoin, G.F., Bard, E., Faure, G., Dejardin, P.,
and Recy, J., 1997, A 14,000 year continuous record of reef growth in a
mid-Pacific island: Geology, v. 25, p. 555–559.
Moore, J.G., and Campbell, J.F., 1987, Age of tilted reefs, Hawaii: Journal of
Geophysical Research, v. 92, p. 2641–2646.
Moore, J.G., and Fornari, D.J., 1984, Drowned reefs as indicators of the rate
of subsidence of the Island of Hawaii: Geology, v. 92, p. 752–759.
Moore, J.G., Normark, W.R., and Szabo, B.J., 1990, Reef growth and volcanism
on the submarine southwest rift zone of Mauna Loa, Hawaii: Bulletin of
Volcanology, v. 52, p. 375–380.
Moore, J.G., Ingram, B.L., Ludwig, K.R., and Clague, D.A., 1996, Coral ages
and island subsidence, Hilo drill hole: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 101, p. 11,599–11,605.
Neumann, A.C., and Macintyre, I.G., 1985, Reef response to sea level rise:
Keep-up, catch-up or give-up: Fifth International Coral Reef Congress,
Tahiti, Proceedings, v. 3, p. 105–109.
Peltier, W., 2002, On eustatic sea level history; last glacial maximum to Holocene: Quaternary Science Reviews, v. 21, p. 377–396.
Reid, R.P., and Macintyre, I.G., 1988, Foraminiferal-algal nodules from the
eastern Caribbean: Growth history and implications on the value of nodules as paleoenvironmental indicators: Palaios, v. 3, p. 424–435.
Smith, J.R., Satake, K., and Suyehiro, K., 2002, Deepwater multibeam sonar
surveys along the southeastern Hawaiian Ridge: Guide to the CD-ROM,
in Takahashi, E., et al., eds., Hawaiian volcanoes: Deep underwater perspectives: American Geophysical Union Geophysical Monograph 128,
p. 3–9.
Weaver, A.J., Saenko, O.A., Clark, P.U., and Mitrovica, J.X., 2003, Meltwater
Pulse 1A from Antarctica as a trigger of the Bolling-Allerod Warm Interval: Science, v. 299, p. 1709–1713.
Webster, J.M., Wallace, L., Silver, E., Potts, D., Braga, J.C., Renema, W.,
Coleman-Riker, K., and Gallup, C., 2004, Coralgal composition of
drowned carbonate platforms in the Huon Gulf, Papua New Guinea: Implications for lowstand reef development and drowning: Marine Geology
(in press).
Manuscript received 12 September 2003
Revised manuscript received 13 November 2003
Manuscript accepted 15 November 2003
Printed in USA
GEOLOGY, March 2004