YOUR HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK: A COLLECTION OF MODULES
Male and female reproductive
health hazards in the workplace
RECEIVED
1
ILO
L •.• 1
:
F„m
',J3
31T
40975
Bureau
for
Workers'
Activities
International Labour Office Geneva
Copyright©
International Labour Organization 1996
A provisional edition was published in 1993
First edition 1996
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Rosskam, E.
Male and female reproductive health hazards in the workplace
Geneva, International Labour Office, 1996
Included in: Your health and safety at work: A collection of modules
/Workers' education teaching aid/, /trainer's manual/,
/occupational health/, /occupational safety/, /safety
training/, learning element/. 13.04.2
ISBN 92-2-108016-1
ISBN 92-2-108014-5 (set)
ILO Cataloguing in Publication Data
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Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Preface
Imperfect as is the world in which we live, some accidents are doubtless
inevitable, but so many others need not occur. In the workplace, in particular, no occupational injuries must occur. If this vision belongs to an ideal
world, as some would say, a more realistic aim would at least be to reduce
drastically the number of occupational accidents. Such, at least, is the sole
intention of the Bureau for Workers' Activities in proposing this collection of
modules, specially produced for the use of trade unions in their educational
activities organized around the area of occupational safety and health.
During the years of gestation which preceded the establishment of the ILO
in 1919, the first two international conventions were adopted by the International Association for Labour Legislation in Berne in 1905: one prohibiting
the use of white phosphorus in the production of matches, and another
regulating night work by women. Since its creation in 1919, the ILO has
adopted some 32 Conventions and 35 Recommendations concerning exclusively workers' health and safety, all laying down minimum standards.
Immense effort and resolute purpose on the part of the ILO's constituents to
protect workers' health and safety have borne fruit in the form of these
standards, but the chasms still yawn wide between, in the first instance, their
adoption and ratification, and, in the second, their ratification and implementation. It is to be hoped that this collection of 12 modules on health and
safety will find its place in an overall international thrust to arrest the high
incidence of occupational accidents and diseases. Targets must be set, health
and safety practices systematically monitored, and labour inspection must
be rendered more effective. If this collection comes close to satisfying these
aims, then these modules would have abundantly served their purpose.
Pedagogically, all twelve modules are of equal importance. There is no
established sequence to follow: a course could be organized using either a
single module, several, or all. This approach obeys the basic principle of
modular teaching: that the materials could be adapted to the time available
and the circumstances.
I particularly wish to thank the author of the collection, our colleague Ellen
Rosskam, as well as Alan Le Serve, formerly attached to the Bureau for
Workers' Activities, under whose technical guidance the modules were
produced. I also extend thanks to all the international trade union organizations and national centres that reviewed the provisional edition and fieldtested it. I am pleased to announce that the French and Spanish editions are
forthcoming. It is my wish that this modest effort will help to alleviate the
human anguish and suffering caused by thoughtless accidents and sloppy
workplace habits. Above all, these modules should help to draw the
attention of all those responsible to the extent of the problem of occupational
hazards and provide practical guidelines which they could apply.
Giuseppe Querenghi
Director
ILO Bureau for Workers' Activities
III
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the following organizations for their kind permission to reproduce or adapt material from their publications, as follows:
International Metalworkers' Federation, Asia Monitor Resource Centre; Service Employees International Union AFL/CIO (Washington, DC); Little,
Brown and Company, Boston/Toronto; W.B. Saunders and Company (London); the American Public Health Association; and the Labour Occupational
Health Programme, University of California, Berkeley, California. The following titles were instrumental in producing this module:
International Metalworkers' Federation: Health hazards in the electronics
industry, Asia Monitor Resource Centre, Hong Kong, 1985.
W.N. Rom (ed.): Environmental and occupational medicine, Little, Brown
and Company, Boston, 1983.
Levy, B.S.; Wagner, G.R.; Weekes, J.L. (eds.): Preventing occupational disease
and injury, American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, 1991.
Cullen, M.R.; Rosenstock, L.: Clinical occupational medicine, W.B. Saunders
Company, London, 1986.
Levy, B.S.; Wegman, D.H.(eds): Occupational health, Little, Brown and
Company, Boston/Toronto, 1983.
Brunt, M.; Hricko, A.: Working for your life: A woman's guide to job health
hazards, University of California, Labor Occupational Health Program,
Berkeley, California, 1976.
While every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders for
material reproduced herein, we would be happy to hear from any unacknowledged source.
V
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Goal of the Module
This Module provides trainees with background information on how
occupational hazards can affect the reproductive systems of both men
and women. Topics discussed include: when and how reproductive
damage occurs, what kinds of reproductive health problems can occur,
how a worker can tell if a chemical or work situation is hazardous to his
or her reproductive health, how workers are protected, and the role of
the health and safety representative.
Objectives
At the end of this Module, trainees will be able to:
(1)
explain when reproductive damage may result from workplace
exposures;
(2)
describe several kinds of reproductive health problems that can
occur from exposure to occupational hazards;
(3)
suggest several ways of protecting workers from reproductive harm.
VII
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
What is in this Module
^—->^
I.
Introduction
1
/ y1—^
V \| | j
II.
When and how does reproductive
damage occur?
4
A. Prior to conception
4
B. During pregnancy
6
C. After birth
9
III.
How can you know if a chemical, biological agent,
physical agent, or work situation is hazardous
to your reproductive health?
11
IV.
Protecting your reproductive health
14
V.
Role of the health and safety representative
20
VI.
Summary
22
Exercise:
A case of negative male fertility outcome
due to chemical exposure at work
23
Glossary
26
Appendix I.
Chemicals that have toxic effects
on reproduction
27
Appendix II.
Reproductive hazards to men and women
29
Appendix III.
Chemical reproductive hazards affect
both men and women.....
30
Industries with a reported increased
risk of adverse reproductive outcome
in exposed women, without linkage
to specific exposures
31
Examples of agents toxic to the male
reproductive system
32
Carcinogenic chemicals in electronics
manufacturing
33
Examples of substances observed to induce
adverse reproductive outcomes following
exposure during pregnancy
35
Appendix IV.
Appendix V.
Appendix VI.
Appendix VII.
ix
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
I. Introduction
Thousands of hazardous chemicals are produced and used in a wide
variety of workplaces, all over the world. Some of these substances can
have negative effects on the reproductive health of both male and female
workers who are exposed to them. There are also a variety of physical
and biological agents (such as radiation and bacteria) used in many
workplaces that expose workers to additional reproductive hazards.
Additionally, there are many work situations (such as work which is highly
stressful, or shift work) that may cause negative effects on the reproductive
systems of male and female workers.
To date, most chemical substances and work situations have not been
studied for their potential to have damaging effects on the human
reproductive system. Despite the lack of information about possible
reproductive health effects, many substances are still used in a variety of
workplaces.
Many workers are exposed to such hazards everyday at work. Working
with particular substances or under certain work situations may cause
some workers to experience abnormalities in their sexual or reproductive
health. Many workers may not know that such problems can be related
to occupational exposures. While the information is minimal, much of
what is known about the effects of workplace substances on male and
female reproductive systems has been learned, in fact, by studying
exposed workers, their spouses and children.
It is important that workers and trade unions learn as much as possible
about the substances used in their workplaces, when information does
exist. Protective measures should be implemented to ensure that pregnant
workers and workers (male or female) who may be planning to have a
child are not exposed to known or suspected reproductive health hazards.
Note: If you find some of the terms used here new to you, please check in the glossary at the back
of this Module for definitions.
1
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Reproductive system
The various functions
of the reproductive
system in both men
and women are
carefully regulated by
special hormones
released into the
bloodstream by the
pituitary gland and the
gonads (testes in men
and ovaries in women)
PITUITARY GLAND
VAS
DEFERENS
URETHRA
PENIS
TESTES
PROSTATE
2
Your health and safety at work
PITUITARY GLAND
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Points to remember
1.
Thousands of hazardous chemicals are produced and used in a wide variety
of workplaces worldwide. Some of these substances can have negative effects
on the reproductive health of workers who are exposed to them.
2.
There are also physical and biological agents and a variety of work situations
that may result in negative reproductive health outcomes when workers are
exposed to them.
3.
Little is known about the potential for damage to the reproductive system from
exposure to certain substances, agents, or work situations. Despite the lack of
adequate information, many workers are forced to work with and be exposed
to reproductive hazards.
4.
Workers and unions need to be as informed as possible about the substances
used in their workplaces.
5.
Protective measures should be implemented to ensure that pregnant workers
and workers (male or female) planning to have a child are not exposed to known
or suspected reproduction health hazards.
3
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
• Oo WDneoT] aoid [how does [reprndltucttive damage occur?
Exposure to certain hazardous substances or hazardous work conditions
can affect reproductive health before or after conception takes place.
Some occupational hazards, particularly certain chemicals and radiation,
can seriously affect a developing embryo or foetus (also written fetus).
Appendix II at the back of this Module gives some examples of chemicals
that are known to have negative effects on sexual behaviour and reproduction.
Adverse effects due to exposure can also occur after birth, affecting the
development of a baby or child. While these effects are not considered
reproductive hazards, it is important to know that newborns and children
are particularly vulnerable to the effects of hazardous substances.
MY HUSBAND COMPLAINS
THAT I RARELY FEEL IN THE
MOOD FOR LOVE
ANYMORE. COULD IT BE
THESE CHEMICALS WE
USE AT WORK?
SINCE I STARTED
WORKING HERE I
HAVE BEEN UNDER A
LOT OF STRESS, AND
MY PERIODS HAVE
BECOME IRREGULAR.
QUOTA
A. Prior to conception
Some workplace exposures can prevent conception. Exposure to certain
substances or combinations of substances can cause changes on the sex
drove of either men or women, damage to the eggs or sperm, changes on
the geneto'c material carried by the eggs and sperm, or cancer or other
diseases in the reproductive organs of men or women.
O Changes on the sex drive. Exposure to some chemicals or to stressful
conditions can cause both male and female workers to experience a
4
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
decrease in their desire or ability to have sex. Occupational exposures
can also cause menstrual problems, which may prevent ovulation
from taking place. For example, chemicals which have depressant
effects, such as certain solvents, may suppress the sex drive (the
libido). Stress, rotating shifts, or exposure to some organic solvents
can disrupt the normal menstrual cycle, which in turn may alter
normal patterns of sexual behaviour and fertility.
•
Damage to the eggs or sperm. Another possible effect of exposure to
certain occupational hazards is direct damage to the sperm and egg
cells (also called the germ cells). Both male and female workers can
become sterile or experience decreased fertility from exposure to
radiation or certain chemicals. Damage to the male germ cells can
cause abnormal sperm to be produced. It can also reduce the number
of sperm that are produced to a level below the minimum necessary
for fertilization to be likely.
•
Changes in the genetic material carried by the eggs and sperm are
called mutations. Mutations in genetic material can be passed on to
future generations. This is because the genes contained in the chromosomes that make up the genetic material determine the characteristics that children will inherit from their parents. Genetic mutations
can result in birth defects, stillbirth, or miscarriage, depending on the
type of damage caused. When the damaging effects are severe and
the foetus cannot live, miscarriage or stillbirth will result.
Some mutations may cause only minor changes in a child. Other changes
may not produce any visible effects at all. However, it is important to
remember that although there may not be visible effects of damage in a
child, the changes in genetic material are permanent. These permanent
changes may be passed on to that child's future offspring, where visible
changes may be seen.
A substance that causes changes in genetic material is called a mutagen.
There are special laboratory tests which can identify substances as
mutagens. Often substances are tested on animals to see if mutations
occur.
5
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
Make a list of
mutagens used in your
workplace. This can be
done by making a list
of the generic names
of chemicals you use
and checking them
against Appendices I
and VD at the back of
this Module. Most
cancer-causing
chemicals (except
most solvents) are
mutagens.
O Camicer and other diseases: Some mutagenic substances are also
known to cause cancer in humans. Substances that cause cancer are
called carcinogens. Reproductive organs, such as the ovaries, breasts,
vagina and uterus of a woman, and the penis and testes of a man, can
become diseased or function abnormally as a result of exposure to
certain hazardous substances. Some chemicals may cause cancer in
one or more of these organs. (Appendix VI at the back of this Module
lists some chemicals that are known to cause cancer.) Damaging
effects on the scrotum or testes can prevent sperm production. Carcinogenic substances can cause prostate cancer in men, which will also
interfere with sperm production and may prevent fertilization.
IB. During pregnancy
Once fertilization has taken place, some harmful substances can pass
through the mother to the developing embryo or foetus. The foetus is
generally thought to be at greatest risk during the first 14 to 60 days of the
pregnancy, the time when the major organs are being formed. However,
depending on the type and amount of exposure, a foetus can be harmed
at any time during the pregnancy. For example, exposure to a particular
substance at one point in a pregnancy may result in organ damage, but
exposure to the same substance at another time in the pregnancy could
cause miscarriage.
It is important to remember that the normal incidence of miscarriage and
birth defects varies from country to country. When birth defects or
miscarriages occur, local norms should be taken into consideration;
6
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
however, any case which is, or may be, related to workplace exposure
should not be ignored.
A substance that prevents the normal development of a foetus is called a
teratogen. Teratogens can pass from the blood of the mother to the blood
of the foetus, across the placenta. Many people may be familiar with
thalidomide, a drug which was used to prevent nausea during pregnancy.
Thalidomide is now known to have teratogenic effects. However, this fact
was not known when it was first used and as a result, thousands of children
were born with deformed or missing limbs because their mothers took
this drug during pregnancy. Fortunately, tests are now in place to detect
the effects of drugs before they come on the market.
IN THE PLACENTA...
MATERNAL
BLOOD
VESSELS
The umbilical cord
carries the blood of
the foetus to the
placenta where it
passes close to the
blood of the mother
and nutrients and
wastes are exchanged.
It is in the placenta
that teratogens can be
passed on to the
embryo or foetus.
FETAL BLOOD VESSELS
i
UMBILICAL CORD
Teratogens are toxic
chemicals which can
pass from the blood of
the mother to the
blood of the foetus,
where they can have
an adverse effect on
the development of
the foetus.
| ^ > = path of teratogen
PLACENTA
WOMB
(UTERUS)
CERVIX
AMNIOTIC FLUID
VAGINA
7
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
There are a number of chemicals, biological agents (such as bacteria),
and physical agents (such as radiation) used in a variety of workplaces
that are known to cause birth defects. (Appendix VDD at the back of this
Module gives some examples of substances that have been observed to
cause adverse reproductive outcomes if exposure occurs during pregnancy. It is important to note, however, that adverse reproductive outcome may or may not include birth defects.) Birth defects can include a
wide range of physical abnormalities, such as bone or organ deformities,
and behavioural or learning problems such as mental retardation.
In some cases, factors that cause stress, such as repetitive work, lack of
breaks and constant demands on pregnant workers, can be directly
related to premature births.
Cigarettes, medicines,
alcohol, radiation amid
stress may have bad
effects on a developing
foetus.
Other factors can also affect the health of a developing foetus, such as
stress at home, smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, or taking certain
drugs and medications. Additionally, these factors can combine with
hazardous work situations and increase the dangers to a foetus even more.
Pregnant workers who are exposed to certain chemicals, radiation or
stress factors at work are also at risk of giving birth to babies with lower
than normal birth weight. This can lead to physical and mental development problems.
at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
C. After birth
Occupational exposures can also harm a developing child even after it
is born. While this is not directly related to reproductive health, it is
important to know that newborns and children are particularly vulnerable
to the effects of chemicals or other harmful substances that may be
brought into the home on clothing, shoes or even skin and hair. For
example, it is well documented that children with long-term exposure to
asbestos brought home on clothing have an increased risk of developing
asbestos-related lung diseases. Breast milk is another route of exposure
for babies. If harmful substances are present in breast milk, then infants
can take in those substances while breast-feeding.
Reproductive hazards to men and women
Source: A. Hricko, M. Brunt: Working for your life: A woman's guide to job health hazards,
joint publication of Labour Occupational Health Programme and Public Citizens' Health Research
Group, Berkeley, California, 1976.
Prior to conception
Menstrual disorders — women
Interference with sexual functions — men
Genetic damage in male and female germ
cells can be passed on to the children and
result in disease or birth defects. Can also
cause miscarriage or stillbirth.
Potential adverse
effects of job
exposures on
reproduction or on
the ability to have
normal, healthy
children
At conception
Difficulties in conceiving a child (for example,
by interference with the sperm's ability to
fertilize the egg).
During pregnancy
Miscarriage, stillbirth, cancer, disease, or
birth defects — as a result of substances
crossing the mother's placenta and reaching
the developing foetus (e.g. certain drugs,
chemicals and viruses) or by direct action,
such as radiation exposure.
On the newborn
Toxic effects on development of baby as a
result of chemicals transmitted to child in
mother's breast milk.
On the child
Toxic effects on development of child from
exposure to substances inadvertently
brought home on parents' work clothes.
9
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
Points to remember about
wben and how reproductive damage can occur
10
1.
Exposure to certain hazardous substances or hazardous work conditions can
affect reproductive health before or after conception takes place. It can
seriously affect a developing embryo or foetus and can have adverse effects on
the development of a baby or child.
2.
Exposure to occupational hazards can cause changes in the sex drive of men
and women, which can inhibit or prevent fertilization. It can also damage the
eggs or sperm, cause changes in the genetic material carried by the eggs and
sperm (which can result in birth defects), and cause cancer or other diseases
in the reproductive organs of men or women. A substance that causes cancer
is called a carcinogen. A substance that causes changes in genetic materials is
called a mutagen.
3.
Serious damage to developing organs in a foetus can result if exposure occurs
during the first 14 to 60 days of a pregnancy. Other types of effects can result
from exposure at later stages of a pregnancy. A substance that prevents the
normal development of a foetus is called a teratogen.
4.
There are a number of chemicals, biological agents, and physical agents (such
as radiation) used in a variety of workplaces that are known to cause birth
defects.
5.
Local norms should be taken into consideration in cases of miscarriage and
birth defects. However, any case that is, or may be, related to workplace
exposure should not be ignored.
6.
Stress, smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, or taking certain drugs and medications can all be hazardous to the health of a developing foetus. These
substances can also combine with hazardous work situations and increase the
dangers to a foetus during pregnancy.
7.
Occupational exposures can harm a developing child even after it is born.
Babies and children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of workplace
hazards which may be brought into the home on clothing, shoes, skin and hair.
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
III. How can you know if a chemical, biological agent,
physical agent, or work situation is hazardous
to your reproductive health?
It is very difficult to know exactly which chemical, biological or physical
agent, or work situation in a workplace will have negative effects on the
reproductive health of male or female workers. Unfortunately, most
chemicals, biological or physical agents, and work situations have not
been adequately studied for their possible effects on human health and
reproduction. In fact, many substances used in a variety of workplaces
have not been studied at all.
There are several important factors that determine whether exposure to a
chemical, biological or physical agent, or other type of work situation
will have negative effects on a worker's health. These factors are:
•
Length of exposure: when and for how long the worker is exposed.
•
Dose: how much of the substance the worker is exposed to;
•
Synergism: what the effects of exposure are to a combination of
substances at the same time. Additionally there can be negative effects
when chemicals or biological agents are combined with certain
environmental conditions to which workers are also exposed;
•
Individual variation: some individual workers may be more acutely
susceptible to certain substances than other individuals.
As a general rule, a worker should assume that regular exposure to any
chemical or biological agent is potentially hazardous to his or her
reproductive health and to his or her health in general.
Workers and unions should work together with employers to eliminate
hazardous exposures altogether, or at least to reduce them to the levels
permitted in national or internationally recognized standards, if they
cannot be eliminated.
Information about the potential reproductive health effects of occupational hazards is gradually being collected. However, to date, the information that is available about many substances used or produced in many
workplaces is still insufficient. Where it is known that exposure to a
particular hazard (or combination of hazards) can have an effect on the
foetus, no pregnant woman should be exposed to that hazard at all.
However, workers and unions should ensure that actions taken or policies
implemented to protect workers do not result in discrimination against
women workers.
11
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
Employers should provide workers with detailed education about any
potential hazards with which they work. Workers should be informed
about the known hazards of specific chemicals and combinations of
chemicals, the recommended exposure limits, and the recommended
methods of protection. (For more detailed information see the Modules
Chemicals in the workplace and Controlling hazards in this collection).
Education about
reproductive health
and potential hazards
in the workplace is
important for all
workers.
12
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Points to remember about knowing whether a
chemical or job condition is hazardous to
your reproductive health
1.
Because most chemicals, biological and physical agents, and work situations
have not been adequately studied for their possible effects on human health
and reproduction, it is difficult to know exactly which ones will have negative
effects on a worker's health.
2.
There are several important factors that determine whether exposure to a
substance or work situation will have negative effects on a worker's health.
These factors are: length of exposure; dose; synergism; and individual variation.
3.
As a general rule, a worker should assume that regular exposure to any
chemical, physical or biological agent is potentially hazardous to his or her
health.
4.
Workers and unions should work together with employers to eliminate hazardous exposures altogether or at least to reduce them to the levels permitted in
national or internationally recognized standards.
5.
Employers should provide workers with adequate education about any potential hazards in the workplace.
13
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
IV. Protecting your reproductive health
To protect the reproductive health of all workers, exposure to chemicals,
radiation, biological agents, and stressful working conditions should be
eliminated or at least reduced as much as possible. Mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic substances should be completely eliminated or
isolated from every worker and from the work environment.
There have been several general approaches taken by some industries to
address the issue of protecting workers' reproductive health from workplace exposures. However, many of these approaches are undesirable
and are in fact discriminatory.
Allowing workers to be exposed to reproductive health hazards without
control or concern is, of course, the most undesirable approach.
Exclusionary policies
Many industries have taken some type of action to protect workers. Often
this action is to refuse work to or transfer the workers they consider most
susceptible to reproductive hazards, who happen to be women of childbearing age. (It has often been argued that such policies are not designed
to protect the worker but are designed to protect the employer from
possible future lawsuits.) Policies excluding women from certain jobs are
often not applied consistently or uniformly. For example, exclusionary
policies are applied in jobs that traditionally have been closed to women
anyway, while excluding women from certain jobs is not a policy in
industries where women have always been and still are important members of the workforce. In such industries women often are employed
despite the potential for exposure to reproductive hazards. For example,
although X-ray technicians, beauticians, dry cleaners and launderers, and
surgical operating room personnel are exposed to substances that can
affect reproduction, women are generally not excluded from these jobs.
One of the biggest problems with exclusionary policies for women is that
while they discriminate against fertile women through denial of, or
removal from certain jobs, fertile men are still exposed in the same jobs.
It is vital that attention also be given to the reproductive problems that
affect men. Unfortunately, the effects of hazards on male reproduction
have not been well studied to date.
Your health and safety at work
WE PREFER NOT TO
HIRE MARRIED
WOMEN BECAUSE, IF
THEY BECOME
PREGNANT, THE
WORK MAY BE TOO
HAZARDOUS FOR
THEM.
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
HE DOES NOT
MAYBE YOUR REAL
REALIZE THAT MY
REASON 15 FEAR OF
SEXUALITY AND ABILITY TO
HAVING TO PROVIDE
PRODUCE NORMAL
MATERNITY
CHILDREN
CAN ALSO BE
BENEFITS TO WOMEN
WORKERS WHO WANT HARMED BY EXPOSURE TO
HAZARDS AT WORK.
TO HAVE CHILDREN
Transfer policies
Some industries have implemented transfer policies that allow women
workers to move out of areas with possible exposures when they are
pregnant or thinking about becoming pregnant. Such policies can be a
sound option until the workplace can be made safe for reproductive
health or when hazards cannot be eliminated. However, transfer policies
should also be designed to protect men who are planning a child.
If transfer policies are adopted, they should be accompanied by rate
retention and with no loss of seniority in position. Rate retention guarantees that the worker is not penalized for becoming pregnant or expressing
a wish for protection while planning a child by being forced to move to
a job that pays less. Similarly, after the pregnancy, the worker should have
the right to have his or her old job back.
The unfortunate reality in many workplaces is that fertile or pregnant
women are simply dismissed instead of being given alternative, non-hazardous work. Since her family usually depends on herincome, a pregnant
or fertile worker often has no alternative but to stay in a job, even at the
risk of exposing herself or her unborn child to hazards, when no other
job is made available to her. Such a choice is no choice at all for any
worker. In the case of male workers, the same applies, although in the
latter instance the risks are less "visible" and therefore tend to be minimized.
15
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
r
THE CHEMICAL I
WORK WITH 15
KNOWN TO HARM
MALE FERTILITY.
CAN WE CHANGE TO
A CHEMICAL WHICH
DOES NOT?
I'M PLANNING TO BE
PREGNANT BUT
THERE ARE
HAZARDS TO
PREGNANCY IN MY
JOB.
YE5, YOU ARE BOTH ^
RIGHT. WE'LL LOOK FOR
AN ALTERNATIVE
CHEMICAL, AND WE'LL
GIVE YOU A NEW
ASSIGNMENTS A
SAFER JOB SINCE YOU
WILL BECOME PREGNANT.
There is no single answer to solving the problem of reproductive hazards
in the workplace and the exclusion of certain groups of workers. In many
countries, unions, public interest groups, scientists and government representatives have been fighting these issues for many years. Although
some countries have made progress through the establishment of laws,
regulations and government agencies, much more needs to be done to
ensure the complete protection of all workers' reproductive health.
What iroeeds to be dooe?
O More research is needed on substances and job conditions that are
known or suspected to affect reproduction so that adverse effects can
be identified and preventive measures adopted.
O Substances must be regulated before workers are exposed and before
their children, born or unborn, suffer adverse effects.
Governments have a responsibility to take action. They should:
O ensure that more research is undertaken on groups of workers who
are exposed to known or suspected reproductive hazards, and that
appropriate testing is undertaken, aimed at detecting reproductive
health hazards;
O take reproductive health into consideration when setting health standards;
O require that workers be informed about the substances with which
they work and about any known or suspected hazards in the workplace, including effects on reproduction and methods of protection;
Your health and safety at work
•
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
ensure that workers — both male and female — have the right to a
job transfer with rate and seniority retention if there is any potential
of being exposed to reproductive hazards in their job.
Workers, health and safety representatives, and trade unions also have a
responsibility to take action. They can:
•
put pressure on industry and government to conduct more research
on reproductive health hazards and to set standards that will protect
the productive health of all workers;
•
develop contract language to eliminate exclusionary policies, or
where necessary, provide for job transfer rights with rate retention;
•
keep records of workers' reproductive health histories as a way to help
identify hazards;
•
join existing or form new groups that work to protect all workers from
reproductive hazards;
•
participate in the standard-setting process in their country, if it exists.
17
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
Workers and their unions must work towards ensuring that each workplace is a healthy and safe place to work. Only in this way will workers
be able to have confidence that exposures in the workplace will not harm
their own reproductive health, or the health of their children — born or
unborn.
Keeping a record aimd
holdoinig groyp
discussinOTS cam help to
detect abnormal
patterns of sexual
behaviour and
problems with the
reproductive system.
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Points to remember
about protecting reproductive health
1.
To protect the reproductive health of all workers, exposure to chemicals,
radiation, biological agents, and stressful work conditions should be eliminated
or at least reduced as much as possible.
2.
Many industries have adopted exclusionary policies whereby fertile women
are refused work where there are known or suspected reproductive health
hazards. Such policies often require workers to transfer to a different job during
pregnancy.
3.
Although excluding fertile women from certain jobs may be an attempt to
protect them, such policies do not extend the same protection to fertile men.
4.
Policies that allow workers to transfer to a different job while pregnant or while
planning a child can be a sound option until the workplace can be made safe
for reproductive health. Such policies should be accompanied by guarantees
of rate and seniority retention. Transfer policies should ensure that certain
groups of workers will not be discriminated against in hiring or job transfer
practices.
5.
A pregnant or fertile worker should never have to stay in a job where she or
her unborn child will be exposed to hazards because no other work is available
to her. Such a choice is no choice at all for any worker.
6.
Much more work needs to be done to ensure the complete protection of all
workers' reproductive health.
7.
More research and regulation of substances are needed.
8.
Governments have the responsibility to take a number of actions toward
protecting workers' reproductive health.
9.
Workers, health and safety representatives and trade unions also have a
responsibility to take a number of actions towards these goals.
19
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
V. Role of the health and safety representative
As health and safety representative you can play an important role in
helping to ensure that work does not jeopardize the reproductive health
of any worker — male or female. Your efforts in the areas of worker
education, workplace policy development and implementation, monitoring of substances and work conditions, and record-keeping will help to
achieve this objective. Here are some steps to help you reach your goals:
Health and safety
representative
1.
Work together with the union and the employer to eliminate exposures that are known or suspected to have health effects including
reproductive health effects.
2.
Employers should provide workers with detailed information and
health and safety training about the chemicals, physical or biological agents, or any other potentially hazardous substances or work
situations with which they must work. There are a variety of ways
to get information on substances and work situations that may be
potentially hazardous to reproductive health. The Module Chemicals in the workplace contains a number of detailed recommendations on this point.
3.
Encourage workers to keep a record of their work conditions, as
well as the names of any chemicals, biological or physical agents,
and potentially hazardous situations to which they may be exposed.
They should note any irregularities or abnormalities that occur in
their sexual functioning, in their menstrual cycle, in their (or their
partner's) ability to become pregnant, or in their children's development.
Note: It is important that health and safety representatives are
informed about any problems that exist. However, you should be
20
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
aware that these are sensitive areas for workers to discuss. Many
workers will not want to discuss issues related to their sexual
functioning, menstrual cycle, ability to conceive, etc. Therefore you
will need to determine appropriate methods of gathering information on these delicate issues, taking into consideration the workforce
and local customs.
4.
Encourage workers in similar jobs to meet and discuss any work
situations that could be dangerous to their health. Any health
problem common to two or more workers should be reported and
acted on as soon as possible.
5.
Work together with the union and employer to develop and implement policies that allow pregnant workers to transfer for the duration
of the pregnancy from work known or suspected to have reproductive health effects. Similar protection should be extended to workers
(male and female) who are planning a child.
6.
Work to eliminate or prevent discriminatory practices against hiring
certain workers, such as women of childbearing age. A workplace
that is safe for all workers is a preferable alternative to refusing to
hire certain workers because the work may be dangerous to their
reproductive health.
7.
Work together with your union and employer to ensure that workers
have facilities where they can wash after work. This will help to
prevent bringing hazardous agents home.
21
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
VI. Summary
1
-i
I l
A
^jfcil
^"*~
22
•
Many of the substances used every day in thousands of workplaces
may have negative effects on the reproductive health of both the male
and female workers who are exposed to them. Additionally, a variety
of physical and biological agents used in many workplaces, as well
as many work situations may cause negative effects on the reproductive systems of male and female workers.
•
There is a serious lack of information on the potential for negative
reproductive health outcome from many workplace exposures. Therefore, it is essential that workers be guaranteed and provided with the
maximum protection to prevent adverse reproductive health consequences. Of course, eliminating exposures in the workplace is the
most important action toward preventing negative reproductive
health outcomes in workers. Educating workers is also an important
step in this direction. All workers have the right to know that certain
workplace exposures can have negative effects on their sexual or
reproductive health.
Your health and safety at work
Exercise.
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
A case of negative male fertility outcome
due to chemical exposure at work
Source: Occupational health, edited by Barry S. Levy and David H. Wegman, Little, Brown and
Company, Boston/Toronto, 1983.
Note to the instructor
The following is a true case description of the best-documented epidemic
of occupational reproductive problems in males. This case was documented in the United States in 1977 among male pesticide production
workers.
For this exercise, you may want to have a flipchart (or large pieces of
paper taped to the wall) and markers or a chalkboard and chalks.
Instructions
Read the case out loud to the class. Ask the participants to write down
key points in the case as you read it to them.
When you have finished reading the case, ask the participants to work in
small groups of three to five people to discuss the case. Ask the groups to
come up with ideas on how they think the case could have been handled
once it was realized that the chemical DBCP was the cause of the fertility
problems. There are a number of questions following the case which the
groups may want to think about and discuss.
Groups should discuss their responses with the whole class. You can note
the main ideas of each group on the flipchart or chalkboard. There are
no right or wrong answers to the questions that follow; they are simply
for discussion purposes.
After the class has discussed all of the groups' ideas, then read the last
paragraph of the case-study to the class.
Last paragraph of case-study
Action taken
Based on the findings of this case, the use of DBCP — but not its
manufacture — was banned by the Environmental Protection Agency in
the continental United States (it is still used in Hawaii). The only other
pesticide found so far to have similar reproductive effects in males is
kepone (chlordecone).
23
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
The case
A 30-year old pesticide production worker went to his physician complaining that despite attempts to have a second child his wife had failed
to become pregnant. His medical examination showed that there was no
sperm in his semen. A medical examination of his wife did not show
anything unusual.
The worker informed his physician that he was exposed to more than 100
chemicals at work. The physician felt that he (the physician) did not have
the expertise or time to evaluate the chemical exposures. When the
worker started discussing his problem with his co-workers, he learned
that there were also other couples who had also been unable to have
children. After discussing the problem with his co-workers, the worker
finally convinced five co-workers to volunteer to submit semen samples
for analyses. The analyses revealed that all five men had few or no sperm
at all. These results were sent to another physician who had previously
been a consultant to the local trade union.
The physician, who had not seen the men before, examined them and
repeated the semen analyses. The results were the same. Further tests were
performed on the testes of several of the affected workers. The results
indicated that the absence of and the low number of sperm in the affected
workers were direct effects of exposure to toxic chemicals in the workplace.
Of the 100 chemicals used in the plant, four had been shown in animal
studies to be toxic to the male reproductive system. Since 1,2,-dibromo3-chloropropane (DBCP) was produced in the plant in the largest
amounts, it was suspected to be the cause of the men's reproductive
health problems. Two other plants that produced DBCP evaluated their
workers and found similar results. The association between the fertility
problems and exposure to DBCP was strengthened when it was found to
be the only chemical exposure that workers at all three plants had in
common.
Qyesftoomis
1.
What do you think the company should have done once the
association between the chemical and the health outcome was
realized?
2.
Do you think the manufacture of DBCP should have been banned
as well as its use?
3.
Do you think that the companies that manufacture DBCP should
give male workers the choice to work around the substance, if the
workers are informed about the potential reproductive health effects? If a man does not want to have children, should he still have
the choice to work with the chemical? Consider the possibility that
there could be long-term health effects from exposure to this chemi-
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
cal that have not been documented yet. It is known for sure that
DBCP causes a loss of fertility in men exposed to it. Should chemicals be banned completely based on the possibility of health effects?
4.
Do you think companies should not inform workers of the health
risks of DBCP and just eliminate the chemical altogether?
5.
Do you think the company should have provided the infertile men
with some sort of special compensation? What sort of compensation
do you think would be appropriate, considering the seriousness of
the outcome? Was the infertility irreversible?
6.
Do you think there are any chemicals where you work that may
produce negative reproductive health effects in men or women
workers? If yes, what actions could you take to ensure workers will
be protected?
25
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
(GDossaiiry
Source: Health hazards in the electronics industry, International Metalworkers' Federation, Asia
Monitor Resource Centre, Hong Kong, 1985.
conception: the moment at which an ovum is
fertilized by a sperm and begins to grow; the
beginning of a new life; the beginning of a
pregnancy.
congenital: describes a problem present or
occurring at birth.
embryo: an unborn child from the time of
conception until the end of its eighth week of
growth in the womb, after which time it is
called a foetus until the time of its birth.
menstrual cycle: a fertility cycle lasting on the
average 28 days and controlled by secretion
of certain hormones in a woman's body. The
cycle begins with a two- to five-day period of
menstruation (discharge of blood and uterine
lining) followed on or around the 14th day
(midpoint) by the release of an egg (ovulation)
which travels from one of the ovaries along
the fallopian tube to the womb (uterus) where
it remains for about a week. If the ovum has
not been fertilized by a man's sperm during
the few days following ovulation, hormone
changes bring about menstruation and a new
cycle.
foetus: an unborn child after it has developed
from its embryonic stage, that is, following the
eighth week from the time of conception.
mutagen: an agent, such as certain chemicals
or ionizing radiation, that can bring about a
mutation; there are about 2,000 known or
suspected mutagens.
gene: a sequence of "DNA" (deoxyribonu cleic acid) which, as a single functional unit,
carries a specific code which determines how
a cell grows. Thus it is the genes of each cell
which transmit hereditary characteristics or
"traits". Genes can be damaged (mutated) or
destroyed by certain chemicals and by
ionizing forms of radiation. DNA alone or in
c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h other molecules
constitutes a target for cell killing. Because
DNA contains genetic information vital to the
life of daughter cells, radiation damage to
DNA is a key factor in cell death.
mutation: an irreversible change in a
chromosome or a gene structure in a cell
caused by a foreign chemical substance or
ionizing radiation. This change usually has a
negative effect on cell growth and function.
Sex cells (sperm or ova) damaged by a
mutagen can transmit undesired traits to
offspring for an indefinite number of
generations.
ova: female reproductive cells present at birth
and normally released one at a time monthly
by the ovaries; eggs; (singular, "ovum").
sperm: male reproductive cells produced
continuously in the testes; "seed";
spermatozoa.
teratogen: a toxic substance which is capable
of being transported across the placenta from
the bloodstream of the mother to the
bloodstream of the embryo or foetus and
causing miscarriage, congenital birth defects
or illness.
26
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
Appendix I. Chemicals that have toxic effects on reproduction
The following list is of substances used or occurring in electronics which
threaten the ability of both men and women to have a normal sex life and
to have normal children.
Source: Health hazards in the electronics industry, International Metalworkers' Federation, Asia
Monitor Resource Centre, Hong Kong, 1985.
Chemical
name
Teratogen
Acrylonitrile
Antimony
Arsenic
Benzene
Cadmium
A
Carbon dioxide
Carbon disulfide
Carbon monoxide
Carbon tetrachloride
Cellosolve chlorinated
hydrocarbons
(several kinds)
HA
Chlorobenzene
Chloroform
Diglycidyl ether
Dimethyl formamide
Epichlorohydrin
A
Ethylene diamine
tetraacetic acid
Ethylene dibromide
Ethylene dichloride
Ethylene oxide
Ethylidene chloride
A
Freon 31
(chlorofluoromethane)
Lead
Lithium
Manganese
Mercury
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl methacrylate
Methylene chloride
Nickel
Nitrous oxides
A
Radiation
Rotating shifts
Miscarriage
or fetal
death
Birth defects,
mutations,
fetal
damage
A
Hs
Hsi
H A si
HA
H
H
A
A
H
Cancer of
reproductive
organ
H
H/A
HA
A
?
H/A
?
Menstrual
problems
?
H A si
Hsi
A
H
H/A
?
H
H
?
H
?
A
?
A
A
?
H As
?
A
H/A
H
H/A
H
A
H A si
H
H
Hsi
H A si
H/A
H/A
HAs
H
A
A
A
?
H
A
?
H
A
H
?
A
H/A
Perchloroethylene
Phosphorus
Polychlorinated bipheny s
Selenium
A
Telludum
A
Toluene
1,1,1 -trichloroethane
Trichloroethylene
Vinyl chloride
Xylene
Zinc chloride
Reduced
fertility
or
sterility
Hs
A
H
A
A
H
A
A
Hsi
H
H
H
H/A
A
?
H
?
A
A
HA
H/A
A
H
?
?
H
?
HA
HA
HA
H
H
H = Evidence for humans A = Evidence for animals H/A = Evidence for humans and for animals
6 = Reported to cause sterility in men i = Associated with male impotence
? = Known to cause cancer in other parts of the body
27
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
Sources for Appendix I
Sources for Appendix I. (Cited in primary source).
Chemical Hazards to Human Reproduction, Washington, DC, Council on Environmental Quality
(U.S. Government), January 1981.
Dapson, et al: "Effect of methyl chloroform on cardiovascular development in rats", in Teratology,
Vol. 29, No. 2, April 1984, p. 25A.
1979 Registry of toxic effects of chemical substances, Volumes 1 and 2, Publication No. 80-111,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S. Department of
Health & Human Services, 1980.
Guidelines on Pregnancy and Work, Publication No. 78-118, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1978.
"Reproductive hazards in the electronics industry", in Factsheet No. 2, Project on Health and
Safety in Electronics, 1979, Santa Clara, California.
Plunkett, E.R., et al: Occupational diseases: A syllabus of signs and symptoms, Barrett Co.,
Stamford, Connecticut, 1977.
Stellman, J.: "The effects of toxic agents on reproduction", in Occupational Health and Safety,
pp. 37-43, U.S.A., April 1979.
28
Your health and safety at work
Appendix II.
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Reproductive hazards to men and women
Source: Clinical occupational medicine, by L. Rosenstock and M.R. Cullen, W.B. Saunders
Company, London, 1986.
Hazard
Outcome
Proven reproductive hazards (based on human studies)
Anesthetic gases
Diethylstilbestrol (DES)
Hepatitis B
Organic mercury
Lead
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Radiation
Miscarriage, death of newborn
Cancer
Newborn hepatitis, liver cancer
Cerebral palsy, brain malformation
Miscarriage, premature birth
Low birth-weight
Miscarriage, brain defects, skeletal defects
Suspected reproductive hazards (based on human studies)
Carbon monoxide
Cytotoxic drugs
Ethylene oxide
Hexachlorophene
Organic solvents
Physical stress (including heat)
2,4,5 trichlorophenol
Vinyl chloride
Slowed growth
Miscarriage
Miscarriage
Birth defects
Cleft palate, miscarriage, newborn
infection, childhood cancer
Prematurity
Miscarriage
Brain defects
Suspected reproductive hazards (based on animal studies)
Acrylonitrile
Arsenic
Cadmium
Dioxin
Glycol ethers
Inorganic mercury
Organochlorine pesticides
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)
29
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Your health and safety at work
Appendix III. Chemical reproductive hazards affect both men and women
Source: Clinical occupational medicine, by L. Rosenstock and M.R. Cullen, W.B. Saunders
Company, London, 1986.
Occupational factors proven to harm sperm
Chemicals
Carbaryl
Carbon disulfide
Cytotoxic drugs
DBCP
Lead
Toluenediamine and ditrotoluene
Other
Heat
Radiation
Chemicals suspected of harming sperm
Arsenic
Benzene
3-,4-benzpyrene
Boron
Cadmium
Chloroprene
Epichlorohydrin
Ethylene dibromide
Ethylene glycol ethers
Ethylene oxide
Halothane
Kepone
Mercury
Nitrous oxide
PBBs
Trichloroethylene
Triethyleneamine
(Based primarily on animal tests)
30
*
Your health and safety at work
Appendix IV.
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Industries with a reported increased risk of adverse
reproductive outcome in exposed women, without linkage
to specific exposures
Source: Preventing occupational disease and injury, edited byJ.L. Weeks, B.S. Levy, G.R. Wagner,
American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, 1991.
Industry
Rubber industry
Leather industry
Chemical industry
Electronics industry (in solderers)
Metal works
Laboratory work
Construction
Transportation
Communications
Agriculture and horticulture
Jobs with mixed solvent
exposures
Textiles
Reported Outcome
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion, Birth defects
Birth defects
Birth defects
Birth defects
Birth defects
Birth defects,
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion
31
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Appendix V.
Your health and safety at work
Examples of agents toxic to the male reproductive system
Source: Environmental and occupational medicine, edited by W.N. Rom, Little, Brown and
Company, Boston, 1983.
Chemical hazards
Species effect
observed
(h = humans,
a = animals)
Examples of occupations
where hazards may occur
Alcohol
Alkylating agents
Anesthetic gases;
nitrous oxide
Cadmium
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetrachloride
Diethylstilbesterol (DES)
Chloroprene
Ethylene oxide
h
h,a
Social hazard
Chemical and drug manufacturing
a, h
h, a
h,a
a
a, h
h, a
a, h
Hair dyes
a
Lead
h, a
Manganese
Nickel
Organic mercury
compounds
Tris (flame retardants)
Pesticides
h
a
Medical, dental and veterinary workers
Storage batteries; smelter workers
Viscose rayon manufacture; soil treaters
Chemical laboratories; dry cleaners
DES manufacturers
Rubber workers
Health care workers (disinfectants);
users of epoxy resins
Cosmetic manufacturers;
hairdressers and barbers
Storage batteries;
policemen; smelter workers
Welders, ore smelters and roasters
Smelters, welders
Dibromochloropropane
Kepone
DDT
Carbaryl
DDVP
Malathion
Vinyl chloride
32
a
a, h
a, h
(DBCP)
Pesticide workers
Clothing and textile work
Farmworkers; pesticide manufacture;
applicators;
Exterminators
h
Polyvinylchloride manufacture
and processing
Physical hazards
Elevated carbon dioxide
Elevated temperatures
a
h, a
Microwaves
h, a
X-irradiation
h, a
Brewery workers; chemical manufacture
Bakers; glassblowers;
foundry and oven workers
Radar operators; air crewmen;
transmitter operators
Health workers; radiation workers
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Appendix VI. Carcinogenic chemicals in electronic manufacturing
Source: Health hazards in the electronics industry, International Metalworkers' Federation, Asia
Monitor Resource Centre, Hong Kong, 1985.
This is a partial (not complete) list of chemicals used or occurring in
electronics manufacturing which, according to medical experts, are
known or suspected to cause cancer in humans or animals.
Chemical
Acrylonitrile
Antimony
Aromatic amines (dyes)
Arsenic (and compounds)
Arsine
Asbestos
Benzene
Bensidine
Benzyl chloride
Beryllium (and compounds)
Bis(chloromethyl)ether
Boric acid
Cadmium (and compounds)
Carbon tetrachloride
Chlorinated diphenyls
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Chloroform
Chlorotoluene
Chromates
Chromic acid
Chromium (and compounds)
Cobalt
Dichlorobenzene
3,3'dichlorobenzidine (and salts)
a,a-dichloromethyl ether
Diepoxy butane
Diethyl amine
Diglycidyl ether
Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A
1,4-dioxane
Diphenyls
Epichlorohydrin
Ethyl acrylate^
Ethyl alcohol
Ethylene dibromide
Ethylene dichloride
Ethylene imine
Ethylene oxide
Fibreglass (crystalline)
Formaldehyde
Humans
Animals
Yes
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
S
Yes
S
Yes
S
S
S
S
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Yes
S
Yes
S
S
Yes
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
Yes
Yes
S
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
Yes
S
Yes
Yes
S
Yes
Yes
S
Yes
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
S
Yes
Gold
Isopropyl alcohol
Lead (and compounds)
Maleic anhydride
Manganese
Methyl methacrylate
Moca
Molybdenum trioxide
Nickel (and compounds)
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Yes
s"
S
Yes
S
S
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
33
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Chemical
Perchloroethylene
Phenol
Platinum
Polychlprinated biphenyls
Polymers (plastics):
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl chloride
(dust)
Propyl alcohol
Radiation:
Microwaves
Radioisotopes
Ultraviolet light
X-rays
Selenium (and compounds)
Silica; quartz
(crystalline)
Silver
Styrene
Styrene oxide
Tetrafluoroethylene
Titanium dioxide
1,1,1 trichloroethane
Trichloroethylene
Triethylene glycol diglycidyl ether
Vinyl chloride
Vinyl cyclohexene dioxide
Zinc chloride
Your health and safety at work
Humans
Animals
S
S
S
S
S
S**
Yes
S
S
Yes
Yes
S
S
Yes
Yes
S
S
S
Yes
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Yes
S
S
s"
s"
s
s
S
S
S
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
Yes = sufficient proof of causing cancer; S = SUSPECTED of causing cancer. (Note: SUSPECTED means either that there is some evidence but not enough for conclusive proof, or
that since there is some evidence of cancer in animals we must suspect there is also a
cancer risk for humans.)
probably due to contaminants which may act as co-carcinogens.
by implant only.
manufacture of isopropyl alcohol is a definite cancer risk for humans.
34
Your health and safety at work
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Appendix VII. Examples of substances observed to induce adverse
reproductive outcomes following exposure during pregnancy
Source: Environmental and occupational medicine, edited by W. N. Rom, Little, Brown and
Company, Boston, 1983.
Substance
Occupations where exposure may occur
Alkylating agents
Anaesthetic gases*
Drug workers
Operating room personnel
(including dental and veterinary workers)
Arsenic
Agricultural workers
Benzene
Chemical workers, laboratory technicians
Carbon monoxide
Outside workers, offices with smokers
Chlorinated hydrocarbons Laboratory workers, craft workers
Diethyl stilbesterol*
Drug workers
Dimethyl sulfoxide
Laboratory workers
Dioxin*
Agricultural workers
Infectious agents
Health care workers, social workers,
teachers, animal handlers, meat cutters,
inspectors, laundry workers
Rubella virus*
Cytomegalovirus
Herpes virus hominis
Toxoplasma
Syphilis*
Ionizing radiation*
X-ray technicians and technologists,
atomic workers, drug workers
Organic mercury
compounds
Organophosphate
pesticides
DFP
Parathion
Captan
Carbaryl
Theram
Polychlorinated
biphenyls*
Agricultural workers
Electrical workers, microscopists (immersion oil)
Human effects noted
35
RSZ^ROtyj/aiL© £MLD3@Z&LW P^B[LD©K]@®§
•
•
•
•
•
•
»
•
»
•
•
•
•
•
•
Collective bargaining
Workers' education and its techniques
Workers'education in action
International labour standards
Structure and functions of rural workers' organisations
Special services of rural workers' organizations
Trade unions and the ILO
Working conditions and environment
Wages
Economics
Accident prevention
Labour inspection
Freedom of association
Financial and economic analysis of enterprises
The ILO in the service of social progress
A series of workers' education manuals
In 1956 the ILO began the publication of a series of workers'
education manuals aimed at facilitating the educational tasks of
trade union organizations and other workers' education bodies.
These manuals are tools for studying essential aspects of the
labour problems within the ILO's fields of competence.
They are valuable teaching guides in the hands of directors,
instructors and discussion leaders of the workers' education
programmes organized by trade unions and workers' education
bodies. The workers' education manuals are published in
English, French and Spanish.
Their price is moderate and special terms are offered to trade
union organizations.
The manuals may be obtained from booksellers, from ILO
Offices in many countries or direct from ILO Publications,
International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland.
The languages and dialects used by workers throughout the world are countless. • To bring the manuals
within the reach of a greater number of users, the ILO encourages national initiatives aimed at widening the
range of languages in which the manuals or their simplified versions are circulated. • In agreement with the
ILO, public bodies, trade union organizations and other institutions concerned with workers' education
have translated and published entire or simplified versions of certain manuals in some 30 languages.
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE
O T H E R M O D U L E S IN T H I S C O L L E C T I O N :
Instructor's guide to the modules
Introduction to occupational health and safety
Your body at work
Controlling hazards
Noise at work
Legislation and enforcement
Chemicals in the workplace
Aids and the workplace
Ergonomics
Using health and safety committees at work
Health and safety for women and children
Since the issues covered in these Modules are sources of concern in many
workplaces, the topics in this collection were selected in consultation
with trade unions from a number of different countries. These Modules
have been designed to provide training for health and safety
representatives; members of health and safety committees, line
supervisors; foremen; or rank and file workers. They are also intended for
the use of instructors such as general worker educators; health and safety
representatives; shop stewards; and all workers who are willing to learn
about health and safety and want to share such information with others.
Courses could be organized using either a single module, several, or all:
the pedagogical approach is based on the basic principle of modular
teaching which makes it possible to adapt the materials to the time
available and the circumstances.
The collection: 50 Swiss francs
The module: 5 Swiss francs
9 "78922l"080169