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Chang Y-F., Nonlinear whole biology and loop quantum theory applied to biology
Possible Entropy Decrease in Biology and
Some Research of Biothermodynamics
Yi-Fang Chang
ABSTRACT
First, biothermodynamics and bio-entropy are introduced briefly. Next, we propose possible entropy decrease due to internal
interactions in some isolated systems in biology, in which the neuroscience, the permeable membrane, the molecular motor,
etc., are all some internal interactions. Further, a sufficient and necessary condition of entropy decrease is expressed
quantitatively. Third, the moderate input negative entropy flow is discussed quantitatively. Fourth, the thermodynamics of
physiology and psychology are introduced, and Qigong and various practices are often related to these order states with
entropy decrease. Finally, some new research in biothermodynamics are discussed, for example, we propose entropy decrease
as an index of therapeutics in biophysics, and life lies in a combination between motion and rest, etc.
Key Words: entropy, biology, thermodynamics, internal interaction, negative entropy flow, isolated system, physiology,
practice.
NeuroQuantology 2013; 2: 189-196
1. Introduction1
It is well-known that biophysics includes
thermodynamics, which corresponds to the
metabolism of living matter (Kane et al.,
1978), and the second law of thermodynamics
usually is:
( S system  S surroundin gs )  0 ,
(1)
for a spontaneous process (Hames et al.,
2000). Erwin Schrödinger (1944) published a
farsighted book about the concept of life. The
book was devoted to the relationship between
physics and biology. He discussed three
problems of fundamental importance for
biophysics: The thermodynamic bases of life
and the molecular basis of life, while the
normal biological processes are consistent
with the laws of physics. Schrödinger pointed
out that “an organism feeds with negative
Corresponding author: Yi-Fang Chang
Address: Department of Physics, Yunnan University, Kunming,
650091, China.
 [email protected]
Received April 29, 2013. Revised May 13, 2013.
Accepted June 1, 2013.
eISSN 1303-5150
entropy (neguentropy)”. His arguments
demonstrate that life possesses lower entropy.
Then Edsall and Gutfreund (1983) discussed
generally biothermodynamics. Wiesinger and
Hinz (1986) investigated the thermodynamic
data for biochemistry and biothermodynamics.
Kennedy (2001) researched biothermodynamics for sustainability of action in
ecosystems. Further, biology requires the
nonlinear thermodynamics. Ilya Prigogine, et
al. (1984), developed nonlinear thermodynamics and a dissipative structure theory
(Volkenstein 1977; 1982).
Jean (1978) introduced a concept of
entropy in the domain of growth as an
application of the Principle of Optimal Design,
and presented this development using the four
kinds of axioms found in axiomatic
mathematical physics. But, it is different from
'entropy' in the physico-chemical sense.
Matthews, et al. (1987) proposed that the
stability of a protein can be increased by
selected amino acid substitutions that decrease
the configurational entropy of unfolding.
Mekjian (1991) presented a similarity in the
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Chang Y-F., Nonlinear whole biology and loop quantum theory applied to biology
mathematical
structure
for
cluster
distributions in physics and genetic diversity,
and discussed maximum entropy methods.
The Gibbs conference on biothermodynamics arose in the late 1980's as a ‘selforganized’ endeavor, and has fostered the
development
of
new
thermodynamic
approaches and their applications in
biochemistry (Ackers et al., 1997). Page and
Williams (1997) discussed entropy of
activation, in which smaller entropy changes
from the restriction of internal degrees of
freedom occur in cyclization reactions. The
electrostriction effect is well exemplified by the
dissociation of neutral species such as
carboxylic acids where the ionization constant
is associated with some 84J/(Kmol) decrease
in entropy. Hydroxide ion attack on esters is
associated with a large decrease in entropy.
Scully (2001) discussed extracting work from a
single thermal bath via quantum negentropy.
But, he thought that this process is attended by
constantly increasing entropy and does not
violate the second law of thermodynamics. The
application of concepts, principles and
methods of thermodynamics of equilibria and
processes to bioengineering systems has led to
a new and growing field: engineering
biothermodynamics. Keller (2008) gives an
outline of basic aspects, changes and actual
examples in this field, the basic concepts and
laws of thermodynamics extended to systems
with internal variables, which serve as models
for biofluids and other biosystems. Stockar
(2010) reviewed biothermodynamics of live
cells as a tool for biotechnology and
biochemical engineering.
The basis of thermodynamics is statistics;
from this we research some basic problems on
entropy in biology.
2. Possible entropy decrease in biology
In the statistics a basic principle is statistical
independence: The state of one subsystem
does not affect the probabilities of various
states of the other subsystems, because
different subsystems may be regarded as
weakly interacting (Landau et al., 1980). It
shows that various interactions among these
subsystems should not be considered. But, if
various internal complex mechanism and
interactions cannot be neglected, a state with
smaller entropy (for example, self-organized
structure) will be able to appear under some
conditions. In this case, the statistics and the
second law of thermodynamics should be
different (Chang, 1994; 1997; 2005; 2012c;
2013b). Because internal interactions bring
about inapplicability of the statistical
independence, entropy decrease in an isolated
system is possible. In particular, it has a
possibility for attractive process, internal
energy, system entropy and so on. Therefore,
we proposed that a necessary condition of
entropy decrease in isolated system is
existence of internal interactions (Chang,
2009b). The internal interactions often are
related with nonlinearity (Chang, 1997).
Because any biological system has the
complexity, based on their inseparability and
correlativity, we proposed the nonlinear whole
biology and four basic hypotheses (Chang,
2012b). Further, we combined the loop
quantum theory, and proposed a new method
of quantum gravity for protein folding, and
obtained four new approximate solutions and
researched three possible origins for protein
folding (Chang, 2012b).
We proposed a universal formula for any
isolated system (Chang, 2005):
dS  dS a  dS i
(2)
a
where dS is an additive part of entropy and
is always positive, and dS i is an interacting
part of entropy and can be positive or negative.
Eq.(2) is similar to a well-known formula:
dS  d i S  d e S
(3)
in the theory of dissipative structure proposed
by Prigogine. Two formulae are applicable for
internal or external interactions, respectively.
Further, based on the Eq.(2), a sufficient
and necessary condition of entropy decrease in
isolated
system
may
be
expressed
quantitatively (Chang, 2012c):
0  dS i   dS a ,
(for negative dS i ).
i
i.e., | dS | dS
a
(4)
In
usual
cases,
the
condition
corresponds to that in isolated systems there
are some stronger internal attractive
interactions. Negative temperature is based on
the Kelvin scale, we find that it will derive
necessarily entropy decrease. The known
negative temperature is a fallacy in
thermodynamics, and is contradiction with
usual meaning of temperature and with some
basic concepts of physics and mathematics
(Chang, 2012c).
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Chang Y-F., Nonlinear whole biology and loop quantum theory applied to biology
We proposed entropy decrease due to
fluctuation magnified and internal interactions
in some isolated systems, and calculated
quantitatively the possibility of entropy
decrease (Chang, 2005; 2009a). Some possible
tests for entropy decrease in isolated systems
in physics, chemistry (Chang, 2013b), etc., are
researched. Generally, it should be confirmed
by many stable states in Nature.
The complex biological systems provide
some modes on entropy decrease in an
isolated system. This is known that any
organism all is a typical self-organized system,
and must be an order process of entropy
decrease. As long as this process is isolated at
least in a certain time, it all is a violation for
the
second
law
of
the
classical
thermodynamics. Simultaneity, the cell
membrane and ferment show a control for
direction, which is a similar with the Maxwell
demon.
Brain, consciousness and neuroscience
are namely some internal interactions, which
even possible take a key role for decrease
entropy in isolated system. Dormancy of living
body is an order state, whose entropy pass
through adjustment and decrease to smaller.
For the typical instance, the hibernation of
animal, and the dormancy of Madagascar’s
lemur and of various hexapods all show
obviously the entropy decrease in isolated
system.
Ashby (1956) pointed out that two
substances such as ammonia and hydrogen in
a gaseous state can be mixed to form a solid.
Similarly, about twenty different types of
amino acids present in microorganisms can
gather together to form a new reproductive
process. It is commonly understood that solids
are more orderly than gases, such that the
entropy of a solid is less than the entropy of
the same material in its gaseous state.
Microorganisms should likewise represent a
more orderly state than the amino acids from
which they are formed. The BelousovZhabotinski reaction in chemistry shows a
period change that occurs automatically, at
least during specific time intervals. Within any
microscopic region, the Pauli Exclusion
Principle may spontaneously produce a more
orderly state.
In a biological self-organizing process,
some isolated systems may spontaneously
proceed toward the orderly states. Prigogine
and Stengers (1984) have discussed such a
191
case: Under particular circumstance, such as
when Dictyostelium discoideum experiences a
lack of nutrition, solitary cells will
spontaneously unite to form a larger cell
cluster. In such a case, the cells and nutritionliquid together may be regarded as an isolated
system. Jantsch (1979) pointed out that when
different types of sponge and water are mixed
within a uniform suspension, they rest for a
few hours and then automatically separate into
different types. More interestingly, when a
small hydra is cut into its individual cells, the
individual cells spontaneously evolve to form
cell-clusters.
Some
cell
clusters
are
malformations, but other cell clusters will
eventually become a normal hydra.
The auto-control mechanism in an
isolated system may produce a degree of order.
If it does not need the input energy, at least in
a given time interval, the auto-control will act
like a type of Maxwell demon, which is just a
type of internal interactions. Ordering is the
formation of structure through the selforganization from a disordered state. The
emergence and self-organization of biology
and human all depend mainly on selfinteraction, because only sunlight cannot
produce spontaneously biology on Earth, at
least, they cannot evolve some higher living
body.
In an evolutional process with long time,
life forms a nonlinear complex and complete
system with multi-levels: gene, cell, tissue,
organ,
system,
individual,
population,
community, ecosystem, bio-sphere. In the
nonlinear whole biology the fourth hypothesis
is namely the extensive environmental biology.
For various levels in isolated systems usual
entropy increase, but entropy possibly
decrease under some conditions with internal
interactions, which has possibly different
levels in biological systems, for example,
membrane,
enzyme,
and
adenosine
triphosphats (ATP) and molecular motor, etc.
Membrane is one of basic biologic
framework. The biologic membranes may
choose a direction self-motion. Samal and
Geckeler (2001) investigated an unexpected
solute aggregation for DNA, etc., in water on
dilution, which violates the second law of
thermodynamics. The cell membrane is a
barrier with selectivity, on which the ion
channel exists. For cell it inputs continuously
the metabolized matter, and removes the
metabolized outcome. ATP provides energy,
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Chang Y-F., Nonlinear whole biology and loop quantum theory applied to biology
and lead that living body shows the
macroscopic order. A permeable membrane is
namely the Maxwell demon, which may be
entropy decrease.
The life energy originates mainly from
the photosynthesis, which compounds ATP by
light, and translates into the chemical energy.
ATP hydrolyzed is an exergonic reaction, and
the glycolysis may again produce ATP, which is
an endothermic process. The both opposite
processes must include an entropy decrease.
The molecular motor takes a very
important role for keeping high order in
biologic systems. We think, the molecular
motor corresponds to dS<0, in which the
chemical energy of cell translates into
mechanical energy, whose efficiency is almost
100%. In the microtubule the motor proteins
have kinesin and dynein. Their moving way is
hand-over-hand (Yildiz et al., 2003). The
kinesin moves matter of cell nucleus to cell
membrane, and dynein moves matter of cell
membrane to cell nucleus. Their transport
direction is just opposite, but, both are not
competition (Karp, 2002). Moreover, many
motors may work together, and produce speed
with 10 time unit motor. It is namely order
cooperative action (Julicher et al., 1995).
The rotary motor is composed of biologic
macromolecule, whose volume is small, and
efficiency is very high almost 100%, and they
may converse rotate. Its type is ATPase, which
is a core enzyme for biologic energy translation
in organism. The entire process of cell up
growth and metabolism need energy, which is
obtained from the chemical energy hydrolyzed
by ATP under the most cases and ATP, is
synthetized from ATPase. The molecular
motor of ATPase may hydrolyze ATP, and may
also synthetize ATP. This is similar with
membrane and Maxwell demon.
The endothermic reactions and opposite
exergonic reaction in biology should
correspond to entropy increase and opposite
entropy decrease (Chang, 1994; 1997; 2005).
Further, we should investigate large function
of chlorophyll and enzyme, and their
thermodynamics, in particular, in which
internal interactions and entropy.
In a word, biology is a wide region for
research of entropy decrease in various
isolated systems.
3. Moderate input negative entropy flow
for open system
In the dissipative structure theory, the total
change of entropy for an open nonequilibrium
system is a formula (3), in which dS i  0 is the
entropy production inside the system, and dSe
is the entropy flow, which may be positive or
negative, such dS e  dS e  dS e . Therefore, the
total entropy can decrease when input entropy
flow is negative, and is given as
S  S 0  dS  S 0  dS i  dS e  dS e  0
(5)
which and the entropy production are always
positive. Then the maximum entropy is
S max  S 0  dS i  dS e  S 0  dS e  0
(6)
The maximum entropy defines a
quantitative range of moderate degree on
input negative entropy flow for any open
system, whose absolute value is always greater
than zero, but the total entropy can never
become negative.
The general goal for input negative
entropy flow is: (a) an existing order structure
is kept, such that negative entropy flow equals
entropy production, and the total entropy is
invariance so that dS=0 and S  S0 =constant.
And (b) it allows for internal entropy
fluctuations, which imply the construction of a
new order structure. In the second case, it is
common for dS e  0 and dS e  dS i , so that
the total entropy decrease and dS<0.
Under the condition defined in equation
(6), an input value of negative entropy flow
can be neither excessively large nor small.
Excessively small values prohibit the existence
of a dissipative structure and do not achieve
the threshold value for transformation to a
new order structure. Conversely, if the
excessively large values are beyond the
sustained power of the system itself or the
particular circumstances governing the
system, it will break various stabilities.
Therefore, the moderate degree on input
negative entropy flow includes a control of
open degree in system and a selection of input
time. The input negative entropy flow is
determined by the internal conditions of
system and is restricted by the external
circumstances.
In particular, all living bodies are
complex open systems. For either case, their
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Chang Y-F., Nonlinear whole biology and loop quantum theory applied to biology
entropies can be neither overly large nor small,
and the input negative entropy must have a
period. For any open system, a rational
combination between the input period and the
input amount of negative entropy flow is
guaranteed for either a stable structure or for
the continual transformation to newer ordered
structures. The moderate degree of input
negative entropy flow is a universal scientific
law. It is suitable for human, any living system
and the dissipative structure, and for various
natural and social systems.
Eigen proposed the hypercyle theory,
which discussed self-organization of matter
and
the
evolution
of
biological
macromolecules (Eigen, 1973). It is in order to
model prebiotic evolution governed by the
Darwinian principles of competition between
species and mutations, and leads to a new level
of evolution. Here cooperative behaviors are
reflected by intrinsically nonlinear reaction
mechanisms. The hypercycle theory may find
important applications in fields other than
biomolecules.
4. Thermodynamics of physiology and
emotion, and possible entropy decrease
in various practices
In physiology, increased metabolism and an
emotional state of being upset should be
characterized by larger entropy. Conversely,
decreased metabolism and easy conscience or
a calm and good-natured emotional state
should be characterized by smaller entropy.
The immunity of an organism increases for
positive emotions, but metabolism and bodytemperature show a remarkable increase for a
nervous state and negative emotions increase
an organism’s susceptibility to various
diseases.
Anomalous cognition (AC) is defined as
a form of information transfer in which all
known sensorial stimuli are absent. Lantz et al.
(1994) have reported testing sender condition
and target types in AC experiments. There is a
difference between static and dynamic target
material. Entropy is defined as a measure of
uncertainty or lack of information about a
system. The data from both of these studies
were analyzed with regard to the gradient of
Shannon’s entropy of the targets. May et al.
(1994) were able to compute the entropy and
its mathematical gradient for each target in
these experiments. AC was more pronounced
when targets underwent massive changes in
193
energy or entropy in a very short period of
time. In addition, dynamic targets produced
better results in the Ganzfeld than did static
targets, a result that is suggestive of changes of
entropy.
Lumsden-Cook (2005a) has previously
considered emotion as a possible factor in
mind-matter/PK interactions. Two studies
were conducted that examined how emotional
states of anger and elation mediated the
outputs of Random Even Generator (REG).
These studies provide some support for the
idea that affective states might influence REG
activity. He also presented the results of two
experiments investigating how emotional
states can influence micro-psychokinetic
functioning that may facilitate mind-matter
interactions (Lumsden-Cook, 2005b). Changes
of emotion are often sudden, such that their
description may be an example of catastrophe
theory, which was proposed by Tom (1983)
and was developed and applied by Zeeman,
Arnold, Poston, Steward and Gillmore, et al.
NeuroQuantology
investigates
consistently quantum neurobiology since
2003. Shan (2003) proposed a possible
quantum basis of panpsychism. Pratt (2003)
searched
consciousness,
causality
and
quantum physics. Tarlaci (2005) discussed
quantum brain dynamics, general quantum
neurodynamics, quantum field theory and
consciousness. Tarlacı (2010a) proved we need
quantum physics for cognitive neuroscience,
and researched the probabilistic quantum
thinking and obtained experimental results
that are of basic significance in the fields of
neuroscience and of psychology (Tarlaci,
2010c). Erol (2010a, b) researched the basics
and concise relations between Schrödinger
wave equation and consciousness/mind, and
the quantum entanglement as fundamentals
and relations with consciousness/mind.
Tarlacı (2010b) discussed a historical view of
the relation between quantum mechanics and
the
brain from
a NeuroQuantologic
perspective, and is assumed to be a quantum
mechanical many-body system interacting
with the macroscopic neuron system.
We proposed quantitatively the extended
quantum theory and the extended quantum
biology (Chang, 2002; 2012a), in which the
formulations are the same with the quantum
mechanics and only quantum constant h is
different for various general cases. We
discussed the neural synergetics, and derive
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NeuroQuantology | June 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 2 | Page 189-196
Chang Y-F., Nonlinear whole biology and loop quantum theory applied to biology
quantitatively the Lorenz equations and
Lorenz model of brain, whose two wings
correspond to two hemispheres of brain, and
two hemispheres jump about, which describes
thinking. It shows that life lies in cooperation
in chaos. The neural synergetics possesses
three levels: structure, activity and thinking on
brain. Based on the quantum and nonlinear
neurobiology, we researched the soliton-chaos
double solutions of the nonlinear equation,
and their possible meaning. Combining some
known theories in neurobiology and the elastic
hypothesis of memory, etc., the physical
neurobiology is proposed (Chang, 2013a).
Bernroider (2003) discussed quantumneurodynamics and the relation to conscious
experience. Vimal (2009 a, b; 2010a, b)
researched systematically the subjective
experience aspect of consciousness as an
integration of classical, quantum and
subquantum
concepts
for
emergence
hypothesis, and discussed a theory of
everything as introduction of consciousness in
Schrödinger equation, standard model, and
loop quantum gravity and string theory and
unification of experiences with fundamental
forces.
Landsberg defined “disorder” as the
entropy normalized to the maximum entropy,
which is that of the equiprobable distribution,
corresponding to a completely random system.
A living being as a whole represents an
extremely orderly state of being and must be
an open system for long-time. A living being’s
death represents a transformation to a state of
total disorder, while sickness is a state of local
disorder and a state of recovering from
sickness is marked by a return to the higher
order of health. The order parameters are thus
health targets. But, for a short-time Qigong
and some states attained during religious
practices, for example Buddhist and Taoist
meditation, may be considered isolated
systems that are characterized by entropy
decreases.
In Buddhist practice, everyone is
expected to face every day in a happy mood
with thanks to Nature. A harmonious
unification of these two activities of the human
mind (body) and spirit can only consist
completely of a normal sound activity. Qigong
requires that one must be calm and goodnatured, which is a more orderly state for a
person. Clinical practices show that the
practice of Qigong causes a reduction in
human metabolism. This reduction seems to
the possibility that human ideas and similar
thought forms also reduce entropy, achieving
an ordering within a living system that could
cure sickness and increase internal immune
system strength. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
of Qigong practitioners displays slow waves
similar to those of children, demonstrating
that the electromagnetic activity of brain cells
is more highly ordered.
In the Chinese traditional practices the
Inducing into Tranquilization and Qigong, and
the “Chan-Ding” in Buddhism are all an
ordering state. In these cases the metabolism
should be entropy decrease in isolated system,
in particular, for the BiGu as a Chinese special
practice. These practice methods all are to
benefit the control of consciousness. Probably,
some ways are propitious to the cure of cancer.
Modern neuroscience believes that when
the brain is stimulated by certain outside
signals, it will produce induced electric
potential, whose scale is related to the degree
of attention. When the signals are stronger the
potential is higher. Conversely, the potential is
lower when the signals are weaker. The
propagation of Qigong inside a body is
analogous to the motion of a superfluid, which
corresponds to a state of lower entropy. The
superfluid equation has a soliton solution,
which may possibly describe this propagation.
5. Some new research on
biothermodynamics
The modern medicine experiments shown that
the restriction of heat absorbed can decrease
the cancer ratio. Based on dS=dU/T, and
T=37C is basic invariant, a smaller dU
corresponds to a smaller dS, and dU<0
corresponds to dS<0. It is also consistent with
BiGu, which is also a therapy. Moreover, many
tumor suppressors, for example p53, are
namely some internal interactions (Malanga et
al., 1998).
Entropy decrease is a change of entropy
dS extended from the positive number to the
entire real axis included negative number,
dS(+R,0)(+R,-R). Further, we suppose that
entropy can extend to the plane of complex
number. It corresponds to dS is a complex
~
number, whose pure form may be dS  idS ,
whose meaning is possibly that dS represents
~
quantity of change, and dS represents
undulate of change. They can correspond to
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NeuroQuantology | June 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 2 | Page 189-196
Chang Y-F., Nonlinear whole biology and loop quantum theory applied to biology
vectors and the life index on heartbeat, breath,
blood pressure and so on. Moreover, these
formulas may combine theories of Schrödinger
and Prigogine.
We propose an entropy index of health
on human body: dS/dt should be least, even at
period of time, man (woman) can regulate
breath, body and ideology, and reach to
dS/dt<0. This is namely:
dS2 / dt  dS1 / dt  0  dS1 / dt  dS2 / dt


i.e., dS2  dS1  0  dS1  dS 2 .
(7)
(8)
West and Severini et al., discussed
entropy in the cancer cell, and dynamical
network entropy in cancer. We assume that
entropy decrease as an index of health and
therapeutics in biophysics may be applied to
investigate cure of disease. It is often
propitious to prolong of life for many animals
and human practices. This is an order out of
chaos (Prigogine et al., 1984), and corresponds
also to the balance between yin and yang in the
traditional Chinese medicine. We have studied
a system of nonlinear whole medicine (Chang,
2012b).
The diabetes mellitus as a typical
metabolic disease is short of insulin and the
metabolic disturbance. A diet for the patient of
diabetes mellitus must determine time and
quantity, and it is consistent with the
moderate input negative entropy flow for both
input time and control of quantity in open
system. For an epileptic patient, the activity of
the human brain is chaotic rather than
periodic, even though breathing, heartbeat,
blood circulation and the endocrine system
must be periodic.
A famous saying said that Life lies in
motion. But, I think Life should lie in a
combination between motion and rest, and in
a balance between chaos and order.
6. Conclusion
According to the second law of thermodynamics, all systems in Nature will tend to
“heat death”. But, various developments in
Universe are not always disorder. General
biologic systems never are more disorder. The
declining process of life is from order to
disorder, and entropy increases. The origin,
birth and developed process of life must be
from disorder to order, and information
increases. It should be entropy decrease with
195
internal interactions. Both middle processes
are the dissipation structure, and entropy is
invariant. This is a total principle, which
shows the relation between entropy decrease
and life science.
The self-organized order of any organism
in isolated system is inevitably a process of
entropy decrease, it may hold at least in a
certain time. Various biological systems
possess very rich and colorful internal
interactions;
we
believe
that
the
biothermodynamics will make with great
contribution for the test of development on the
thermodynamics of entropy decrease in
isolated system.
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