International Journal of Health Sciences
March 2016, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 21-30
ISSN: 2372-5060 (Print), 2372-5079 (Online)
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development
DOI: 10.15640/ijhs.v4n1a3
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/ijhs.v4n1a3
Non-Medical Use of Prescription Stimulants among College Students: An Updated Report
Barbara Prudhomme White, Ph.D., OTR/L1 Kathleen Grace-Bishop, MHSA, CHES2
& Lana Ciali, BA, MSOT3
1.0 Introduction
Research suggests that non-medical use of prescription stimulants (NPS), or medication misuse, among
college students continues to be a serious issue (Arria & DuPont, 2010; Garnier-Dykstra, Caldeira, Vincent, O'Grady,
& Arria, 2012; Looby, De Young, & Earleywine, 2013; McCabe, West, Teter, & Boyd, 2014; Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration, 2009; 2013). Prescription stimulant medication, primarily methylphenidate
found in Ritalin and Adderall, has been used for some time on college campuses, but continued misuse and apparent
rises in misuse seem especially linked to an increase in prescriptions for ADHD, resulting in more students having the
drug available (Hall, Irwin, Bowman, Frankenberger, & Jewett, 2005; McCabe et al., 2014). For example, the 2011 the
University of Michigan’s national “Monitoring the Future” study found prevalence for Adderall prescriptions to be
9.8% among college students across the country (Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2012) in comparison
to non-college respondents of similar age (6.7%). One study noted that the prevalence of ever engaging in illicit use of
prescription stimulants during college was 25.6%, (Bavarian, Flay, Ketcham, & Smit, 2013) while others described
estimates of NPS between 13.5-19% at various colleges/universities in the US (Arria et al., 2008; Teter, McCabe,
Cranford, Boyd, & Guthrie, 2005; White, Becker-Blease, & Grace-Bishop, 2006), with lifetime NPS estimated
somewhere between 5-35% (Wilens et al., 2008). Supporting evidence for prescription stimulant demand from all
sources, including through legitimate prescription and use as well as through diversion, can be seen in data from the
United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which found that production of methylphenidate (Ritalin) in
the US increased almost 361% from 2002 to 2013 (Final Adjusted Aggregate Production Quotas for Schedule I and II
Controlled Substances and Assessment of Annual Needs for the List I Chemicals Ephedrine, Pseudoephedrine, 2013).
For college students the most common sources of prescription stimulant medication for nonmedical use
appear to be peers (McCabe, Cranford, Boyd, & Teter, 2007)(McCabe & Boyd, 2005). Garnier et al. (2010) found that
within college students prescribed a stimulant medication, 35.8% reported diverting the medication at least once by
sharing or selling the medication. The drug with the highest rate of diversion in this study was ADHD medications
(61.7%). The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) considers stimulant medications a Schedule II controlled
substance due to their high potential for abuse, potentially leading to physical and psychological dependency. As a
result it is illegal to possess these medication unless they are prescribed, with penalties varying state to state (DEA,
2011; NIDA, 2014).
In addition to being illegal and potentially addictive, misusing prescription stimulants also has health
consequences for individuals. The National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA, 2014) list acute health effects as
increased alertness, attention, energy; suppressed appetite; increased wakefulness; irregular heartbeat, dangerously high
body temperature, and potential risk for cardiovascular failure or seizures (NIDA, 2014).
1
Associate Professor, College of Health and Human Services, 117 Hewitt Hall, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH
03824 USA. [email protected], 603-862-2461 (office), 508-631-0918 (cell)
2
Director of Education and Promotion, UNH Health Services, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH USA.
3
University of New Hampshire, Durham NH, USA.
22
International Journal of Health Sciences, Vol. 4(1), March 2016
Long-term health effects listed include anxiety, hostility, paranoia, psychosis and addiction, especially at high
doses, or with alternate routes of administration (e.g., snorting, injecting). When used with alcohol, as reported by
students when "partying" (White et al., 2006), NIDA reports that NPS can result in alcohol overdose because of it
masks the depressant effects of alcohol. Finally, withdrawal can result in depression, sleep disorders, and fatigue
(NIDA, 2014).
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2007 required manufactures of prescription stimulants to put a
“black box” warning label, meaning that medical studies indicate these drugs carry a significant risk of serious, or even
life-threatening, adverse effects. The warning label states that “amphetamines have a high potential for abuse”, and
that misuse of amphetamines may cause “sudden death and serious cardiovascular adverse events” and that the
“administration of amphetamines for prolonged periods of time may lead to drug dependence” (FDA, 2009).
According to the 2013 Drug Abuse Warning Network (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, 2013) the number of Emergency Department (ED) visits involving ADHD stimulant medications
increased between 2005 and 2010 from 13,379 to 31,244 visits. Although the number of ED visits involving ADHD
stimulant medications did not increase significantly for children younger than18 between 2005 and 2010, there were
increased visits from 2,131 to 8,148 visits among persons aged 18 to 25. Between 2005 and 2010, the number of ED
visits related to ADHD stimulant medications that involved nonmedical use increased from 5,212 to 15,585 visits;
those involving adverse reactions increased from 5,085 to 9,181 visits (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, 2013).
Students, however, do not appear aware of the risk and the potential adverse side effects attributed to the
misuse of prescription stimulant medication (Desantis & Audrey, 2010; DeSantis, Webb, & Noar, 2008; Weyandt et
al., 2013; Weyandt et al., 2009). In one study of undergraduates on a college campus, 79% of reported illicit users
surveyed were not at all concerned about using these drugs (Sussman, Pentz, Spurijt-Metz, & Miller, 2006). DeSantis
et al., and others (DeSantis, Noar, & Webb, 2009; DeSantis et al., 2008; White et al., 2006) also reported a similar lack
of concern in different student samples, while also reporting that students perceived their use of prescription
stimulants as a safe alternative to other drug use, and that some students believed that prescription stimulants should
be available without a prescription. Moreover, others found that college students who perceived prescription
stimulants as harmless were 10 times more likely to use them then those who perceived these drugs as harmful (Arria
et al., 2008).
Studies that have investigated non-medical use of prescribed stimulants suggest that there are two general
categories into which NPS falls for most college students: either for academic or recreational purposes. Some of the
most common academic motives for NPS appear to be to increase concentration and alertness (McCabe, Knight,
Teter, & Wechsler, 2005; Arria et al., 2008) and to decrease fatigue while studying (Hall et al., 2005; White et al., 2006).
Others confirmed academic motives as a primary motivation as well (Looby et al., 2013). Recreational use purposes
include wishing to stay awake longer to party and "have fun" (Arria et al., 2008; White et al., 2006).
Students most at risk for NPS tend to be between 21-25 years, white, members of fraternities/sororities,
those who may have symptoms---diagnosed or self-perceived--- of attention problems, as well as students who
perceive themselves to be at risk academically (Labbe & Maisto, 2010; Looby et al., 2013; Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration, 2013; Wilens et al., 2008). Most appear to believe that stimulant medications
will afford them academic benefit such as concentration improvement and increased alertness (Judson & Langdon,
2009). However, research examining whether the use of prescription stimulants enhances cognitive abilities or
improves academic performance suggests that they may not (Weyandt et al., 2013). While students are exposed to
misinformation about the performance enhancing aspects of prescription stimulants as they are often referred top
“smart drugs” in the popular media, more recent studies challenge this view (Advokat, 2010; Arria & DuPont, 2010)
suggesting that study benefits may be short-lived, with little effect on knowledge retention and understanding of
material. Further, some research suggests that it may be the expectations of benefit rather than stimulant medications
alone that produces academic enhancement (Mommaerts et al., 2013), in a way supporting self-efficacy theory
(Bandura, 1997; Snyder & Lopez, 2007).
White, Grace-Bishop & Ciali
23
In summary, there is a significant amount of literature suggesting that college students continue to misuse
stimulant medications and that their reasons generally focus on academic enhancement and attempts to manage
academic stress, and to a lesser degree, partying. Students most at risk for NPS appear to be those under perceived
academic stress, with lower overall GPAs. The purposes of this mixed methods study were twofold. The first purpose
was to study the current prevalence estimates of stimulant medication misuse at an institution we had previously
studied 9-10 years prior. We added additional questions about stress perception, anxiety, and hours of sleep in order
to explore whether these life attributes co-existed with stimulant medication misuse/abuse. The second purpose was
to extend our study into qualitative methods, interviewing a small sample of known users regarding their reasons for
and perception of stimulant medication misuse/abuse.
Methods
Participants
This mixed-methods study applied both quantitative (survey) and qualitative (phone interviews) procedures to
collect data from 936 undergraduate students ranging in age from 18-34 years. All respondents were students currently
attending the university. For the survey portion of the study, a total of 930 respondents, 91% of whom were
undergraduates and recruited to participate through posted flyers in common areas (e.g. dining halls) as well as
through class announcements completed an online questionnaire. While respondents represented all colleges and
disciplines at the university, a higher percentage of health and human service majors responded as well as a majority of
females. We did not ask about ethnicity; however, In AY 2013-14, there were approximately 12,000 undergraduates at
UNH, 92% of whom identified as white. An incentive to be entered into a drawing for one of four $50 gift cards was
offered to those who completed the study. See Table 1 for participant characteristics (survey portion).
Participants for the qualitative portion of the study consisted of six undergraduate students (three males and
three females) at the same university, recruited through posted flyers on campus. All six were between 18-24 years of
age. Participants called in anonymously using *67 on their cellphones to block numbers, and gave verbal anonymous
consent. Pseudonyms were assigned at the beginning of the conversation and to ensure confidentiality, no identifying
questions were asked. An undergraduate student under the supervision of the first author completed the phone
interviews in partial fulfillment of the thesis requirements for the McNair Scholars (USA TRiO) Program. Phone
interviews were recorded; once the transcribing and analyses of the narratives were completed, the audio recordings
were erased. The University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved both methods of data collection from
participants.
Online questionnaire (survey method) and interviews (qualitative method)
The online questionnaire portion of the study was completed first, prior to the qualitative portion, beginning
in fall semester 2011, through fall semester 2013. Data were anonymously collected using Qualtrics survey software
(Version 2013, Provo, Utah). To examine whether prevalence rates at the university had remained the same or
changed, we deployed a similar questionnaire to one used previously (White et al., 2006).
24
International Journal of Health Sciences, Vol. 4(1), March 2016
However, in addition to asking about stimulant medication use for medical and non-medical (NPS) purposes,
we added additional questions about stress perception, anxiety, and hours of sleep in order to explore whether these
life attributes were co-existing with stimulant medication misuse/abuse. This paper focuses primarily on data related
to NPS, stress perception/anxiety, and academic concerns including attention disorders.
Preliminary results from the first round of the survey portion of the study helped shape the guiding questions
for the qualitative portion, conducted in summer 2012, in which participant narratives (phone interviews) were
recorded, transcribed, and thematically organized. Guiding questions were designed to elicit conversation about
stimulant medication use/misuse, and students were encouraged to elaborate as much as they were able to each
question. Guiding questions included:









How long have you used stimulant medications and for what purposes?
Can you tell us about your overall experiences with and feelings about taking these medications?
Have you ever had any concerns about taking these medications?
Describe the level of social and/or academic pressure you feel generally?
In what ways do you feel as though you need help from stimulant medications?
Describe whether you think stimulant medication misuse/abuse is a problem on college campuses?
Can you describe any risks with taking stimulant medications in ways not prescribed?
What are your thoughts on continuing (or not) to use stimulant medications?
What would you like to tell us about using stimulant medications that we haven’t asked?
Results
Survey
Descriptive statistics were applied, using SPSS v.21 (IBM Corp. Released 2012. IBM SPSS Statistics for
Windows). A conservative response rate of 37% was calculated, based on requests to participate sent to an estimated
2500 random students enrolled in approximately 18 classes as well as from flyer announcements posted in the campus
union building. Missing data were not scored or counted.
Table 2 presents an overview of findings related to non-medical use of prescription stimulants (NPS).
Overall, nearly a third (30%) of all respondents reported that finding stimulant medications on campus was “easy or
somewhat easy.” Respondents reported slightly higher NPS (23.5%) than our findings in the 2002 study in which
students reported 16% stimulant medication misuse/abuse. Of NPS reporters, a fair percentage (36%) misuse at least
monthly, and more than half (59%) have GPA’s above 3.0. Similar to what we found previously, the majority of
students report NPS primarily for academic purposes (74%) while a smaller percent (26%) report NPS for partying.
Also similar to what we found previously, the majority of students participating in NPS were not diagnosed with
attention disorders nor did they hold prescriptions for stimulant medications (95%). Only a small number of students
with ADHD reported NPS (5%).
White, Grace-Bishop & Ciali
25
Table 3 presents descriptive information among stress/anxiety variables, sleep, and NPS. The stress
perception (SP) variable was calculated by summing responses on four questions asking specifically about stress
perception and ability to cope in the past month. A descriptive analysis revealed a score range of 4-12, with a mean of
7.62 (SD 2.35) for the entire sample. High stress perception was defined as those students who scored at or above
1SD from the mean (>/= 10). Ten percent of students within the entire sample reported being diagnosed with
anxiety problems, and 23% (n = 212) reported high stress perception, using the criteria above. In both of these
variables, female students were in the majority. Within the anxiety disordered/higher stressed groups, 19% reported
NPS. Of note, 86% of the highly stressed students (n = 212) reported getting fewer than 7 hours of sleep (n= 182)
compared to students reporting within the average stress perception range, for which only 18% (n = 124) reported
sleeping fewer than 7 hours per night.
26
International Journal of Health Sciences, Vol. 4(1), March 2016
Student Interviews
Table 4 presents findings from the interviews conducted as the second portion of this study, which sought to
more deeply investigate reasons for NPS. Narrative data from the phone interviews were analyzed by the first two
authors independently and clustered into recurring themes. Two participants held or had held prescriptions for
stimulant medications but still used the drug in ways not prescribed (e.g. only for tests/studying or partying). Four
participants procured the medication from others, by illegally purchasing or being given the drug from someone who
had a prescription. Four similar themes emerged from the independent narrative reviews: (1) It’s around and it’s easy
to get; (2) Perceived Stress and Academics; (3) Concerns about use; and (4) Perspectives on Morality/Cheating. A fifth
theme (5) “It’s not drug abuse” was identified following discussion by the researchers. After final confirmation of the
five themes, exemplar statements were identified.
Table 4. Narrative themes and exemplary statements (N = 6 respondents)
Theme 1: It’s around and easy to get
All six students described how easily they could get these medications without a prescription or even get a
prescription of their own.
Frank: “I know some people that do it for almost all tests. And I know that it’s pretty easy to access, because if one kid has
them then his whole group of friends kind of has them. And then (even) their friends could get it.”
Eric: “So I went to Google to find a doctor who would give them to me without doing it (administering a drug test). And
that’s what I found, there’s actually a lot of doctors who prescribe without administering a drug test. You know how you can
find ratings for restaurants and stuff? You can also find them for doctors, so I read all the ratings and reviews that said “oh
this doctor gives you a lot of pills.’ …That’s what I wanted so that’s who I went to.”
Alice: “Surprisingly easy…I honestly didn’t expect it from the person I got it from…I was selling them my notes from um
chemistry and with the money he also gave me this…he was like “try this, it will help you study.” And I was like “alright.”
So I didn’t actually go looking for it but I know the people to ask if I want to go get it”.
Theme 2. Reasons for use: Academic stress.
All six students reported high levels of perceived stress around academics at the time of their use, and
stated that the primary reason they use stimulant medications was to enhance their academic work either
through studying or taking tests. Three users reported that it was academic pressure that drove them to
use for the first time.
Eric: “I’m really bad-I don’t get stressed very often but with a big assignment…I get very stressed, and like, I’m not good at
dealing with stress….The more stressed I feel the more likely I am to take it, and the more I am likely to repeat it and the
higher amount I’ll end up taking. “
“That’s the beauty of stimulants. They buy you time in a way because you can stay up a lot longer, you can still do things
that you like doing and do well in school.”
Alice: “It was the epitome of my entire sophomore year coming down on me in one day that made me take it.”
Frank: “Like normally without it I’d be skipping around on exams and doing questions out of order…Whereas if I’m
taking it, I could just go through an exam in order and do fine.”
Bonnie: “I can go a long time without taking it and I feel fine, but if I have to do (a lot of) work that’s when the ‘need’ will
come. It’s kind of like I’ve conditioned myself to think that I need it.”
Chris: “it (concern) didn’t deter me (from taking them) because the same week I took three midterms and I wrote a paper
and I got A’s on all of them. So you know, it was kind of a trade off. I got A’s on everything and then a bit of a panic
attack.”
White, Grace-Bishop & Ciali
27
Theme 4. Perspectives on morality and cheating.
Five of the students felt that taking stimulant medication, as a “study aid” was not a form of cheating.
One felt that it was similar to athletes taking steroids.
Chris: “Um, I wouldn’t say its cheating, I mean you don’t have any access to information in your head that you wouldn’t
have normally.”
Frank: “I wouldn’t consider it cheating. I consider cheating I guess like…copying answers directly off someone’s test. I
think its kind of just like-I don’t know, kind of just something to help you study. I guess some would say it’s cheating but I
wouldn’t say its cheating, no. I think cheating is stealing someone else’s knowledge without giving them credit for it.”
Dee Dee: “My personal opinion in terms of people who use it for studying who don’t need it…for tests and things, I think
its an unfair advantage for people to do that because not everyone has access to it. In my opinion it’s similar to using steroids
for athletics”.
Theme 5. It’s not drug abuse.
A few students stated that taking stimulant medications without a prescription was not drug abuse given
the reasons (e.g. academic performance) behind taking the medication. Most (5/6) described positive
perceptions of stimulant medications.
Bonnie: “I was reluctant to take it…but at that point the pressure I was feeling to get the work done at that moment made
me take it. Just from hearing people’s stories about how it helps, so I took it.”
Chris: “Um…I think it’s totally different (to other illegal drug use)…I mean it depends on how you’re using it I guess. I
mean I know a ton of people who would just take it for the speedy effects and I guess that’s the same as other recreational
drugs, but when you’re just taking it because you think its going to help you do better on a test that’s a different situation. “
Dee Dee: “In my opinion it’s different because cocaine is on a different level because it’s completely illegal over all and really
dangerous. I mean you can die if you do it incorrectly on the first go. And for certain pain killers its also dangerous…I feel
that its different because as far as I know, (stimulants are) not as dangerous to your health and the people around you.”
Frank: “I think those (ex. Cocaine, painkillers) are like a different field. I know kids personally who have taken those and
gotten addicted and gone to rehab and had a tough time. And I’ve never heard of anyone I know getting that far (addicted)
with like Adderall or Ritalin. So I guess its not the same…”
Discussion/Comments
Results from both the quantitative and qualitative portions of this study suggest that university students
continue to use stimulant medications in ways not prescribed, and that the majority of users are not individuals who
have been diagnosed with an attention disorder nor prescribed stimulant medication. In fact, only a small fraction of
students diagnosed with ADHD and holding prescriptions reported NPS. Further, respondents in the study reported
that stimulant medications were generally easy to obtain, suggesting a variety of sources including: a) students with
prescriptions are selling their stimulant medication to others; b) students are finding lenient physicians who write
prescriptions carelessly; or c) students are getting the medication through illegal channels. Both men and women
engaged in NPS in similar percentages, aligned with what others (Garnier et al., 2010; Garnier-Dykstra et al., 2012;
Looby, Kassman, & Earleywine, 2014) have identified. However, we found more females reporting high stress
perception, as well as reported anxiety disorder, than males in the study, which is consistent with the expansive
literatures on both.
Consistent with other studies, the primary reason students reported NPS was for academic purposes.
Moreover, of those students who reported high-perceived stress, close to 20% of them reported NPS. This makes
sense, although, we were surprised the percentage was not higher. The comments made by students in the qualitative
portion of the study suggested that more students might participate in NPS due to academic-related stress. This was
even more interesting to us, when we found that unlike a number of studies in which NPS is associated with lower
overall academic performance, we found that the majority of NPS users in this study were students with GPAs above
3.1 (59%).
28
International Journal of Health Sciences, Vol. 4(1), March 2016
It appears that in our study, the pressure to succeed and maintain success may have driven students to NPS.
Whether NPS contributed to their academic success is unknown, but it may be that the expectation of what NPS
would afford them academically was a contributing factor.
As presented earlier in the introduction, there is emerging research from Mommaerts and colleagues (2013)
who conducted a well-controlled placebo trial suggesting that stimulant medications may not be, in fact, as effective
for academic enhancement as is assumed; rather, the belief that they may be effective appears to exert a powerful
placebo effect. Mixed concern about use existed according to the narratives we collected, and in previous work by us
and by others, the majority of students reported little concern with NPS. Findings from prior research support that
low concern increases the likelihood of NPS. However, in this study the qualitative narratives about concern revealed
an interesting interaction among those students who had used for a longer time versus recent users. Recent users were
less concerned, while experienced users reported concerns about long-term side effects, and in one case a hospital ER
visit for cardiac symptoms the student described as anxiety-related. An interesting finding was that the majority of
students reporting high stress perception also reported sleeping fewer than 7 hours per night. This was in sharp
contrast to the remaining non-highly stressed students who reported more typical sleep patterns of 7 or more hours
per night. This may be a side effect of stress-related rumination keeping students up at night, side effects of stimulant
medications or other non-prescription stimulants such as caffeine doing the same, or related to other factors that are
unknown. However, future studies may wish to include this variable and investigate further.
Strengths/Limitations
Strengths of this research include the collection of both survey and narrative data about college student
stimulant medication misuse, as well as a repetition of similar method nearly 10 years following a similar study at the
same institution. Thus, we were able to confirm how, why, and how many students continue to misuse medications.
Further, the random sampling provided some control over response bias, although we had more female respondents
than males. Several limitations exist, including the lack of ethnic diversity in the sample, which limits generalizability to
other populations. Further, this study was conducted in the northeast, an area that has a higher percentage of
stimulant medication prescriptions than other parts of the country, making the medication possibly more available.
Another possible limitation is that a higher percentage of respondents on the questionnaire were women and also in
the health sciences college (37% of sample). Anecdotally, this group tends to be a more health conscious group at the
university, and we wondered whether this might have led to a degree of under-reporting of NPS.
Conclusions
Results from this study suggest that college students continue to misuse stimulant medications, obtain them
illegally, and hold minimal awareness of and concern for health risks associated with misuse. The primary purpose for
misuse continues to be for academic reasons, which seems associated primarily with academic stress and perceived
pressure to do well academically. Implications of this research include suggestions that Campus Health Centers must
continue to educate prescribing clinicians about the treatment of mental health issues including attention disorders; to
explore other treatment options, including academic supports other than drugs and medications; and to carefully
monitor prescription medication use in their patients. In particular, campus health and counseling centers should
screen students for misuse of their own prescription medication, ask about whether they sell medications to others or
obtain medications from other students. Further education should include how to use medications as prescribed, as
well as teaching the risks are associated with stimulant medication misuse, including both health and legal ones.
Further students need to know how to protect their medication from theft, and how to dispose of them safely if they
choose to longer take them.
Author contribution: This is an original manuscript based on a study conducted by the three authors. BPW
conceived of the research approach and is primary author. KG-B and LC both contributed intellectually to the study
in data collection and in writing the manuscript.
Competing interests: There are no competing interests or conflicts among the three authors.
White, Grace-Bishop & Ciali
29
Funding: No external funds were used to conduct this study. The third author (LC) received TRiO funds for
her participation in research as an undergraduate student in the McNair Program; however, no funds were used
directly for conducting the research.
References
Advokat, C. (2010). What are the cognitive effects of stimulant medications? Emphasis on adults with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 34, 1256–1266.
Arria, A. M., & DuPont, R. L. (2010). Nonmedical prescription stimulant use among college students: why we need to
do something and what we need to do. Journal of Addictive Disorders, 29(4), 417-426.
doi:10.1080/10550887.2010.509273
Arria, A. M., K., C., O'Grady, K. E., Vincent, K. B., Fitzelle, D. B., Johnson, E. P., & Wish, E. D. (2008). Drug
exposure opportunities and use patterns among college students: results of a longitudinal prospective cohort
study. Substance Abuse, 29(4), 19-38. doi: 10.1080/08897070802418451
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman Press.
Bavarian, N., Flay, B.R., Ketcham, P.L., & Smit, E. (2013). Illicit use of prescription stimulants in a college student
sample: A theory-guided analysis. Drug Alcohol Dependency. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.04.024.
Drug Enforcement Administration (2011). Drugs of Abuse, A DEA Resource Guide. Retrieved from
http://www.dea.gov/docs/drugs_of_abuse_2011.pdf
Desantis, A. D., & Audrey, H. (2010). Adderall is Definitely Not a Drug:" Justifications for the Illegal Use of ADHD
Stimulants. Substance Use and Misuse, 45(1-2), 31-46.
DeSantis, A. D., Noar, S. M., & Webb, E. M. (2009). Nonmedical ADHD stimulant use in fraternities. J. Stud. Alcohol
Drugs, 70, 952-954.
DeSantis, A. D., Webb, E. M., & Noar, S. M. (2008). Illicit use of prescription ADHD medications on a college
campus: A multimethodological approach. Journal of American College Health, 57, 315-326.
Final Adjusted Aggregate Production Quotas for Schedule I and II Controlled Substances and Assessment of Annual Needs for the List
I Chemicals Ephedrine, Pseudoephedrine (2013). Retrieved from http://www.gpo.gov
Food and Drug Administration (2007). Medication Guide: Adderall XR®. Retrieved from
http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2007/021303s015lbl.pdf.
Garnier, L. M., Arria, A. M., Caldeira, K. M., Vincent, K. B., O’Grady, K. E., & Wish, E. D. (2010). Sharing and
selling of prescription medications in a college student sample. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(3), 262-269.
doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05189ecr
Garnier-Dykstra, L. M., Caldeira, K., Vincent, K. B., O'Grady, K. E., & Arria, A. M. (2012). Nonmedical use of
prescription stimulants during college: four-year trends in exposure opportunity, use, motives, and sources.
Journal of American College Health, 60(3), 226-234. doi:10.1080/07448481.2011.589876
Goldman-Mellor, S., Hamer, M., & Steptoe, A. (2012). Early-life stress and recurrent psychological distress over the
lifecourse predict divergent cortisol reactivity patterns in adulthood. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(11), 1755-1768.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.010
Hall, K. M., Irwin, M. M., Bowman, K. A., Frankenberger, W., & Jewett, D. C. (2005). Illicit use of prescribed
stimulant medication among college students. Journal of American College Health, 53(4), 167-174.
IBM Corp. Released 2012. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, V. A., NY: IBM Corp.
Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Monitoring the Future National Survey
Results on Drug Use 1975–2012, College Students & Adults Ages 19–50 Retrieved from Ann Arbor, Michigan:
http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-vol2_2012.pdf
Judson, R., & Langdon, S. (2009). Illicit use of prescription stimulants among college students: Prescription status,
motives, theory of planned behaviour, knowledge and self-diagnostic tendencies. Psychology, Health & Medicine,
14(1), 97-104. doi:10.1080/13548500802126723
Labbe, A. K., & Maisto, S. A. (2010). Development of the Stimulant Medication Outcome Expectancies
Questionnaire for College Students. Addictive Behaviors, 35(7), 726-729. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.03.010
30
International Journal of Health Sciences, Vol. 4(1), March 2016
Looby, A., De Young, K. P., & Earleywine, M. (2013). Challenging expectancies to prevent nonmedical prescription
stimulant use: A randomized, controlled trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 132(1–2), 362-368.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.03.003
Looby, A., Kassman, K. T., & Earleywine, M. (2014). Do negative stimulant-related attitudes vary for prescription
stimulants and cocaine among college students? Addictive Behaviors, 39(6), 1100-1105.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.03.012
McCabe, S. E., & Boyd, C. J. (2005). Sources of prescription drugs for illicit use. Addictive Behaviors,, 30(7), 1342–1350.
McCabe, S. E., Cranford, J. A., Boyd, C. J., & Teter, C. J. (2007). Motives, diversion and routes of administration
associated with nonmedical use of prescription opioids. Addictive Behaviors, 32(3), 562–575.
McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J., & Wechsler, H. (2005). Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among
US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction, 100(1), 96-106.
doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00944.x
McCabe, S. E., West, B. T., Teter, C. J., & Boyd, C. J. (2014). Trends in medical use, diversion, and nonmedical use of
prescription medications among college students from 2003 to 2013: Connecting the dots. Journal of Addictive
Behaviors, 39(7), 1176-1182. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.03.008
Mommaerts, J., Beerens, G., Van den Block, L., Soetens, E., Schol, S., Van De Vijver, E., & Devroey, D. (2013).
Influence of methylphenidate treatment assumptions on cognitive function in healthy young adults in a
double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 6, 65-74.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S47526
National Institute of Drugs Abuse, Health Effects of Prescription Stimulants (2014). Retrieved from
http://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/commonly-abused-drugs/health-effects
National Institute of Drugs Abuse (2014). Retrieved from
http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/stimulant-adhd-medications-methylphenidateamphetamines
Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (2007). Positive psychology: The scientific and practical explorations of human strengths. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2009). Retrieved from Rockville, MD:
http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k9/adderall/adderall.pdf
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2013). The DAWN Report: Emergency Department Visits
Involving Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Stimulant Medications. Retrieved from Rockville, MD:
http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k13/dawn073/sr073-add-adhd-medications.htm
Sussman, S., Pentz, M., Spurijt-Metz, D., & Miller, T. (2006). Misuse of “study drugs.”. Substance Abuse Treatment,
Prevention, and Policy, 1, 1-7.
Teter, C., McCabe, S. E., Cranford, J. A., Boyd, C. J., & Guthrie, S. K. (2005). Prevalence and motives for illicit use of
prescription stimulants in an undergraduate student sample. Journal of American College Health, 53, 253-262.
doi:10.3200/JACH.53.6.253-262
Weyandt, L. L., Janusis, G., Wilson, K. G., Verdi, G., Paquin, G., Lopes, J., . . . Dussault, C. (2009). Nonmedical
prescription stimulant use among a sample of college students. . Journal of Attention Disorders, 13(3), 284-296.
doi:10.1177/1087054709342212
Weyandt, L. L., Marraccini, M. E., Gudmundsdottir, B. G., Zavras, B. M., Turcotte, K. D., Munro, B. A., & Amoroso,
A. J. (2013). Misuse of prescription stimulants among college students: A review of the literature and
implications for morphological and cognitive effects on brain functioning. Experimental and Clinical
Psychopharmacology, 21(5), 385-407. doi:10.1037/a0034013
White, B. P., Becker-Blease, K., & Grace-Bishop, K. (2006). Stimulant medication use. misuse, and abuse in an
undergraduate and graduate student sample. Jounral of American College Health, 54(5), 261-268.
Wilens, T. E., F., A. L., Adams, J., Sgambati, S., Rotrosen, J., Sawtelle, R., . . . Fusillo, S. (2008). Misuse and diversion
of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: a systematic review of the literature. Journal of the American Academy of
Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(1), 21-31.