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The Beginning and Provincial America to Transition
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Introduction
Cherry bombs explode and fireworks light the night sky as Americans, full from barbequed
outdoor feasts, relax after a long day of celebrating the nation’s birthday. However, on this day
over two centuries ago, all was quiet in England when King George III wrote in his diary entry for
July 4, 1776, “Nothing important happened today.” Indeed, the events that led to the American
war for independence were not always at the forefront of British news and the English were
quite oblivious to the intensity of the American colonists’ smoldering hatred for British colonial
rule.
The British colonies in America were individual,
autonomous entities each operating separately
from the other. The tie that bound them
together was their animosity toward England
and their desire to gain independence from the
British monarchy. Though Britain viewed
conflicts with the American colonists as
King George III diary entry for July 4, 1776 isolated manifestations of dissatisfaction with
colonial rule, the once separate American
colonies were actually banding together in an
effort to overthrow British rule and establish their own government.
"Nothing important happened today." In order to gain independence from England and implement their own government, though,
Americans found it necessary to engage in war against their seemingly invincible native country.
When the colonists finally prevailed they set about the task of forming a new nation comprised
of states united under an overarching federal government. The new republic established a
democratic form of government where the people, rather than one supreme leader, held the
power.
In order to facilitate their loose union, the colonists convened the Continental Congress and
adopted the Articles of Confederation, a document that elucidated the nature of the relationship
between the “the People” and the government under which they would exist.
The shot heard around the world Following the Boston Tea Party (1773) the British increased their oppression of the colonists. In
response, the American colonists organized a Continental Congress – a group of
representatives from all of the colonies (the First Continental Congress). This group met for the
duration of one month during the fall of 1774 and created a Plan of Association, the purpose of
which was to defend the rights of the colonists and coerce England into ceasing any and all
oppressive actions against the Americans.
Those who supported independence were called “Patriots,” or from the British perspective,
“Rebels.” Not all Americans, however, desired independence. Groups of people remained loyal
to the king and called themselves “Tories” or “Loyalists.” Historians agree that about a third of
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American Revolution
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the colonial population were Patriots, about a third were Tories and a third were indifferent. The
American Revolution era was not simply a time period characterized by conflict with a
government 2,000 miles away; it was also a moment when the colonists found it necessary to
decide whether they would remain British, or claim a new, exclusively American identity.
Prelude to War: Events in Boston
Year
Event
1768
British troops arrive in Boston to enforce customs laws.
1770
The Boston Massacre
1773
The Boston “Tea Party”
1774
The “Boston Port Bill” is passed by Parliament, effectively shutting
down Boston harbor.
During the mid-1700s, Boston was the center of resistance to British policies and legislation.
While most colonies grudgingly paid new taxes, such as the Stamp Act, the Crown found that it
was almost impossible to enforce new tax legislation in Boston. Some of the most vocal
advocates for revolution, such as Sam Adams and John Hancock, were based in Boston.
Therefore, in 1768, under the
command of General Thomas
Gage, troops from Britain arrived
at Boston to secure order and
enforce legislation.
Events like the Boston Massacre
(March 5, 1770), in which British
troops fired on a crowd of angry
protestors, killing five and
“Map of the March on Lexington and Concord.”
wounding six, not only fueled the
Retrieved from http://www.dean.usma.edu
revolutionaries in Boston and New
England, but caused great concern to colonists in the South. If their own government was
capable of killing its own citizens, of what other atrocities was it capable? While most colonists
outside of New England remained loyal to the British government, hoping to address their
concerns with Parliament and the King directly, in New England, the Patriots were becoming
convinced that fighting the British army was their only recourse.
In April of 1775, General Gage learned from a spy that there was a supply of gunpowder and
weapons stored in the nearby town of Concord. In the early morning hours of April 18, some
700 British troops set out for Concord to destroy the powder and guns. Paul Revere and William
Dawes made their infamous midnight ride to warn the colonists that the British were on the
move. When the British troops reached Lexington, they were met by the local militia on the
town’s commons. After refusing to heed the commander’s order to return to their homes,
someone shot their musket. While it is unknown which side fired first, this single event became
known as the “shot heard around the world.” Both sides opened fire on the other. The militia
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American Revolution
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suffered the only casualties, 8 killed and 10
wounded and, realizing they were no match
for the superior British forces, the Americans
retreated to the woods as the British moved
on to Concord. At Concord, the British found
the war supplies, destroyed them, and then
started their march back to Boston. What they
did not realize was that surrounding militias
had begun to descend on the Concord area.
As the British crossed the North Bridge in
Concord, they met their first militia. After a
brief engagement, the militia retreated and the
“The Second Continental Congress”
Retrieved from: http://www.cia.gov
march continued. However, the British found
that the militias were hiding along the road. As the British passed, the militias fired from the
safety of walls and trees. The British commander sent fast riders forward to request a relief
column and sent flanking troops to sweep ahead of the column to destroy militia forces. When
they arrived back in Boston, the British had lost 273 killed or wounded while the colonists
suffered ninety-five killed or wounded. Militias all over New England were called to service to
defend the area and expel the British troops from Boston.
The Battles of Lexington and Concord alarmed Americans from all 13 colonies and forced them
to acknowledge that the conflict with Britain had now become one of open, military hostility.
From this point on, the other colonies began to more aggressively assist New England in its
efforts to rid America of British rule.
On May 10, 1775 the Second Continental Congress met to debate and develop a course of
action. With John Hancock as its president, the delegates chose George Washington to lead the
forces. This was a significant development because George Washington was a southerner and
if New Englanders could be led by a southerner this would show unprecedented unity amongst
the colonists. Trusted and respected by the Patriots, General Washington officially took
command of the 17,000 strong “Continental Army” on July 3, 1775.
The Americans’ war effort was fraught with many challenges. Since Congress did not have the
authority to tax the states they had to rely on the states to provide money in order to finance the
war. Further, American suppliers could not keep up with the demand for firearms because many
of the firearms that were available had been confiscated from British soldiers. Supplies were
also difficult to come by and the few that were accessible were mostly bought from France and
other Europeans nations that supported the American war effort. In addition to all of these
issues was the fundamental reality that very few Americans volunteered to fight in the war.
Therefore, in order to combat the manpower shortage, persuasion and force was used to obtain
military servicemen. Conversely, the British had access to seemingly unlimited quantities of
money, supplies, equipment, and soldiers.
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American Revolution
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Despite these serious drawbacks, America had some
advantages of its own. One such advantage was that the
colonists benefited from aid given by France and other
European countries. Also, the Americans were fighting the
war on American ground where they were familiar with the
territory and in close proximity to resources, while the
British found it necessary to rely on shipments from
England when they were in need of supplies or
reinforcements. Clearly, however, the Americans’ most
important asset was the strength of their convictions. They
were deeply committed to gaining their independence and
because they were fighting for this cause they were
possessed of a determination unmatched by the British.
George Washington (The Vaughan
The first major battle of the American Revolution took place type), Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828); Image
on June 17, 1775 when American forces besieged General courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art
Thomas Gage’s army in Boston. This battle was called the Battle of Bunker Hill, and although the Americans were
not victorious, the British suffered the heaviest casualties
of the entire war in this battle because, as it was tactically
indefensible, Boston was not a good place from which to
wage a battle.
Map of the Battle of Bunker Hill
To the south, on February 27, 1776, Patriots at Moore’s
Creek Bridge crushed a group of Tories, while to the
north, Americans unsuccessfully tried to invade Canada.
In the spring of 1776, the British concluded that this was a
war and not just a disturbance in Boston. It was then that
the British adopted a new, more aggressive strategy, a
development that marked a new phase in the war.
Meanwhile the colonists moved forward with their plans
for operating as an independent nation.
Toward Democracy A committee appointed by Congress, essentially under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson,
drafted a declaration of independence that asserted that all the states and people were free
from Britain. This Declaration of Independence was formally adopted on July 4, 1776 and was
divided into two sections. The first section included the rights of the government to protect the
rights of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The second section included accusations
that the king had violated the contract with the colonies by committing crimes. Thus, the
colonists asserted, all British rights to the colonies were forfeited. In this document, the colonists
expressed a truly revolutionary thought: that people could govern themselves without the
autocratic presence of a monarchy – that each person had a right to self-determination. In
proposing this radical approach to governance, the colonists were engaging in a great political
experiment, the first such society in modern civilization. So often have Americans heard the
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opening words of the Declaration of Independence that the powerful and inflammatory message
contained therein is often not appreciated:
“We hold these truths to be self­evident that all men are created equal and are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights…” ­ Opening of the Declaration of Independence The implications of these words were limitless and undeniably revolutionary, as the intention
was to completely eradicate the established hierarchy and institute a new form of government
based on a qualified equality (equality for a specified segment of the population, namely white
propertied males). Even this qualified type of equality, though, was less restrictive than any
other modern Western society. Flouting the King and proposing self-rule was a bold and
unprecedented step that caught the world’s attention and served to rally more Americans to fight
for the cause of independence.
Waging War The period from 1776 until early 1778 marked the second phase of the war. During this time the
British made some serious mistakes that may ultimately have cost them victory in the war. The
British quickly reorganized after the retreat from Boston and sent many ships and over 32,000
soldiers to America. William Howe, the commander of the troops, was authorized to offer a deal
of submission to the states that, if accepted would entail a full pardon and avoidance of all fullscale war with the powerful British forces. However, despite the fact that Washington only had
about 19,000 ill-trained soldiers the colonists quickly rejected Howe’s deal. In response, The
British swept across Long Island and into Manhattan, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, driving
the American army into retreat.
Despite this British offensive, the
Americans were still at an advantage
because while the British only
"These are the times that try men's conducted war in the warmer months,
souls. Tyranny.....is not easily Washington never stopped moving his
conquered; yet we have this consolation troops. The impact of this was seen on
December 25, 1776, when he launched
with us, that the harder the conflict, the a surprise attack on the Hessians
more glorious the triumph." (German mercenaries), overtaking their
location, and advancing on to Princeton,
Thomas Paine, Intro to the The Crisis, December 19, 1776 where they moved British troops from
their base. However, when Washington
was unable to hold these positions, he
too had his troops settle down around Morristown, New Jersey.
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In 1777, the British strategy was to divide the colonies into two sections. While Howe’s troops
were to move to New York City, another British force led by John Burgoyne would move south
from Canada and meet Howe. Howe instead decided to launch an assault on Philadelphia.
Landing his troops at the head of the Chesapeake Bay, he defeated Washington at the Battle of
Brandywine Creek on September 11 and overtook Philadelphia with little resistance.
Washington then moved his troops to Valley Forge and the Continental Congress moved to
York, Pennsylvania.
Meanwhile, left alone to carry out the plan to the north,
Burgoyne advanced toward the Hudson Valley and sent
Colonel Barry St. Leger up the St Lawrence River toward
Mohawk. Burgoyne seized Fort Ticonderoga where a huge
stash of supplies was stored. This led Congress to remove
General Philip Schuyler and replace him with Horatio Gates.
During this time, Burgoyne had two important defeats at the
hands of the Americans, including defeats at Oriskany, New
York and at Bennington, Vermont. On October 17, 1777 in
Saratoga, Burgoyne surrendered his 5,000 troops to the
Americans. This victory at Saratoga marked a turning point in
the war.
Howe was blamed for this setback because when he
abandoned his own plan to attack the north, he left Burgoyne
to fight alone. Also, during his attack in Pennsylvania, he
allowed Washington to retreat and reorganize his troops
instead of making a final attack. In addition, Howe allowed Washington’s troops to spend the
winter at Valley Forge unmolested. Some believe that Howe was sympathetic to the American
cause and did not ultimately want to win that war, as he had ties to the colonies and few ties to
Britain. Regardless of his motives, Howe brought the Americans one step closer to their goal of
achieving independence.
“Burgoyne’s Campaign, 1777”
Retrieved from
http://www.dean.usma.edu
A New Government The war was being fought in order that Americans could enjoy freedom from oppression and
establish their own form of egalitarian government. The American people were committed to
instituting a republican government in which the people would have the power instead of one
supreme authority. In addition, the Americans envisioned an egalitarian society where a
person’s innate talents and energies would determine their role in society. Thus, not only those
born to the wealth could enjoy success; all free people would have an opportunity to earn an
honest living and rise within society, regardless of the circumstances of their birth.
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Republican governments already existed in Connecticut and Rhode Island before the
Revolutionary war, and other states desired similar forms of governance. The colonies were no
longer called colonies but “states,” and each state began to create new governments with
constitutions of their own. It was agreed that in addition to the individual state constitutions, an
overarching constitution was necessary that would create a national ruling body dealing with
matters of concern to all of the colonies. The most immediate issue was gaining independence
from Britain; it became clear that victory in this war effort would be elusive if there was no
national government to provide central direction. To address this concern the Continental
Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation in
November of 1777.
This document, the “first constitution,” provided
Congress with few powers over the states, but it
did enable a central government to borrow and
issue money, conduct war, and manage foreign
relations. In order to levy taxes, draft troops, or
regulate trade, however, Congress was required
to make formal requests to the state legislatures.
The Surrender at Yorktown
Each state was allowed one, and only one vote
(there was no representation by population), and at least nine of the 13 states had to approve
any measure before it was passed. To amend the articles all 13 states had to agree. In the end,
there were many disagreements, especially over the issue of representation. Larger states
argued that they should have more representation than smaller states. Smaller states wanted
equal representation, which prevailed under this system. In order to effectively implement this
system of government, however, Americans first needed to gain their independence by
decisively winning the war against England.
Victory The final phase of the war was in the South. Instead of trying to use British troops to fight the
war, the new phase involved trying to defeat the Revolution from within. The British believed
that there were many Loyalists in the South and that if they could rally these Loyalists they
would defeat the Patriots. This proved to be a failure because there were fewer Loyalists than
the British thought and those that existed feared openly opposing their Patriot neighbors. The
British also promised freedom for slaves who would fight against the Patriots. A plan that
backfired because slaveholding Loyalists would then join the Patriots because they did not
oppose slavery. In addition, many Americans who claimed to be Loyalists sympathized with the
Patriot’s cause; many who began as Loyalists became Patriots and vice verse. Therefore, it was
difficult for the British to determine which people were truly Patriots or Loyalists.
On the battlefields, Sir Henry Clinton replaced Howe and moved the British troops back to New
York, where Washington’s troops kept a close eye on them. While this standoff was occurring in
the North, actual fighting continued in the South where British forces captured Savannah,
Georgia on December 29, 1778 and Charleston, South Carolina on May 12, 1780.
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After a subsequent defeat on August 16, 1780 when Lord Cornwallis’ troops defeated the
Americans under Horatio Gates, Congress recalled Gates and gave the command to Nathaniel
Greene, who was considered one of the best American generals. Cornwallis’ victory was short
lived as Greene divided his army into several small armies and attacked Cornwallis from all
sides. On March 15, 1781, Greene withdrew from attacking. However, the loss of British soldiers
was so great that Cornwallis abandoned Carolina and waited in Yorktown for ships to carry his
troops to New York. Meanwhile, Washington and Count Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau and
Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse of France set a trap for Cornwallis. Washington and
Rochambeau came with their troops from New York. De Grasse’s troops sailed to the
Chesapeake Bay and York River. These events caught Cornwallis between land and sea. The
combined forces laid siege to the British in what became known as the Battle of Yorktown. On
October 17, 1781, Cornwallis and 7,000 men were captured and formally surrendered. The
Battle of Yorktown sealed the military victory of the allied American forces and paved the way
for independence.
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