Bringing literacy in civic science to the chemistry class.
Elizabeth Schibuk
A mushroom cloud rises
over Nagasaki, Japan, on
August 9, 1945.
October 2015
27
T
his article describes a nuclear chemistry unit on the
Manhattan Project, a research effort that led to the
development of the world’s first nuclear weapons
during World War II. The unit is appropriate for an introductory high school chemistry or physics course and takes
from four to six weeks.
The unit poses this essential question: “Over the past 300
years, how have discoveries in science led to the development
of nuclear energy and bombs?” Addressing this question,
students synthesize knowledge of nuclear chemistry, learn
how the scientific community came to construct and understand this knowledge, and understand how this knowledge
has transformed society.
The Manhattan Project
In August 1945, the United States dropped two atomic
bombs on cities in Japan—Hiroshima and Nagasaki—ending World War II and forever changing the course of human
history. More than 100,000 Japanese civilians died instantly
from the blasts, and at least as many more were killed later by
radiation (Hall 2013). As a result of the Manhattan Project,
over 29,000 Americans received compensation for exposure
to radiation or other environmental hazards caused by bomb
testing in the United States (Department of Justice 2014).
The interdisciplinary nuclear chemistry unit described
here helps students learn about nuclear chemistry while exploring tensions about the role of technology in society and
the intertwining of science and politics. The resources section of the unit map (see “On the web”) points to a wealth of
material about the historical events leading up to the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the relevant nuclear
chemistry concepts.
A science-literate citizenry is essential to democracy (McClune and Jarman 2012; Miller 2004; Sagan 1995). This unit
pushes students to ask questions about the nature and purpose of scientific research; the connections between science
and technology; and the interplay of science, politics, and
ethics. Students use their understanding of nuclear chemistry and of the nature of science to consume, understand, and
integrate information from various media sources to form
opinions about past and future nuclear technologies. Of particular use are a two-hour film, Day One (Rintels and Sargent
1989), and a graphic novel, Trinity (Fetter-Vorm 2012). These
describe the relevant science concepts and the story of the scientists involved in the bombs’ discoveries and production.
Figure 1 shows a spread from the graphic novel.
Instructional sequence
I begin the unit with footage of the bombing of Hiroshima (see
“On the web”) and allow students time to air their reactions. I
explain to students that by the end of the unit they will understand this historical event, know how these weapons work, and
recognize why scientists created such weapons. Then I back-
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The Science Teacher
A replica of the atomic bomb, dubbed “Fat Man,”
dropped on Nagasaki, Japan.
track to the historical discoveries that led to our understanding
of the atom, beginning with the ancient Greeks and ending
in 1911 with Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment, where the
scattering of alpha particles provided the first evidence for the
existence of the atomic nucleus. I use a “flipped” classroom approach, so I post short online instructional videos to introduce
students to science content along the way, leaving class time
for discussion, clarification, modeling, and so on. (See “On the
web” for instructional videos for this unit.)
As we move through the unit, we chronicle the various
sites and activities that collectively make up the Manhattan Project by plotting them on a map hanging on the wall
(Figure 3, p. 31). This helps students keep track of the geographic scale of the project and the various subprojects happening across the country.
Once we reach the beginning of modern nuclear chemistry, covering the work of Marie and Pierre Curie, I assign
students sections of the graphic novel Trinity (Fetter-Vorm
2012), which serves as an anchor for the unit. Students keep
a journal to outline what they understand in each reading,
draft questions, and record their reactions. For many of the
assigned readings, I prepare comprehension questions that
student groups of three or four discuss and answer in class
the following day. Students talk aloud through their understandings of the previous night’s reading, using the questions
provided as a guide. I set clear expectations, advising students
that they should be talking about the relevant content, flipping through their books and reading journals, and taking
notes. I walk around and listen to the group discussions so
that I can address any misunderstandings and clarify concepts and events from the text.
The unit map (see “On the web”) has several examples of
the questions I use, including:
◆◆
Can J.J. Thomson’s plum pudding model still be
considered a scientific theory?
The making of the atomic bomb (Fetter-Vorm 2012).
FI GURE 1
Teaching the Manhattan Project
Excerpt from TRINITY: A GRAPHIC HISTORY OF THE FIRST ATOMIC BOMB BY JONATHAN FETTER-VORM. Text copyright © 2012 by Jonathan Fetter-Vorm and Michael
Gallagher. Artwork copyright © 2012 by Jonathan Fetter-Vorm. Reprinted by permission of Hill and Wang, a division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC.
October 2015
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◆◆
◆◆
Marie Curie worked with her
husband, Pierre, on radioactivity but
wasn’t initially considered for the
Nobel Prize. She did eventually win
the prize with Pierre and another
scientist. Do women in science today
still face discrimination?
F IG UR E 2
Chain reaction diagram.
In Day One, Enrico Fermi and other
scientists celebrate when their reactor
records a chain reaction. Why is this
a big deal? Why does Leo Szilard
appear concerned? Should scientists
worry about the potential long-term
impact of their discoveries?
Radiation and nuclear decay
ELIZABETH SCHIBUK
In their early readings from Trinity, students learn about the discovery of radiation and then watch a short instructional
video about the nature of radiation and
the different types of nuclear decay (see
“On the web”). They learn and practice
writing nuclear decay reactions and build
toward a conceptual understanding of the
pertinent Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead
States 2013) performance expectations (see box, p. 32). The
graphic novel, instructional videos, and in-class coaching
provide an entry point into content that can otherwise seem
obscure.
A logical extension is to incorporate news source material about Pierre and Marie Curie and their early work with
radioactivity. The unit map provides two texts—a curated
online museum and a New York Times piece (see “On the
web”)—that introduce students to Madame Curie and her
work. The unit map provides sample discussion questions
about the discovery of radiation.
Nuclear chain reactions and reactors
As students move through Trinity, they read about the discovery of fission and scientists’ successful test of the first nuclear reactor. I use butcher and construction paper cutouts to
create a large model of a chain reaction (Figure 2). Students
work as teams to explicate what a nuclear chain reaction is,
why uranium needs to be enriched to sustain a nuclear chain
reaction, and how cadmium rods work to control the reaction in a nuclear reactor.
Understanding fission, chain reactions, and reactors is
fundamental to understanding not only the Manhattan Project but nuclear power in general. As students learn about the
discovery of fission, they learn that there has been a fundamental change in our understanding of chemistry and physics. This is a prime opportunity for asking questions that will
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The Science Teacher
help students explore their understanding of the nature of
science (sample questions are available in the unit map; see
“On the web”). For more advanced chemistry classes or for
teachers looking to integrate more mathematics content, nuclear reactions provide a ripe opportunity to discuss modeling, functions, and different types of growth. After diagramming the three to four stages of a uranium fission reaction as
a class, either using a physical model or diagrams on a white
board, the teacher can ask students to work collaboratively
to devise a function that would model the number of atoms
undergoing fission on the nth round.
Hiroshima
As students approach the end of the graphic novel, they see
illustrations of the death and destruction at Hiroshima and
Nagasaki and come to class with strong emotions. In my experience, adolescents are particularly concerned with fairness
and justice, so seeing the destruction of civilians—especially
children—hooks them into considering the implications of
this deadly weapon. We spend this class period discussing the
decision to drop the bomb. I prepare facilitation questions,
but the discussion often easily carries itself.
We discuss the end of the Day One film, where we see
Robert Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein’s mourning for
what will come if the world cannot figure out how to control atomic weapons. We look at historical newspaper articles
about the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (e.g., Shalett
1945) and understand what it might have felt like to wake up
Teaching the Manhattan Project
FI G U R E 3
ELIZABETH SCHIBUK
Mapping the Manhattan Project.
in the United States on August 6, 1945, the day the uranium
bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. This type of discussion
is critical to building civic scientific literacy. Wrestling with
difficult questions fosters students’ understanding of the relationship between democratic citizenship and school science,
better equipping them to understand and make meaningful
connections to what they see and hear in the news.
This type of teaching requires a respectful classroom atmosphere in which students can express themselves without
fearing judgment. The teacher should begin these classroom
discussions by acknowledging that the tone and content will
be quite different and ask students to contribute to the norms
that the group will hold themselves to in discussing nuclear
chemistry. I point out that students might have differing
moral opinions about nuclear chemistry and should express
them but must also respect other students’ reflections and
viewpoints. Before beginning the unit, the teacher should
seek out any students with known difficulty expressing or
processing emotion to discuss how he or she can contribute to
the dialog or remove himself or herself if needed.
Advances in nuclear sciences made atomic bombs possible.
October 2015
31
Connecting to the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States 2013).
The materials/lessons/activities outlined in this article are just one step toward reaching the Performance Expectation
listed below.
Standard: HS-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions
Performance Expectation: HS-PS1-8. Develop models to illustrate the changes in the composition of the nucleus of the
atom and the energy released during the processes of fission, fusion, and radioactive decay.
Dimension
Name or NGSS code/citation
Specific connections to classroom activity
Science and
Engineering
Practices
Developing and using models
• Develop, revise, and/or use a model based
on evidence to illustrate and/or predict the
relationships between systems or between
components of a system. (HS-PS1-8)
Students model the development of a
nuclear fission chain reaction and explain
how the number of atoms undergoing fission
increases over time.
Engaging in argument from evidence
• Construct, use, and/or present an oral and
written argument or counter-arguments based
on data and evidence.
Disciplinary Core
Ideas
PS1.A: Structure and properties of matter
• Each atom has a charged substructure consisting
of a nucleus, which is made of protons and
neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
• The periodic table orders elements horizontally
by the number of protons in the atom’s nucleus.
Students use their understanding of nuclear
chemistry and fission reactions to construct
an argument for or against the use of nuclear
power.
Students solidify their understanding of
atomic structure and practice determining
the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons in a given element as they learn to
write nuclear decay reactions.
PS1.C: Nuclear Processes
• Nuclear processes, including fusion, fission, and
radioactive decays of unstable nuclei, involve
release or absorption of energy. The total
number of neutrons plus protons does not
change in any nuclear process. (HS-PS1-8)
32
Crosscutting
Concept
Energy and Matter
• In nuclear processes, atoms are not conserved,
but the total number of protons plus neutrons is
conserved. (HS-PS1-8)
Students learn to write nuclear decay
reactions, and in so doing, build their
conceptual understanding that the total
number of neutrons and protons is
conserved.
Understandings
about the Nature
of Science
• Most scientific knowledge is quite durable but
is, in principle, subject to change based on new
evidence and/or reinterpretation of existing
evidence.
• Scientists often use hypotheses to develop and
test theories and explanations.
• Scientific knowledge is a result of human
endeavor, imagination, and creativity.
• Science and engineering are influenced by
society, and society is influenced by science and
engineering.
• Science and technology may raise ethical issues
for which science, by itself, does not provide
answers and solutions.
Students engage in classroom discussion
and writing assignments in which they must
reflect on the nature of scientific progress
and technological development and their
moral and political implications. Students
begin to see that science and technology
can raise ethically ambiguous questions for
which there is no single right answer.
The Science Teacher
Teaching the Manhattan Project
Common Core State Standards
(NGAC and CCSSO 2010)
Literacy.RST.9–10.4
• Determine the key meaning of symbols, keyterms, and other domain-specific words and
phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or
technical context relevant to grades 9–10 texts
and topics.
Literacy.RST.9–10.9
• Compare and contrast findings presented in a
text to those from other sources (including their
own experiments), noting when the findings
support or contradict previous explanations or
accounts.
Literacy.W.9–10.1
• Write arguments to support claims in an analysis
or substantive topics or texts, using valid
reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.
Math.Content.HSF.LE.A1
• Distinguish between situations that can be
modeled with linear functions and with
exponential functions.
Assessment
This unit can extend to the development of nuclear power.
Helping students understand the history of nuclear power,
its inherent dangers, and its potential as an alternative to fossil fuels can further build their capacity to engage in timely
civic science debates. Primary source news articles about
Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima Daiichi provide snapshots from the 70-year history of nuclear power. I
typically source articles from the New York Times archives for
students to read (e.g., Ayres 1979, Burnham 1979).
For final assessment, students complete a content test and
write an analytical essay responding to a question they choose
from a list or that they craft themselves. Students consolidate
and articulate their conceptual understanding with coaching
from the teacher and peers. When I have had special needs
students not ready for the writing assignment or students who
thrive with more creative multimedia tasks, I have provided
alternate assignment options. One student created a graphic
novel to illustrate the important science concepts from the unit.
Conclusion
In the Manhattan Project unit, students develop content
knowledge and civic science literacy to inform their personal views about nuclear science and its technological ap-
plications. Students also learn how the scientific community’s
knowledge of nuclear chemistry has transformed society. ■
Elizabeth Schibuk ([email protected]) is a math and science
teacher at Conservatory Lab Charter School in Dorchester,
Massachusetts.
On the web
Day One film: www.imdb.com/title/tt0097159/
Final assessment rubric: www.nsta.org/highschool/connections.aspx
Hiroshima and Nagasaki Video Footage: http://bit.ly/1OBPlTG
Instructional videos:
Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment: http://bit.ly/1KynHJk
Nuclear fission: http://bit.ly/1DORkhA
Radiation—Introduction and alpha decay: http://bit.ly/1eA8Orx
Radiation—Beta decay: http://bit.ly/1h4ZVYB
New York Times article about Madame Curie: http://nyti.
ms/1virUDg
Online museum introduction to Madame Curie and her work:
www.aip.org/history/curie/contents.htm
Unit map: www.nsta.org/highschool/connections.aspx
References
Ayres, Jr., B.D. New York Times. 1979. Three Mile Island: Notes
From a Nightmare. April 16.
Burnham, D. New York Times. 1979. Panel Says Atomic Officials
Played Down Reactor Peril. November 5.
Department of Justice. 2014. Radiation exposure compensation
system, claims to date: http://1.usa.gov/1gmjtaX
Fetter-Vorm, J. 2012. Trinity.1st ed. New York: Hill and Wang.
Hall, M. 2013. By the numbers: World War II’s atomic bombs.
CNN. http://cnn.it/1EntdfJ
McClune, B., and R. Jarman. 2012. Encouraging and equipping
students to engage critically with science in the news: What can
we learn from the literature? Studies in Science Education 48 (1):
1–49. doi: 10.1080/03057267.2012.655036.
Miller, J.D. 2004. Public understanding of, and attitudes toward,
scientific research. Public Understanding of Science 13 (3):
273–294. doi: 10.1177/0963662504044908.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and
Council of Chief State School Officers (NGAC and CCSSO).
2010. Common core state standards. Washington, DC: NGAC
and CCSSO.
NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For
states, by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Rintels, D. (producer), and J. Sargent (director). 1989. Day One.
Dallas, TX: AT&T.
Sagan, C. 1995. The demon-haunted world. 1st ed. New York:
Random House.
Shalett, S. New York Times. 1945. First Atomic Bomb Dropped on
Japan; Missile Is Equal to 20,000 Tons of TNT; Truman Warns
Foe of a “Rain of Ruin.” August 6.
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