STATUS INEQUALITY:
WOMEN I N CARIBBEAN SOCIETIES
Prepared f o r
C a r i b b e a n S t u d i e s A s s o c i a t i o n Conference
S e c t i o n on S o c i a l F a c t o r s
S t . Thomas, V i r g i n I s l a n d s
May 27-31,
1981
Monica H. Gordon
Department o f S o c i o l o g y
and Black S t u d i e s
Mount Holyoke C o l i e g e
Draft
Not t o be Quoted.
Monica H , Gbrdon
ABSTRACT
Status Inequality:
-
Women i n Caribbean S o c i e t i e s
S t u d i e s of s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s i n Caribbean s o c i e t i e s
have focused on r a c e , c l a s s , and c o l o r a s t h e major d e f i n e r s of
s o c i a l s t a t u s and t h e determinants of a c c e s s t o s o c i a l and
economic o p p o r t u n i t i e s and power.
These s t u d i e s ignored gender
a s a f a c e o r i n s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a,lthough it i s one of t h e
most pervasive c r i t e r i a of s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i h t i o n .
Discrimination a g a i n s t women i s widespread and assumes
many forms.
I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d processes a f f e c t t h e l e g a l ,
economic and s o c i a l r o l e s of women and a r e r e i n f o r c e d by
customs, i d e a s , b e l i e f s , and a t t i t u d e s of both men and women.
Since women g e n e r a l l y s h a r e t h e advantages and disadvantages
of t h e i r s o c i a l c l a s s o r group s i t u a t i o n , t h e i r unequal s t a t u s
i s not a s r e a d i l y discerned a s i s s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y based on
race.
I n t h e United S t a t e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , none of t h e s o c i a l
movements of t h e 1960's addressed t h e problem of gender inequality,
't was l e f t t o t h e women t o d e f i n e and i d e n t i f y t h e
source of t h e i r i n e q u a l i t y .
women.
The same i s t r u e of Caribbean
Focus on c l a s s / r a c e continues t o preclude s p e c i f i c
a t t e n t i o n t o s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s on women.
This paper w i l l examine t h e s t r u c t u r a l and c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s
of gender i n e q u a l i t y w i t h a view t o developing a t h e o r e t i c a l
r e f e r e n c e t h a t r e f l e c t s t h e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n of Caribbean women
w i t h i n t h e framework of developing s o c i e t i e s .
S o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s t u d i e s , u n t i l r e c e n t l y , have l a r g e l y
ignored women a s a dimension of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .
T h i s omission
i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d e l i b e r a t e o r c o n s c i o u s b u t t h e consequence
of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d system of male dominance which assumed a
q u a l i t y of n a t u r a l n e s s .
It had been suggested t h a t :
The s u b s t a n t i v e i s s u e w h i c h becloud t h e t o p i c
of s e x u a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n have t o do w i t h t h e
mode of r e c r u i t m e n t , t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n , members h i p and s t r u c t u r a l arrangements of s e x u a l l y
ranked c a t e g o r i e s . F i r s t , t h e r e i s t h e f a c t
it is not
t h a t s e x i s determined a t b i r t h
c o n t i n g e n t upon a n c e s t r y , endogamy, o r any
o t h e r arrangement of marriage o r f a m i l y and
it i s not predictable..
Second, a s a
concomitant t o t h e mode o r r e c r u i t m e n t ,
males and females have no d i s t i n c t e t h n i c
o r regional h i s t o r i e s . Third, the universal
co-residence of males and f e m a l e s w i t h i n t h e
household p r e c l u d e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of l i f e l o n g
s e p a r a t e male and female s o c i e t i e s . (Berreman:
1972:403).
-
..
Berreman continued: Yet, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e x e s
a r e more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n d i f f e r e n c e s between r a c e , e t h n i c i t y ,
c l a s s o r any o t h e r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n c a t e g o r y and s u f f i c i e n t t o
have warrented o r j u s t i f y d i f f e r e n t i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , p r i v i l e g e s
and rewards b u t n o t c o n s i d e r e d e l i g i b l e f o r a s a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
category.
T h i s i s t h e view espoused ( P a r k i n 1971:
14-15) i n h i s
argument t h a t women cannot be regarded i n modern s o c i e t y a s a n
i m p o r t a n t dimension of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e same way a s s u b o r d i n a t e
c l a s s o r m i n o r i t y group.
There i s agreement t h a t female s t a t u s
c a r r i e s many d i s a d v a n t a g e s compared w i t h t h a t of males i n
v a r i o u s a r e a s of s o c i a l l i f e i n c l u d i n g employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s ,
The Caribbean i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h i s paper r e f e r s t o t h e EnglishSpeaking Caribbean only.
p r o p e r t y ownership, income but denied t h a t such i n e q u a l i t i e s a r e
u s e f u l components of s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n because, f o r t h e g r e a t
m a j o r i t y ~f women, t h e a l l o c a t i o n of s o c i a l and economic rewards
i s determined p r i n c i p a l l y by t h e family.
To be e l i g i b l e f o r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n a s an important dimension of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , the
d i s a b i l i t i e s a t t a c h e d t o female s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e must be so
I
g r e a t a s t o o v e r r i d e d i f f e r e n c e s of c l a s s kind ( P a r k i n , 1971:
P a r k i n r e g ~ s t e r e ddisagreement with Lenski (1966:
15).
402) who
c r i t i c i z e d t h e tendency of s o c i o l o g i s t s t o t r e a t f a m i l i e s a s
t h e u n i t of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l s and of flydralb
(1944, Appendix 5) and Hacker (1951) who compared t h e s t a t u s
of women t o t h a t of minority groups.
This tendency t o t r e a t women a s family members and not a s
i n d i v i d u a l s with t h e i r own s o c i a l s t a t u s i s deeply embedded i n
r e l i g i o u s ideology, family law and, more r e c e n t l y , s o c i a l
s c i e n t i s t s have provided t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r women's subordination,
Parkin followed along t h e l i n e s of thought developed by e a r l i e r
s o c i a l t h e o r i s t s , s u c h a s Emile Durkheim and l a t e r e l a b o r a t e d by
T a l c o t t Parsons and o t h e r s of the s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t
school.
Durkhe,im (1964:
50-63) a t t r i b u t e d t h e sexual d i v i s i o n
o f l a b o r t o the h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n a r y process of male-female
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w h i c h , . h e claimed, endowed women with t h e chara c t e r i s t i c s of physical weakness, emotionalism and dependence.
These "feminine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , " he claimed, a r e complementary
t o t h e m a l e ' s p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h and p r o t e c t i v e n e s s and t h e sexual
d i v i s i o n of l a b o r which i s t h e n a t u r a l r e s u l t of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
i s t h e source of conjugal s o l i d a r i t y .
The modern formulation of t h e male-female complementarity
of t h e sexual d i v i s i o n of l a b o r has been e l a b o r a t e d i n t h e Parsonian
paradigm o f instrumental/expressive f u n c t i o n s i n t h e conjugal
relation,hip.
The instrumental r o l e assigned t o males provides
a c c e s s t o t h e p u b l i c sphere of government and i n d u s t r y and o b l i g a t e s
them t o t h e economic support of females and c h i l d r e n .
Conversely,
women, by v i r t u e of t h e i r n u t r i e n t and emotional n a t u r e , a r e
them
assigned t h e expressive o r a f f e c t i v e r o l e which ensconced
i n t h e home and away from t h e arena where important economic,
p o l i t i c a l , and s o c i a l d e c i s i o n s a r e made.
This s t r u c t u r a l -
f u n c t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , e v e r concerned with s o c i a l balance, supports
t h e sexual d i v i s i o n of l a b o r and a r b i t r a r i l y endorses t h e
economic subordination of women, i n t h e wider i n t e r e s t of a v e r t i n g
t h e c o n f l i c t s which would i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t i f women compete with
men f o r i n d i v i d u a l achievement and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y (Parsons and
Bales 1955).
This view of women i s f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d by s t e r e o -
t y p e s of females i n everyday l i f e which a r e l e g i t i m i z e d by an
ideology of g e n e t i c determinism and through t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n
process ( E p s t e i n 1971:
121-122).
Uhile men's r o l e s a r e p r i m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d with t h e i r economic
and p u b l i c a c t i v i t i e s , women's a c t i v i t i e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d with t h e i r
family r o l e s .
Only when women a r e not a t t a c h e d t o men can t h e y '
develop a s e p a r a t e i d e n t i t y and t h e i r own s o c i a l s t a t u s .
Such
s t a t u s , however, i s l i m i t e d by t h e s t a t u s and r o l e s a l r e a d y
d e f i n e d f o r women a s family members; so t h a t , i n f a c t , women merely
assume t h e i r own economic support, t h e y do not c r e a t e t h e i r own
s t a t u s (Acker 1973:
937).
It i s assumed t h a t t h e s o c i a l s t a t u s of women i n a l l s o c i e t i e s
i s defined by t h e i r family connections and t h e i r s o c i a l s t a t u s
derived from t h e men t o whom they a r e attached.
While t h e y do
not n e c e s s a r i l y s u f f e r l o s s of s o c i a l s t a t u s a s a r e s u l t of t h e
arrangement, t h e i r dependence on men r e p r e s e n t s a l o s s of economic
s t a t u s and t h e a b i l i t y t o make independent d e c i s i o n s .
This has
negative consequences f o r working women, whether o r n o t t h e y a r e
a t t a c h e d t o men.
T h e i r value i n t h e l a b o r f o r c e i s depressed
because employers e x p l o i t t h e gender s t e r e o t y p e s which plague
occupational r o l e s by d e f i n i n g occupational a r e a s and t h e rewards
s u i t a b l e f o r women.
The economic and s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n of women v a r i e s from
s o c i e t y t o s o c i e t y , but one f a c t remains:
women, by v i r t u e of t h e i r
economic s u b o r d i n a t i o n , remain subordinate i n a l l o t h e r a r e a s
It
of s o c i a l l i f e , e v e n i n t h e home which i s , supposedly, t h e i r sphere
of a c t i v i t y .
I n t h e developed c o u n t r i e s women have been e n t e r i n g
t h e l a b o r f o r c e i n i n c r e a s i n g numbers; however, it has been noted
t h a t t h e increased p a r t i c i p a t i o n does not r e p r e s e n t a s h i f t from
t r a d i t i o n a l female employment but r a t h e r an expansion of such
occupationa! a r e a s which a l s o r e q u i r e higher l e v e l s of education
(Oppenheimer 1973:
948).
Oppenheimer observed t h a t t h e major
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of occupations open t o females a r e t h a t t h e y a r e
t r a n s f e r a b l e , do not r e q u i r e long-term commitment, and can be e a s i l y
resumed if and when they a r e i n t e r r u p t e d .
Women's economic
a c t i v i t y , t h e n , i s seen a s supportive of a more permanent economic
source, t h e male, u s u a l l y t o be undertaken when t h e income from
t h e primary source i s inadequate f o r t h e family needs o r f o r s p e c i a l
purchase.
S t u d i e s of s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e Caribbean have
focused on r a c e , c l a s s and c o l o r a s the major dimensions of s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n which determine access t o s o c i a l and economic
o p p o r t u n ~ t i e sand power.
Like s t u d i e s done elsewhere, they have
ignored gender a s a f a c t o r i n s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n although
gender
i s a mor8e d i f i n i t i v e category than family f o r Caribbean
There i s no denying t h e s a l i a n c e of r a c e and c l a s s
Women.
i n Caribbean s o c i e t i e s and t h e i r h i s t o r i c r o l e s .
(1972:
But, a s Berreman
404) observed, sex has no d i s t i n c t e t h n i c o r r e g i o n a l
h i s t o r y , n e i t h e r i s it confined by c l a s s .
Women, t h e r e f o r e , share
t h e advantages and disadvantages of t h e s o c i a l c l a s s o r r a c e with
which they a r e i d e n t i f i e d .
Sex i n e q u a l i t y i s not a s r e a d i l y
d i s c e r n i b l e a s o t h e r forms of s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n .
Furthermore,
s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s t u d i e s a r e u s u a l l y done by males who continue
t o s e e women i n t h e s t e r e o t y p i c context defined by e a r l i e r s t u d i e s .
Caribbean women, on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e influenced by t h e
Western concept of women's p l a c e i n s o c i e t y but a r e constrained
by t h e r e a l i s m of t h e i r own s o c i a l and economic circumstances.
'I'heir p e c u l i a r s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t s a paradox f o r t h e s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l i s t s which d e f i n e women's r o l e s a s expressive and
affective.
While they f u n c t i o n i n such c a p a c i t i e s , it i s an
e r r o r t o perceive them only i n t h e s e r o l e s a s they a r e o f t e n t h e
instrumental p r o v i d e r s a l s o .
In addition t o t h i s theoretical
paradox, t h e h i s t o r i c a l complexities of male/female r e l a t i o n s
embodied i n r a c e , c l a s s and c o l o r demand t h a t women i n t h e s e
s o c i e t i e s be examined h i t h i n t h e i r own c o n t e x t u a l frame of
reference.
The n u c l e a r f a m i l y which i s t h e u n i t c o n s i d e r e d i n s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s t u d i e s would exclude a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e
p o p u l a t i o n s i n c e f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e o r even t h e concept of f a m i l y ,
does n o t conform t o t h e w e s t e r n i d e a l .
The d i v i s i o n of l a b o r may
work i n developed c o u n t r i e s , a l b e i t u n e q u a l l y , w i t h men assuming
t h e p r o v i d e r r o l e because economic p r a c t i c e s and s o c i a l norms
support t h i s .
Women may n o t be m a t e r i a l l y d e p r i v e d even though
t h e y have unequal s t a t u s and a r e dependent on men.
For many
Caribbean women, t h e r e i s l i t t l e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t men w i l l assume
t h e p r o v i d e r r o l e , n o t because t h e s e women v a l u e independence more
t h a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t elsewhere o r t h a t t h e y have r e j e c t e d male
support a s contributory t o t h i s subordination.
T h e i r low ex-
p e c t a t i o n stems from knowledge and r e a l e x p e r i e n c e t h a t some men
cannot assume t h e s u p p o r t of women and c h i l d r e n .
It i s an economic
burden t h e y e i t h e r cannot o r a r e u n w i l l i n g t o assume, a t l e a s t
n o t i n t h e Western s e n s e .
Furthermore, t h e system through which men assume t h e p r o v i d e r
r o l e , m a r r i a g e and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a n u c l e a r f a m i l y , h a s
n e v e r been i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d among a l a r g e s e c t o r of t h e populat i o n : The norms and v a l u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s arrangement a r e
r ~ o ts i g n i f i c a n t p a r t s of t h e i r i n t e r n a l i z e d b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s ,
Yet, i n t h e absence of economic means and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s u p p o r t ,
men s t i l l have a u t h o r i t y o v e r females.
Men's a u t h o r i t y t r a n s c e n d s
c l a s s , r a c e and c o l o r because a u t h o r i t y i s a man's r o l e ,
t h e n , can women a c h i e v e s t a t u s e q u a l i t y ?
How,
Like o t h e r oppressed
p e o p l e , women w i l l hav.e t o assume t h e major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
t h e i r own l i b e r a t i o n .
I f women a r e s e r i o u s , it could mean t h e
d i s m a n t l i r l g of t h e c o l o n i a l system which l e f t behind t h e l e g a c y
of a m b i g u i t i e s and c o m p l e x i t i e s i n s t r u c t u r a l and p e r s o n a l
relations.
The Caribbean: Some
- Background
Factors
I n t h e almost two d e c a d e s s i n c e p o l i t i c a l independence gave
promise of new s o c i a l o r d e r , we a r e s h a r p l y reminded of F a n o n ' s
(1962:
81) statement t h a t :
Independence h a s brought moral compensation t o
c o l o n i z e d p e o p l e and e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r d i g n i t y .
But t h e y have n o t y e t had time t o e l a b o r a t e a
s o c i e t y , o r t o b u i l d up and a f f i r m v a l u e s .
He f u r t h e r commented on t h e d e c o l o n i z i n g p r o c e s s " . . . t h e
proof
of s u c c e s s l i e s i n a whole s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e b e i n g changed from
t h e bottom up....
The need f o r t h i s change e x i s t s i n i t s c r u d e
s t a t e , impetuous and c o m p e l l i n g i n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s and i n t h e
l i v e s of men and women who a r e c o l o n i z e d (35-36).
He a l s o
recognized the counter f o r c e s t h a t i d e n t i f y with t h e i n t e r e s t
of t h e c o l o n i z e r s which s e e k t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t a t u s quo.
The
p r o c e s s of i n s t i t u t i o n a l change h a s been slow and arduous a s one
observer noted:
P o l i t i c a l systems which have e x p e r i e n c e d l o n g p e r i o d s
of c o l o n i a l r u l e , a s i s t h e c a s e of t h e E n g l i s h -
s p e a k i n g C a r i b b e a n , t e n d i n e v i t a b l y t o c a r r y forward
c e r t a i n c o l o n i a l l e g a c i e s i n t o t h e independence e r a ,
The most common o f t h e l e g a c i e s a r e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements ( J o n e s and M i l l s , 1976: 328).
The changes Fanon mentioned a s n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c c e s s f u l development demand
t h e d i s r u p t i o n of t h e o l d economic, s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s and human r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n
of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , s b c i a l r e l a t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s .
These
imply new s t a t u s p o s i t i o n s f o r women w i t h i n t h e framework of
development a s a whole (Schmidt-Kolmer,
1975:
3).
Movement toward d e c o l o n i z a t i o n began i n t h e l a t e 1960's
w i t h t h e c r y of t h e "Black Power" which was an a t t a c k upon a
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n system which i s s u e s rewards on t h e b a s i s of r a c e
and c o l o r .
Because r a c e and c o l o r a r e c o r o l l a r i e s of t h e c l a s s
system, t h i s was a l s o an a t t a c k on t h e c l a s s system wherein
economic and s o c i a l p r i v i l e g e s coalesce i n t h e small white
minority.
The i n t e r e s t of t h i s e l i t e group i s served by a neo-
c o l o n i a l p o l i t i c a l system (Lowenthal, 1972: 280-292;
McEleney, 1969; N e t t l e f o r d , 1972 and Thomas and Riddle, 1970).
This a t t a c k on c l a s s / r a c e / c o l o r
p r i v i l e g e s was t h e f i r s t
postindependence a s s a u l t on the neo-colonial s t r u c t u r e .
Con-
sciousness of s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y i n t h i s arrangement d i d not
extend t o a consciousness of gender i n e q u a l i t y .
One observer of
a s i m i l a r phenomenon i n t h e s o c i a l movements i n t h e United
S t a t e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s commented t h a t "none of t h e r a d i c a l
movements purposed new r o l e s f o r women" (Howard, 1974:
145).
It
was l e f t t o women t o a r t i c u l a t e t h e nature of t h e i r oppression.
Caribbean women, l i k e women elsewhere, w i l l have t o assume t h e
major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s a r t i c u l a t i o n and suggestions f o r
change.
One t h r e a t e n i n g problem i s t h e same problem t h e movement
encountered i n t h e United S t a t e s , t h e dominance of t h e movement
by White middle c l a s s women which a l i e n a t e d lower c l a s s white women
and Black and o t h e r minority women (Deckard 1975).
Class i s the
o p e r a t i v e catel:oryl
i n t h e Caribbean s i t u a t i o n .
It i s a q u e s t i o n
o f whether middle c l a s s women can overcome t h e c l a s s and c o l o r
p r e j u d i c e s , endemic i n t h e s o c i e t i e s t o reach out and i n c o r p o r a t e
women from t h e lower socioeconomic stratum i n t o a movement t o
e r a d i c a t e gender i n e q u a l i t y .
1Yiddle c l a s s women have i n f o r m a t i o n ,
o- --r g a n i z a t i o n a l s k i l l s and g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o media.and o t h e r s o u r c e s
- -u--
--
need t h e support of women g e n e r a l l y t o make t h e i r e f f o r t s u c c e s s f u l ,
Concerns have been expressed t h a t developing c o u n t r i e s may follow
t h e p a t t e r n i n Western developed I n d u s t r i a l S t a t e s where:
The demand f o r e q u a l i t y h a s o f t e n been coupled with
a "me t o o " philosophy i n which women s t r i v e t o
e n t e r h i g h e r p o s t s i n t h e h i e r a r c h y of o c c u p a t i o n a l
Such
p o s i t i o n s a c c e p t i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e a s given
token e n t r y of women i n high l e v e l p o s t s o n l y s e r v e s
t o s t a b i l i z e a s t r u c t u r e of i n e q u a l i t y ,
(June Nash, 1975: 3 6 )
....
Caribbean c o u n t r i e s a r e h i g h l y i m p l i c a t e d i n t h i s statement where
t h e s t a t u s a t t a i n m e n t i s dependent on placement i n occupational
h i e r a r c h y which s t i l l r e s e r v e s t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s f o r men.
Like
o t h e r s o c i e t i e s , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t women i s t h e r e s u l t of
h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s embedded i n t h e l e g a l , p o l i t i c a l , economic and
s o c i a l systcms which d e f i n e t h e r o l e s of women and r e i n f o r c e d
by t h e i d e a s , a t t i t u d e s and customs of both men and women,
Social
change t h a t would e l i m i n a t e gender d i s c r i m i n a t i o n r e q u i r e s more
t h a n a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n i n t h e h i r i n g of women o r s e l f - h e l p
economic p r o j e c t s designed t o improve t h e economic s i t u a t i o n of
lllace and c o l o r p r e j u d i c e w i l l continue t o e x i s t f o r a long time
i n s o c i e t i e s where t h e y have been s i g n i f i c a n t both i n s t r u m e n t a l l y
and a f f e c t i v e l y f o r c e n t u r i e s . However, t h e y no l o n g e r autom a t i c a l l y provide a c c e s s t o p r i v i l e g e even though t h e h i s t o r i c a l
process influences the present s i t u a t i o n .
women.
It means development and i n c o r p o r a t i o n of women 3s e q u a l
t o males i n t o t h e p r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s and e q u a l a c c e s s t o and
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s and t h e e l i m i n a t i o n
of n e g a t i v e c l a s s a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s toward women
t h a t have been c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Commitment t o t h e s e changes a t l e a s t i d e a l i s t i c a l l y , h a s
t a k e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l form w i t h t h e United N a t i o n s and o t h e r
i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , n a t i o n a l governments and o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s i n i t i a t i n g programs
t o the effect.
However, when we compare s i m i l a r commitment t o
t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of r a c i s m , p o v e r t y and o t h e r d i s a b l i n g s i t u a t i o n s
which r e t a r d t h e human development p o t e n t i a l , we ought t o be
skeptical.
The e l i m i n a t i o n of racism means t h e s u r r e n d e r of
power of Whites o v e r Black and o t h e r people of c o l o r .
The
e l i m i n a t i o n of p o v e r t y means an end t o t h e dominance and p r i v i l e g e s
of t h e r i c h n a t i o n s o r i n d i v i d u a l s .
The e l i m i n a t i o n of gender
d i f f e r e n c e s means t h e s u r r e n d e r of t h e dominance of men o v e r
women.
The q u e s t i o n of t h e 1980's i s how people i n dominant power
p o s i t i o n s ca? be persuaded o r f o r c e d t o make t h e changes n e c e s s a r y
t o eliminate social inequality.
-
Problems and E f f o r t s
in the Caribbean:
A combination of f a c t o r s make t h e Caribbean more f l e x i b l e
t o changes of t h e kind mentioned above.
T h e i r h i s t o r i e s and
p o l i t i c a l arrangements a r e d i s s o n n a n t r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u o u s
which p r o v i d e a r e c e p t i v e a t t i t u d e toward change f o r improvement.
Norms and v a l u e s a r e n o t b u r i e d i n l o n g t r a d i t i o n of t h e p a s t
and therefore are not sacrosant.
Negative associations with
colonialism and imperialism foster the ideology of change,
High
literacy levels and a mobile population (orientation to upward
mobility often involves emigration to achieve it) create
a kind of restless expectancy which contributes to, atleast,
a rhetoric of change. These factors prompted one woman's
comment that "...when
you ask about the status of women, I'm
not sure the Caribbean is one of the territories that women,
if they knew what they wanted, co.uldnttget it. "
1973:
(Nita Barrow,
20
Some argued that this potential is thwarted by manipulative
actions on the part of elite groups to'maintain their hegemony
(Jones and Mills, 1976).
Nevertheless, it must
be conceded that some changes have occurred and the level of
consciousness raised regarding class/race/color inequalities
and more recently, gender inequality, The problem seems to be
more than lingering commitment to the belief that equality can
be realized within the existing institutional framework.
Women
have been eramining some of the institutions which legitimized
their secondary status.
The status of women will be briefly
analyzed in institutional and attitudinal contexts.
The class which is the dominant material power in society
is at the same time its dominant intellectual force (Marx ~ n ~ l e s $
1944:
39).
The ideas of the ruling class are embodied in the
institutional structures; therefore, law, politics, religion,
family, etc. will reflect the interest of the dominant class.
Occupations i n law, p o l i t i c s and r e l i g i o n have been, u n t i l
r e c e n t l y , e x c l u s i v e l y male.
Furthermore, t h e i d e o l o g i e s which
permeatet t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements have t h e i r o r i g i n s i n
the metropolitan societies.
Consequently, t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
dominated by males r e p r e s e n t i n g f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s ; r e p r e s e n t e d
women o n l y i f such i n t e r e s t s c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h o s e of women.
The i n s t i t u t i o n s of law, p o l i t i c s and r e l i g i o n t o g e t h e r ,
This
l e g i t i m i z e l , enforced and s a n c t i o n e d gender i n e q u a l i t y .
i s demonstrated most c l e a r l y i n f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s where women's
r o l e s have beer1 entrenched.
Women have a c c e p t e d t h e r o l e
assignment, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h mothering.
The " p l a n t a t i o n systemt' a s a c o n c e p t u a l model r e p r e s e n t i n g
s o c i . e t i e s with t h e c l ~ a r a c t e r i s t i c sof e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l of
p o l i t i c a l and economic i n s t i t u t i o n s and f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e
governing t h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l i n t e r n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s h a s been used
a s t h e c l a s s i f i c a t o r y model f o r t h e Commonwealth Caribbean
(Beckford, 1972; Best 1968; Mintz 1971:
Gordon K. Lewis (1968:
26; Wolf 1971:
163-164).
55) summarized t h e " p l a n t a t i o n concept"
when he s t a t e d t h a t :
...
n o t o n l y t h e dominant i n s t i t u t i o n s b u t a l s o t h e
c o n t r o l l i n g a t t i t u d e s of t h e s o c i e t y have been shaped,
t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , by t h e white European i n f l u e n c e .
Its e t h n i c composition h a s been b a s i c a l l y Negro b u t
i t s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l d i r e c t i o n s have been
European. And, moreover, s e l e c t i v e l y European.
The s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e European i n f l u e n c e , he e x p l a i n e d , d e p r i v e d
t h e Caribbean p e o p l e s of b e n e f i t s from t h e g r e a t achievements
i n Europe b u t exposed them t o i t s racism and e x p l o i t a t i o n .
The contemporary p l a n t a t i o n - l i k e system of t h e Caribbean,
Matthews (1973:
300) argued, i s t h e r e p o s i t o r y of a v a s t New
World t r , , d i t i o n of customs and a t t i t u d e s , e s t a b l i s h e d and developed
w i t h i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of s l a v e r y .
This i s not t o suggest
h i s t o r i c a l determinism o r s l a v e r y a s t h e d e f i n e r of s o c i a l l i f e
i n t h e present-day Caribbean.
Rather, it suggests t h a t t h e
h i e r a r c h i c a l s o c i a l system which developed d u r i n g t h a t period
c o n t i n u e s t o f i n d expression under d i f f e r e n t economic and
p o l i t i c a l arrangements.
Consequently, t h e r e have been no
i n c e n t i v e s f o r those who b e n e f i t from t h o s e arrangements t o
e f f e c t changes i n t h e i r s o c i a l behavior and a t t i t u d e s .
White male
dominance was e s t a b l i s h e d from t h e v e r y beginning and was not
l i m i t e d to t h e e x e r c i s e of power i n economic, p o l i t i c a l and
s o c i a l spheres but a l s o included sexual dominance.
White males
had access t o a l l women r e g a r d l e s s of r a c e , c o l o r o r s t a t u s .
Women's s t a t u s was f u r t h e r diminished by t h e men's r e l u c t a n c e
t o c o n t r a c t l e g a l marriages even with white women.
On t h e one hsnd,
while a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n system based on r a c e and c o l o r e x i s t e d
among women, with white women ranking a t t h e t o p and black women
a t t h e bottom, a s women t h e y shared t h e common c a s t e i n which they
were a l l v i c t i m s of white males who could s e l e c t sexual p a r t n e r s
from any category, o f t e n simultaneously.
white males who had power.
Women competed f o r
The i n s t i t u t i o n of marriage and family
developed i n Europe was n o t p r a c t i c e d by white males i n a u t h o r i t y
p o s i t i o n s i n t h e West I n d i e s and was l e g a l l y forbidden t o s l a v e s
so t h a t , from t h e beginning, t h e kind of family r e l a t i o n s h i p
which f l o u r i s h e d was consensual and/or e x p l o i t a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n
l e g a l ( H s l l 1973:
122).
Thus, m a r r i a g e , t h e s o c i a l arrangement
which r e g u l a t e d s e x u a l b e h a v i o r , r e p r o d u c t i o n and a s s i g n e d s e x
r o l e r e s , 0 1 1 s i b i l i t y i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n c o u n t r i e s was n e v e r
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d on t h e Caribbean p l a n t a t i o n .
Family l i f e , a s
s e c t o r of t h e s o c i e t y s o t h a t s t a b l e , p r e d i c t a b l e r o l e s could
develop.
I n t e x e s t i n g l y , i t was t h e Black female s l a v e s who were blamed
f o r t h e s e x u a l decadence of t h e White males who were t h e m a s t e r s .
The Black woman was c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s having m a s t e r y i n t r i c k e r y ,
conjolernents and d e c e i t and a b l e t o convince t h e White man s h e
h a t e d , t h a t she was i n l o v e with him.
c o n t i n u e t o be imputed t o women.
(Long 1 9 7 3 : 8 3 4 t h a t
These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
One important p o i n t was made
t h e Black women used s e x n o t merely f o r
t h e i r own advancement b u t f o r tiheir k i n and men.
There i s
c e r t a i n l y a c o n t r a s t between White men having s e x i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y
f o r p e r s o n a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n because t h e y have t h e power t o make
t h e demand on t h e i r v i c t i m s , and women u s i n g s e x f o r s ~ r v i v a l .
I f Long and o t h e r s were l e s s r a c i s t t h e y would e a s i l y have i d e n t i f i e d
t h e s o u r c e of t h e decadence
--
t h e White male i n s t e a d of blaming
t h e Black f e m a l e , t h e g r e a t e s t v i c t i m of them a l l (Mathurin 1974: 3 ).
Colonialism and V i c t o r i a n moralism c o n v e r t e d t h e upper and
middle c l a s s e s t o l e g a l monogamous marriage i n o r d e r t o c o n s o l i d a t e
t h e i r c l a s s s t a t u s , b u t t h e lower c l a s s e s , who e x i s t e d l a r g e l y
o u t s i d e t h e i n f l u e n c e of European i n s t i t u t i o n s evolved f a m i l y
systems which r e f l e c t e d t h e i r own s o c i a l economic r e a l i t i e s .
These may i n c l u d e l e g a l m a r r i a g e sooner o r l a t e r .
Family s t r u c t u r e
'>
and r e 1 a t i o n s h i p s " h a v e t h e i r a n t e c e d e n t s i n t h e p l a n t a t i o n
system:
s l a v e r y , c o l o n i a l i s m and t h e p e r p e t u a l c o n f l i c t of t r y i n g
t o r e c o n c i l e r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n s with v a l u e s and norms e x t e r n a l
It i s i n t h i s complex fami1.y arrangement
t o t h e i r experience.
t h a t t h e s o c i a l and l e g a l s t a t u s of women a r e e n t a n g l e d .
Family law i n t h e B r i t i s h West I n d i e s i s based on monogamous
m a r r i a g e , and p r o p e r t y r i g h t s and i n h e r i t a n c e a r e c o n f e r r e d
accordingly.
C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t a m a j o r i t y of t h e c h i l d r e n a r e b o r n
o u t s i d e t h e c o n t e x t of l e g a l m a r r i a g e , f a m i l y laws n o t o n l y
d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t women and t h e i r c h i l d r e n
born o u t ' o f wedlock, b u t t h e y deny t h e s o c i a l r e a l i t y of Caribbean
s o c i e t i e s (Cumper 1972:
10).
T h i s i s n o t t o imply t h a t a l l non-
m a r i t a l u n i o n s a r e u n s t a b l e o r t h a t a l l women i n such r e l a t i o n s h i p s
a r e more d e p r i v e d economically.
r e l a t i n g t o family
are
The p o i n t i s t h a t o f f i c i a l norms
a t variance with t h e behavioral p a t t e r n s
of a l a r g e s e c t o r of t h e s o c i e t y .
The economic impoverishment
and m a r g i n a l i t y a l s o a f f e c t e d a l a r g e p a r t of t h e male p o p u l a t i o n ,
i n v a l i d a t i n g t h e i r s o c i a l l y a s s i g n e d p r o v i d e r r o l e i n t h e family.
C o n s e q u e r ~ t l y , t h e y a r e d i s c o u r a g e d from e s t a b l i s h i n g permanent t i e s .
2 ~ a r n i l ys t r u c t u r e of t h e Caribbean h a s g e n e r a t e d i n t e r e s t and a
c o n s i d e r a b l e body of l i t e r a t u r e h a s emerged s i n c e t h e 1950's.
For d i s c u s s i o n on t h e subeject s e e J u d i t h Blake (1971), Familg
he S o c i a l Context of Reproduction;
S t r u c t u r e in Jamaica:
Edith Clark (
'1953),&
Mother Who F a t h e r e d Me: Fernando Henriques
(1953), Family and Color i n Jamaica; M. G. Smith ( l 9 6 2 ) , West
I n d i a n Family S t r u c t u r k ; R. T. Smith ( 1 9 5 6 ) , The Near0 Family i n
B r i t i s h Guiana.
They may o p t f o r s h o r t - t e r m l i a i s o n and when t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
d i s s o l v e s , t h e y f r e q u e n t l y f e e l no o b l i g a t i o n t o s u p p o r t t h e
c h i l d r e n t h a t may have been born from t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p ( S t y c o s
and
Rack 1964:
330).
The l e g a l system
p e n a l i z e s o n l y t h e women
i n non-marital r e l a t i o n s h i p s by n o t e n f o r c i n g o r imposing l e g a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s u p p o r t of c h i l d r e n on males.
Women, on t h e o t h e r hand, s e e m a r r i a g e a s t h e means o f s o c i a l
m o b i l i t y o-- t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of a s o c i a l s t a t u s p o s i t i o n .
J u d i t h Blake (1971:
123) concluded t h a t Jamaican women a r e more
a p t t o d e l a y marriage when economic s e c u r i t y i s u n f a v o r a b l e .
R o b e r t s and S i n c l a i r (1978:
63-67) found l i t t l e s u p p o r t f o r non-
l e g a l u n i o n s a s Blake d i d b u t t h e same ambivalence towards
marriage.
T h i s ambivalence seems t o come from t h e i n a b i l i t y t o
reconcile expectations with r e a l i t y .
Marriage, which i s more
r e s t r i c t i v e , i n t h e i r o p i n i o n , p r o v i d e s no economic advantages
a n d , t h e r e f o r e , no improvement of s t a t u s .
I t h a s been s a i d t h a t
women i n common-law r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e independent a g e n t s , n o t
s u b s e r v i e n t c h a t t e l s ; t h e y make t h e i m p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n s about
c h i l d r e n , j o b s , and o t h e r a s p e c t s of t h e i r l i v e s .
may have d e f i n i t e drawbacks f o r b o t h p a r t n e r s :
Formal marriage
f o r women, it
e n t a i l s l o s s of e q u a l i t y , l e s s freedom t o move a b o u t , fewer cont a c t s , more l o n e l i n e s s (Lowenthal 1972:
111; Nash 1975).
Mathurin countered t h i s argument on female independence.
Lucille
She
argued t h a t :
Any a n a l y s i s of t h e s t a t u s of t h e Caribbean woman
t o d a y h a s t o q t a k e i n t o account t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c o n t e x t
i n which t h e b l a c k m a j o r i t y f u n c t i o n s , r e l a t i v e t o t h e
o c c u p a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e r e s t of t h e s o c i e t y .
Iier a l l e g e d position of influence and power i n the
f a m i l y and community h a s t o be judged a g a i n s t t h e
background of t h e lowest s t a t u s - b e a r i n g j o b s which
t h e s o c i e t y always a l l o c a t e d t o h e r (1974: 5).
She conceded t h a t t h e r e i s some v a l i d i t y t o t h e " r a t h e r t i r e d
c l i c h e Black M a t r i a r c h , " g i v e n t h e number of women who head
h o u s e h o l d s , t h a t i s , approximately o n e - t h i r d of J a m a i c a ' s
a d u l t females.
However, s h e d e n i e d t h a t b e i n g head of household
provides n a t u r a l access t o authority.
These women a r e more l i k e l y
t o be economically d e p r e s s e d and t h u s more v u l n e r a b l e t o s e x u a l
e x p l o i t a t i o n (Mathurin-Mair 1974:
5-6).
West Tndian women of a l l c l a s s e s r e g a r d c h i l d r e n a s b l e s s i n g s ,
proud t o g i v e b i r t h , happy t o c h e r i s h b a b i e s , and r e a d y t o make
s a c r i f i c e s f o r a c h i l d ' s f u t u r e (Lowenthal 1972:
107).
Carribean
women a c c e p t t h e u n i v e r s a l r o l e of c h i l d - b e a r e r r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r
socjoeconomic and m a r i t a l s t a t u s .
w i t h o u t males a s co-residents!
They o f t e n l i v e i n households
perform economic r o l e s and must
depend on female r e l a t i v e s f o r s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s .
A s u p p o r t system developed among women i n t h e absence of t h e
s o c i a l l y mandated male s u p p o r t .
While c o d p e r a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l among lower s t r a t u m women,
it
js
a l s o i m p e r a t i v e between women of d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l s t r a t a .
There i s some evidence t h a t women a r e r e c o g n i z i n g t h e i r common
unequal s o c i a l s t a t u s r e g a r d l e s s of c l a s s p o s i t i o n .
The law was
t h e f i r s t a r e a such s t a t u s i n e q u a l i t y was demonstrated.
T h i s p r e s e n t s problems f o r u s i n g t h e f a m i l y a s t h e u n i t of
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and assuming t h a t women belong i n a f a m i l y o r
c o - r e s i d e w i t h men. Here a g a i n such s c h o l a r s have assumed t h a t
"family" d e f i n e s a u n i t t h a t is standard i n a l l s o c i e t i e s . , i.e.
t h e n u c l e a r f a m i l y c a n be l o c a t e d r e g a r d l e s s of a l l o t h e r manifest a t i o n s . Berreman argued t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l co-residence of males
and f e m a l e s make i t d i f f i c u l t t o d e t a c h t h e female a s a s i n g l e u n i t
f o r a n a l y s i s . The Caribbean p r o v i d e s a l l t h e p o s s i b l e v a r i e n t s of
relationships.
U r l t i l women begari t o p r a c t i c e law i n t h e Caribbean ;lo concern
was shown f o r t h e l e g a l s t a t u s of women o r t h e consequences of
c e r t a i n l e g a l p r o v i s i o n s on t h e l i v e s of women.
G l o r i a Cumper's
(197%) s u r v e y of s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n i n Jamaica r e v e a l e d t h e l e g a l
i n e q u i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y a s experienced by unmarried women and t h e i r
dependent " i l l e g i t i m a t e " c h i l d r e n .
I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e l e g a l
s t a t u s of women have s i n c e been done i n o t h e r Caribbean c o u n t r i e s
(Daly 1975; Thompson 1945; Messiah 19'78).
Middle c l a s s , p r o f e s s i o n a l women, s i n c e t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s were
e x p e r i e n c i n g l e g a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h a t d i d n o t a f f e c t men i n
comparable s i t u a t i o n s .
Wives of Jamaican n a t i o n a l s were exempt
from t h e need t o g e t work p e r m i t s b u t t h e husbands of Jamaican
n a t i o n a l s were n o t exempt (Cumper 1972:
5).
e x i s t s f o r T r i n i d a d and Tobago (Daly 1975),
(Thompson 1975:
28-35).
A similar provision
Bahamas and Barbados
One r e s e a r c h e r r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d t h a t
Jamaican men s e e themselves a s Jamaicans b u t women were j u s t
I'
women.
"
Thompson ( ~ . 2 8 ) summed up t h e l e g a l s i t u a t i o n of women.
"The law h a s always t r e a t e d women i n a manner c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
t h e i r supposed i n f e r i o r i t y . "
Thus prime m i n i s t e r s could e x p l a i n
t h a t t h e y d i d n o t c o n s i d e r i t i n women's b e s t i n t e r e s t t o e x t e n d
c i t i z e n s h i p t o t h e i r f o r e i g n husbands.
Apparently, n o t even when
d i v o r c e i s t h e consequence and t h e women o f t e n l e f t w i t h economic
and s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of s i n g l e parenthood (Thompson:l%"i'34).
One h e a r s echoes o f t h e p l a n t a t i o n w i t h t h e s l a v e m a s t e r c l a i m i n g
t e r r i t o r i a l i t y and ownership of a l l t h e women.
Some d i s c r i m i n a t o r y laws a f f e c t i n g women have been rescinded
but t h e a t t i t u d e s f o s t e r e d by such laws w i l l continue i n d e f i n i t e l y .
Religion which seemed t o have lagged behind p o l i t i c a l , l e g a l and
sometimes express r e a c t i o n a r y r a t h e r
social ~rocesses,
than progressive i d e a l s .
A case i n p o i n t was t h e . o u t r a g e ex-
pressed by an Anglican Dean when t h e Barbadian government proposed t o change t h e laws r e l a t i n g t o i n h e r i t a n c e from f a t h e r s
of " i l l e g 2 t i m a t e 1 ' c h i l d r e n .
H i s excuse: g r a n t i n g such c h i l d r e n
t h e same l e g a l s t a t u s a s l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d r e n w i l l undermine t h e
i n s t i t u t i o n of marriage.
T h i s i s t h e same argument which informed
t h e law i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e and had been no d e t e r r e n t t o mating
and reproduction p a t t e r n s (Cumper 1972:
5).
Organized r e l i g i o n i n t h e Caribbean i s not only male dominated,
i t i s a l s o e l i t e s t , s e r v i n g t h e middle and upper c l a s s while
r e s e r v i n g only censure f o r t h e lower c l a s s .
Yet, a s one person
pointed o u t , women a r e t h e major support of t h e churches
(Nita Borrow 1973:
20).
I f t h e church women can ignore t h e i r
v a r i o u s p r e j u d i c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h a t of moral s u p e r i o r i t y , t h e y
can use t h e churches on behalf of women g e n e r a l l y .
There i s
some evidence t h a t t h e church has assumed a more a c t i v i s t r o l e
and expressed concern over s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s .
There i s no demonstrated evidence, however, t h a t t h e church
has stopped discrirnina t i n g a g a i n s t women (Caribbean Contact ,1978 and
May 1980:
5).
-
Education, Occupation and Labor Force P a r t i c i p a t i o n
S t u d i e s done i n t h e United S t a t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e processes
determining t h e e d u c a t i o n a l and occupational achievement a r e
b a s i c a l l y t h e same f o r males and females and d i f f e r o n l y s l i g h t l y
by sex.
(Petherman and H a u s e r , 1976; Treiman and T e r r e l l , 1975).
I t was a l s o found t h a t s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e i n power i n t h e workp l a c e was a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n g e n e r a t i n g income i n e q u a l i t y
between men and women (Roos, 1978.
F u r t h e r m o r e , women were l e s s l i k e l y t h a n men t o r e a l i z e t h e i r occupat i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s and had lower r e t u r n s i n o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s
f o r e d u c a t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t s ( S p a e t h , 1977).
The
planation f o r t h e f a i l u r e of women t o match e d u c a t i o n
and o c c u p a t i o n w i t h e x p e c t a t i o n s i s t h a t women d i d n o t have
commitment t o o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s and t h a t t r a i n i n g and c a r e e r
i n t e r r u p t i o n s may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f a i l u r e t o advance
occupationally r a t h e r than discrimination.
It was found t h a t t h e
l a c k of q u a l i f i c a t i o n s was a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t o r t o women's
f a i l u r e t o r e a c h p o s i t i o n s of a u t h o r i t y b u t was l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t
t h a n employers' b e h a v i o r s and p o l i c i e s .
The b e h a v i o r of women
t h e m s e l v e s , more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s was
a l s o l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n employers' b e h a v i o r and p o l i c i e s
(Wolf and P l i g s t e i n , 1979:
235-252).
The q u z l i t y and q u a n t i t y of e d u c a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o women
v a r y from s o c i e t y t o s o c i e t y b u t t h e f i n d i n g s f o r t h e United
S t a t e s c a n be g e n e r a l i z e d t o some o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .
It seems
t h a t one major d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s e f i n d i n g s w i t h what can be
p r o j e c t e d f o r t h e Caribbean i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n l a b o r f o r c e
participation.
The h i g h e r t h e l e v e l of e d u c a t i o n , t h e more
l i k e l y t h a t women w i l l remain i n t h e l a b o r f o r c e permanently.
Constancy, however, w i l l n o t g u a r a n t e e r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t on
t h e same l e v e l w i t h men s i n c e t h e r e a r e b u i l t - i n mechanisms which
r e s t r i c t women's advancement.
E d u c a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d a primary i n s t r u m e n t i n t h e development p r o c e s s .
The e l m i n a t i o n o f p o v e r t y and i l l i t e r a c y a r e s t a t e d
g o a l s of developed a s w e l l a s d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s .
This focus
i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o r r e c t b i a s a g a i n s t e d u c a t i n g women o r uncondit i . o n a l l y s e l e c t i n g males o v e r f e m a l e s when a c h o i c e had t o be
made, even when t h e f e m a l e s demonstrated more c a p a b i l i t y
(UNESCO, United N a t i o n s G/Conf.
66/BP/13,
1975).
i s a c r u c i a l f a c t o r i n e d u c a t i o n a l development
on
The
and t h e i d e o l o g y which t h e f u n c t i o n and d e l i v e r y i s based.
Resou:ce
emphasis on i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y of e d u c a t i o n i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y
i s a complete r e v e r s a l of r e c e n t h i s t o r y when t h e educated
p e r s o n was a l u x u r y r a t h e r t h a n a n e c e s s i t y and e d u c a t i o n p r e p a r e d p e o p l e f o r d i g n i f i e d l e i s u r e r a t h e r t h a n p r o d u c t i v e work
( D r u c k e r , 1961, 15-16).
F u r t h e r m o r e , it h a s been p r o j e c t e d
t h a t i n i n d u s t r i a l and d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y i n t h e y e a r 2000,
e d u c a t i o n w i l l be t h e main i n s t r u m e n t of upward m o b i l i t y and
l a c k of e d u c a t i o n o r f a i l u r e t o do w e l l i n o n e ' s e d u c a t i o n
t h e p r i n c i p a l c a u s e of downward m o b i l i t y ( H a v i g h u r s t , 1961:
120).
The l a t t e r might be an o v e r s t a t e m e n t b u t few w i l l doubt t h e
importance of e d u c a t i o n i n contemporary s o c i e t y .
I n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , acknowledging t h e importance of
e d u c a t i o n i s a f i r s t s t e p , p l a n n i n g and o r g a n i z i n g t h e t y p e of
e d u c a t i o n a l s e r v i c e t h a t w i l l b e s t s a t i s f y t h e needs of a
p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y a r e t h e c r i t i c a l i s s u e s , e s p e c i a l l y when a n
e d u c a t i o n a l system a l r e a d y e x i s t s .
such a dilemma.
The C a r i b b e a n h a s f a c e d
The c o l o n i a l regime e s t a b l i s h e d a n e d u c a t i o n a l
system t h a t was n o t o n l y i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e needs o f t h e a r e a ,
i t was a l s o e l i t i s t and s e x i s t i n i t s i d e o l o g y and p r a c t i c e and
1972: 118-123).
f u n c t i o n e d t o m a i n t a i n c l a s s b a r r i e r s (Lowenthal,
E d u c a t i o n a l reforms s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s f o c u s e d p r i m a r i l y
on t h e h l g h e r l e v e l s
--
The p e r i o d
secondary and u n i v e r s i t y .
s i n c e t h e n , h a s witnessed an unprecedented expansion of e d u c a t i o n a l
f a c i l i t i e s and a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e d e l i v e r y of e d u c a t i o n a l
services.
The r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of secondary s c h o o l s i n Jamaica
ended t h e t o t a l monopoly on e d u c a t i o n by t h e upper c l a s s e s .
This
r e s u l t e d i n t h e expansion of t h e middle c l a s s e s and a l s o changed
t h e c o l o r composition of t h a t c l a s s .
The e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a
u n i v e r s i t y system a l s o gave a c c e s s t o e d u c a t i o n a t t h a t l e v e l t o
p e a p l e who c o u l d n o t a f f o r d t r a i n i n g abroad.
the
The r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and expansion of e d u c a t i o n a l system,
however, d i d n o t e r a d i c a t e t h e s e x b i a s e s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o i t
d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d a s i t had some s u c c e s s i n d e a l i n g
w i t h r a c e , c o l o r and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , c l a s s .
a s e l s e w h e r e , was r e i n f o r c e d by e d u c a t i o n .
Sex d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ,
Segregated f a c i l i t i e s
emphasized s e x d i f f e r e n c e s a t t h e secondary l e v e l a l t h o u g h a
b a s i c academic c u r r i c u l u m s e r v e d a l l secondary s c h o o l s .
Men
and women
up t o t h e secondary l e v e l had t h e same academic
training.
Ecorlomic f a c t o r s r a t h e r t h a n o v e r t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on
t h e b a s i s of s e x i n f l u e n c e d t h e s e l e c t i o n of women.
Women some-
t i m e s had p r e f e r e n c e over men, b u t u s u a l l y , women g o t t r a i n e d
a s n u r s e s , s e c r e t a r i e s , o r primary s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ( t e a c h i n g i s
not sex-typed b u t i s overwhelmingly female).
Men had been
l a r g e l y s e l e c t e d f o r u n i v e r s i t y and v o c a t i o n a l / t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g .
A p i c t o r i a l report i l l u s t r a t i n g occupational r o l e s i n Trinidad
and Tobago i n 1960, showed s i x t e e n d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s , o n l y
f o u r d i s p l a y e d p i c t u r e s of female o c c u p a t i o n s , and t h e s e were:
n u r s e , a i r h o s t e s s , t y p i s t and s e a m s t r e s s
typed fen,ale o c c u p a t i o n s .
--
a l l t r a d i t i o n a l sex-
Fifteen years l a t e r , the registration
i n technical/vocational schools showssimilar p a t t e r n s .
Of t h e
o v e r f i f t y c o u r s e s of s t u d y o f f e r e d , women were s t i l l t h e overwhelming m a j o r i t y o n l y i n t h o s e a r e a s of s t u d i e s which r e p r e s e n t e d
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sex-typed r o l e s f o r women.
There i s evidence of movement toward g r e a t e r e q u i t y a t t h e
university level.
Between 1964-66, women were e q u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d
i n t h e Arts and Humanities b u t under-represented
and technology.
i n the sciences
S i n c e 1973 women have e n t e r e d t h e n a t u r a l
s c i e n c e s and a g r i c u l t u r e and have gained ascendency i n t h e a r t s
and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s b u t t h e y a r e h a r d l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n technology
( T r i n i d a d and Tobago, Annual S t a t i s t i c a l D i g e s t , 1976/77).
I n Jamaica i n 1970's t h e male/female r e g i s t r a t i o n i n t h e
u n i v e r s i t y was 2 : l i n f a v o r of males d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t more
f e m a l e s were g r a d u a t i n g from h i g h s c h o o l s .
The p r o j e c t i o n s were,
t h e n , t h a t f e m a l e s would be on p a r o r i n t h e m a j o r i t y by t h e
l a t e 70's
(Gordon, 1974:
27).
A recent report4 (verbal)
r e v e a l e d t h a t women a r e i n t h e m a j o r i t y i n t h e a r t s , s o c i a l and
n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s and on p a r w i t h men i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n s -- law
a
and medicine. T h i s i d s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e , s i n c e i n l 9 G O
women r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y 18 p e r c e n t of t h e l i c e n s e d p h y s i c i a n s
and a b o u t 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e l a w y e r s (Handbook of Jamaica, 1972:
T h i s v e r b a l i n f o r m a t i o n was g i v e n by Maureen Warner-Lewis,
S e n i o r L e c t u r e r , U W I , Mona, Jamaica, i n a p a n e l d i s c u s s i o n ,
"Caribbean C u r r e n t s : Changes i n C u l t u r e and P o 1 i t i c s " a t
Hampshire C o l l e g e , Amherst, Massachusetts, A p r i l 24, 1981.
S e x i s t t r a i n i n g and i d e o l o g y c r e a t e d some e x c l u s i v e occupst i o n a l a r e a s f o r men and f o r women, b u t men g e t t h e e l i t e r o l e s .
An example of s e x h i e r a r c h y i s t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e i n
Jamaica i n 1962:
Of t h e one hundred and seventy-two p o s i t i o n s
l i s t e d i n t h e administrative/executive and t e c h n i c a l c a t e g o r i e s ,
women occupied o n l y f o u r of t h o s e p o s i t i o n s and a t t h e lowest
l e v e l of t h e h i e r a r c h y (Handbook of Jamaica, 1972).
Similarly,
i n t h e M i n i s t r y of Education males dominated t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l
h i e r a r c h y i n a n o c c u p a t i o n a l a r e a t h a t i s predominantly female.
I n 1974, t h e s e x composition of t h e s e h i g h e r l e v e l p o s i t i o n s were:
Chief and P r i n c i p a l Education O f f i c e r s
S e n i o r Education O f f i c e r
9
a l l males
13
10 males
3 females
3
Education O f f i c e r
25 males
9 females,
Of t h e s e n i o r e d u c a t i o n o f f i c e r s , two o u t of t h e t h r e e women
had u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e s compared w i t h two o u t of t h e t e n men and
t h r e e o u t of n i n e women (tiducation O f f i c e r s ) compared w i t h f o u r
o u t of twenty-five men.
Education o f f i c e r s a r e u s u a l l y drawn
from e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l s .
female p r i n c i p a l s .
That r a t i o i s 7:4 male t o
T h i s may c o n t i n u e i n d e f i n i t e l y u n l e s s women
demand t h a t t h e i r s e n i o r i t y and e d u c a t i o n be t a k e n i n t o account
and n o t t h e i r sex.
They must prove t h a t t h e y c a n dominate an
occupational area administratively a s well a s numerically.
If t h e e d u c a t i o n a l t r e n d s noted a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l
c r y s t a l l i z e , women w i l l soon a c h i e v e e d u c a t i o n a l p a r i t y w i t h
men.
B u t , w i l l t h a t p a r i t y be transformed i n t o o c c u p a t i o n and
decision-making p o s i t i o n s ' ?
There is no evidence anywhere t o
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s w i l l occur.
The d i s c u s s i o n , s o f a r , h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h a t s m a l l
s e c t o r of t h e p o p u l a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d by post-primary e d u c a t i o n .
A l a r g e p a r t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of women have n o t even completed
t h e s t i p i l a t e d number of y e a r s of elementary e d u c a t i o n t h a t had
been a v a i l a b l e t o them.
They a r e l i k e l y t o be s e m i - s k i l l e d
o r u n s k i l l e d and u n r e p r e s e n t e d by unions.
Some a r e s e l f -
employed i n marginal economic a c t i v i t i e s a l t h o u g h t h e y p r o v i d e
v i t a l s e r v i c e s i n some a r e a s .
I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , i n so f a r t h a t
i t h a s occurred i n t h e Caribbean, h a s f a i l e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e
a l a r g e number of women, and men, i n t o t h e economic mainstream.
I
It i s now t h e s o c i e t i e s ' avowed t a s k t o i n c o r p o r a t e women,
e s p e c i a l l y , i n t o t h e development p r o c e s s .
L i t e r a c y programs
( J a m a i c a ) s e l f - h e l p p r o j e c t s , c o u n s e l i n g and o t h e r forms of
a s s i s t a n c e a r e d i r e c t e d a t such people.
t h e c r i t e r i a of development'!
Do t h e s e e f f o r t s s a t i s f y
They a r e s t e p s i n t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .
Development i s a p r o c e s s and f o r c o u n t r i e s w i t h dependent
economies, t h e p r o g r e s s i s slow.
Labor Force
The par t i c i p a t i o n of women i n t h e l a b o r f o r c e i s u s u a l l y
high b u t v a r i a b l e .
T h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n r a t e i s lower t h a n
males, t h e y have h i g h e r r a t e s of unemployment, and lower median
income.
O f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s do n o t always r e p r e s e n t t h e t o t a l i t y
of women's economic a c t i v i t i e s : employment o u t s i d e t h e home i s
o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e o n l y form o f employment when, i n f a c t ,
some women supplement f a m i l y income through a v a r i e t y of economic
a c t i v i t i e s ( J o s e p h s , 1480: 144 ).
The g r e a t e r absence of women
from t h e l a b o r f o r c e should not be i n t e r p r e t e d a s complementary i
d i v i s i o n of l a b o r between t h e sexes but viewed a s t h e l i m i t a t i o n
i n t h e c a p a c i t y of the l a b o r f o r c e t o absorb t h e a v a i l a b l e
l a b o r pc 31.
Unemployment has increased among females i n Jamaica t o
37.7 p e r cent (October) 1978 an i n c r e a s e from 34.8 p e r c e n t ( A p r i l )
1977 and from 30.9 p e r cent ( ~ ~ r i 1976.
l )
Unemployment increased
among men a l s o but a t a much slower r a t e and i t - s t i l l s t a n d s
a t l e s s than h a l f of the women's r a t e .
The o v e r a l l employment
r a t e f o r women i s 41.3 percent (males 48.1 p e r c e n t ) , 1978.
(Labor Force, Jamaica, Department of
S t a t i s t i c s , 1978).
In
Trinidad and Tobago t h e unemployment r a t e has been d e c l i n i n g
v a r i a b l y s i n c e 1973.
t h e lowest s i n c e 1973.
The 1977 (December) r a t e i s 17 p e r c e n t ,
The comparable r a t e f o r males i s 11 p e r
c e n t d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d , a d e c l i n e of 3 p e r c e n t s i n c e 1973
( ~ n n u a lS t a t i s t i c a l Digest, 1976/77, Trinidad and Tobago, p. 85).
Women may v o l u n t a r i l y leave t h e l a b o r f o r c e : t h i s i s u s u a l l y
done f o r family reasons and t h e reason f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d f o r
women's f a i l u r e t o advance occupationally.
A study of female
l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n and f e r t i l i t y i n Jamica (Powell, 1976:
335-258) i n d i c a t e d t h a t women i n s t a b l e unions (31.6 percent
married o r 41.9 p e r cent common-law) had lower l e v e l s of l a b o r
f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n than women not l i v i n g with p a r t n e r s (70.2
per c e n t ) followed by women s e p a r a t e d from husbands(66.6 p e r c e n t )
s i n g l e women (64.8 p e r c e n t ) .
The l i k e l y conclusion i s t h a t s t a b l e
unions d e p r e s s women's economic a c t i v i t i e s .
Since t h e r e i s no
o t h e r d a t a a v a i l a b l e t6 c l a r i f y o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i t i s
d i f f i c u l t t o p r o j e c t about the women l e a v i n g t h e l a b o r f o r c e .
P o w e l l ' s c l u e t h a t young women l e a v e b e f o r e t h e y have c h i l d r e n
s u g g e s t s t h a t , f o r Jamaicans, n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o
job c a t e g o r y , t h e lower t h e job s t a t u s , t h e l e s s a t t r a c t i v e
t h e lab01 f o r c e e x c e p t f o r t h o s e who depend on t h e i r own income.
Unlike North American women who u s u a l l y i n t e r r u p t c a r e e r s d u r i n g
the child-bearing/rearing
y e a r s , Jamaican women may e n t e r t h e
l a b o r f o r c e permanently.
T h e i r o c c u p a t i o n a l advancement s h o u l d
n o t be impaired
by c a r e e r i n t e r r u p t i o n s .
S t r u c t u r e d i n e q u a l i t y i s emphasized most s t r o n g l y by income
disparities.
Such d i s p a r i t i e s a r e n o t always t h e consequence
of d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of t r a i n i n g , a b i l i t y o r e x p e r i e n c e .
Income
d i f f e r e n t i a l s a r e e i t h e r masked by job c a t e g o r i e s o r b l a t a n t l y
discriminatory.
For example, lower s t a t u s h o s p i t a l workers i n
Jamaica, "maidd'and " p o r t e r s : have d i f f e r e n t s a l a r y s c a l e s w i t h
p o r t e r s ( m a l e s ) having t h e h i g h e r s c a l e .
Yet, i n t e r m s of
a c t u a l h o u r s worked, t h e maids p u t i n l o n g e r p e r i o d s of cons i s t e n t work s i m i l a r t o t h e p a t t e r n of t h e i r u p p e r s t a t u s
workers, nurses.
P o r t e r 3 work t e n d s t o f o l l o w t h e p a t t e r n of
d o c t o r s i n t h e h o s p i t a l , t h e y work when t h e y a r e c a l l e d f o r
specific tasks.
H i s t o r i c a l l y , s a l a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l s have been
s a n c t i o n e d and s p e c i f i c h o u r s of work and r a t e of pay s t i p u l a t e d
f o r males and f e m a l e s ( C o l o n i a l R e p o r t , 1956:
d'e u
, I , ,
A)
,9:1t,
.
Women
were excluded from some work c a t e g o r i e s , u s u a l l y t h e more l u c r a t i v e ,
and t h e r e seemed no r e a s o n a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
i n h o u r s worked o r why women i n communications r e c e i v e d h i g h e r
incomes t h a n males.
There i s a k i n d of a r b i t r a r i n e s s i n t h e
income d i f f e r e n c e s b u t t h e d e v a l u a t i o n and i n f e r i o r i z a t i o n of
women's work h a s l o n g r e i n f o r c e d s t e r e o t y p e d images o f women
a s l e s s c a p a b l e t h a n men.
I t was found t h a t low s t a t u s male
employees i n Barbados do n o t f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by t h e i r women who
have i n d u s t r i a l w h i t e c o l l a r j o b s because "...almost
any job
occupied by a male i n Barbados w i l l pay him more t h a n a n e q u a l l y
s k i l l e d job i n i n d u s t r y w i l l pay h i s spouse" ( S t o f f l e , 1977:
276).
" P r o t e c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n f o r women a g g r a v a t e s t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
p r a c t i c e d a g a i n s t them i n market economies.
The laws p h r a s e d
i n t e r m s 3f p r o t e c t i n g t h e 'weak and d e f e n s e l e s s ' c r y s t a l l i z e a
s e n s e of i n f e r i o r i t y " ( I L O S t u d i e s , R e p o r t , 1921).
The law
regulating t h e employment of women i n Jamaica, 1942, r e s e r v e d
t o t h e M i n i s t e r of Labor, t h e r i g h t t o r e s t r i c t t h e employment
of women i n any i n d u s t r y o r a c t i v i t y ; p r o h i b i t o r r e g u l a t e
employment a f t e r o r b e f o r e c h i l d b i r t h and t h e g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s
under which t h e y may work.
wor,len
Ni&t
work was p r o h i b i t e d e x c e p t f o r
In health care service, entertainment industry,
managerial p o s i t i o n o r
i11
i n d u s t r i e s which h a n d l e produce sub-
j e c t e d t o r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n (Cumper, 1972:
96-97).
The
p e r s o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s o r p r e f e r e n c e s of t h e women were n o t
considered.
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a c r u c i a l problem i n many a r e a s of
J a m a i c a , may be more c o n v e n i e n t f o r n i g h t work thar? t h o s e h o u r s
c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e f o r women.
S i m i l a r l y i n 1974 when t h e government e s t a b l i s h e d a minimum
wage law aimed a t t h e most e x p l o i t e d group i n t h e s o c i e t y ,
t h e household domestic worker, t h e t w e n t y - d o l l a r minimum p e r
week was c r e e t e d w i t h o u t r a g e by employers.
had two o l ~ p o s i t ee f f e c t s :
i t may have
T h i s law may have
contributed t o the
i n c r e a s e d unemployment among women while i t improved t h e economic
s t a t u s of t h o s e who r e t a i n e d t h e i r jobs.
An a d d i t i o n a l i n c r e a s e
of f o u r d o l l a r s t o t h e minimum wage may a l s o have c o n t r i b u t e d t o
t h e s l i g l - t l y h i g h e r income f o r f e m a l e s o v e r males between 1976-77
( ~ a b o rF o r c e , Jamaica, 1978).
A t t i t u d e s and assumptions about women's r o l e s c r e a t e f u r t h e r
restrictions,
even when t h e woman i s t r a i n e d f o r t h e job.
The ~ r o b l e mof women who e n t e r o c c u ~ a t i o n a la r e a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y
r e s e r v e d f o r males and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o f u n c t i o n i n such r o l e s
professionally is i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e followina
e x c e r p t from an i n t e r v i e w i n 1974 i n Jamaica w i t h a s e c r e t a r y
i n a para-governmental agency.
E x p r e s s i n g s k e p t i c i s m about t h e new o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s f o r
women, she commented:
I wonder about job o p p o r t u n i t i e s , f o r a l t h o u g h a
woman does something l i k e mechanical e n g i n e e r i n g ,
w i l l she be a b l e t o f i n d employment i n t h e f i e l d ?
W i l l employers be w i l l i n g t o d i s r e g a r d s e x a s a
b a s i s f o r h i r i n g , because, I know where I work,
t h j . s i s n ' t done.
There a r e c e r t a i n jobs t h e y w i l l
not o f f e r women (Gordon 1974: 27-28).
She e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e y would n o t employ women f o r f i e l d work
because i t involved e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n a t n i g h t s and spending days
i n t h e f i e l d under l e s s t h a n i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s .
One would assume
t h a t a c o u r s e of t r a i n i n g i n a g r i c u l t u r e would a c q u a i n t t h e
woman w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e job
but
s h e was n o t asked
whether she i s prepared f o r such c o n d i t i o n s " t h e r e i s t h e g e n e r a l
a
f e e l i n g t h a t such c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t s u i t e d t o woman,plus t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e y assume she w i l l g e t married and h e r husband
w i l l o b j e c t t o t h e job demands."
According t o t h i s r e p o r t ,
30
t h e womerr were n e v e r asked t o choose.
T r u e , t h e one woman
who a t t e m p t e d t h e job d i d n o t s t a y l o n g because s h e found
t h e job t o o s o l i t a r y (Gordon, 1974: 27-28).
S t i l l , women's
e r ~ r o l l l \ e n ti n a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e h a s i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y ,
and i t seems t h a t t h e y w i l l have t o f i n d t h e means t o overcome
t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s of t h e job i n s t e a d of emphasizing them
t o d e t e r women.
P h y s i c a l u n p l e a s a n t work i s n o t t h e o n l y t y p e
men f e e l t h a t women a r e n o t s u i t e d f o r .
A male r e p o r t i n g on
t h e perlarmance of r e c e n t u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s i n a job
s i t u a t i o n which, f o r m a l l y , r e c r u i t e d male c i v i l s e r v a n t s
from t h e r a n k s i n t o t h o s e p o s i t i o n s claimed:
"They a l l o w t h e i r emotions t o g e t i n t h e way."
He d e n i e d
t h a t t h e y were i n c o m p e t e n t , t h e y were j u s t t o o e m o t i o n a l t o
d e v e l o p t h e detachment n e c e s s a r y t o probe p e o p l e ' s t a x s t a t u s .
I t must not be overlooked t h a t i n b o t h t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s men
a r e d e a l i n g w i t h women a s e q u a l s i n a way t h e y have never been
accustomed t o
world.
--
a s equals.
Women have i n t r u d e d i n t o men's
Lvzn i f it i s n o t n i c e f o r women t o c a r r y a s p r a y
c a n on h e r back and she i s l i k e l y t o be a t t a c k e d i f she i s
on h e r own, t h e c h a l l e n g e t h e y p r e s e n t i s p o s s i b l y g r e a t e r
t h a n any o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
Women a s w e l l a s men e x p r e s s e d
r e l u c t a r i c e t o have female s u p e r v i s o r s ; t h e y do not want t o
d e a l w i t h women's emotionalism (Gordon, 1974:
32).
Women r e c e i v e t h e same b a s i c e d u c a t i o n a s men b u t some
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e g i n s a t t h e middle l e v e l which r e i n f o r c e s
d i f f e r e n t c a r e e r l i n e s f o r men and women.
There i s e v i d e n c e
of movement toward e q u a l i z a t i o n a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l b o t h
i n numbers and i n t h e c o u r s e of s t u d i e s pursued.
Educationally
t h e Caribbean i s moving i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of p a r i t y .
Czcupa-
t i o n a l l y , t h e r e i s r e s i s t a n c e t o women's e n t r y i n t r a d i t i o n a l
male j o b s , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e y e n t e r t h e o c c u p a t i o n s on t h e
his of e d u c a t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s i n s t e a d of promotion
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n of males i n t e c h n i c a l /
through t h e ranks.
v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l s and t h e marginal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of f e m a l e s
i n d i c a t e t h a t men w i l l c o n t i n u e t o have t h e advantage i n t h e
skilled
trades
which a r e t h e l u c r a t i v e a r e a s of employment.
Women a r e advancing o c c u p a t i o n a l l y , i f n o t a t t h e same r a t e
w i t h men.
I n Jamaica, females a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l employees
i n government.
The C i v i l S e r v i c e , once a h i g h s t a t u s employ-
ment a r e a , h a s l o s t s t a t u s a s t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r expanded
and men could f i n d more l u c r a t i v e j o b s i n t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r .
The p a t t e r n h a s beenllfemale successiorll where males have
a b d i c a t e d , n o t a s a c o n s c i o u s appointment of women on t h e b a s i s
of q u a l i f i c a t i o n (Gordon, 1974:
27
).
The C i v i l S e r v i c e
h a s been s e x i s t , n o t a l l o w i n g m a r r i e d women t o work, o r o n l y
if i t d i d n o t i n t e r f e r e with t h e i r performance.
Ironically,
a female eaployee would n o t be d i s m i s s e d i f she had a n
" i l l e g i t i m a t e " child.
While women a r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e ,
t h e i n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t t h e y do n o t y e t r e c e i v e t h e same
r e t ~ r n son e d u c a t i o n o r time i n v e s t m e n t s a s men.
Discriminatory
h i r i n g and promotion a r e i n d i c a t e d r a t h e r t h a n q u a l i f i c a t i o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e upper l e v e l s .
and
Women
Developnlent of Equal S t a t u s
The Caribbean c o u n t r i e s have adopted some of t h e United
Nations recommendations and e s t a b l i s h e d mechanisms t o improve
t h e s t a t u s of women.
Those recommendations i n c l u d e b o t h p u b l i c
and p r i v a t e e f f o r t s and some o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b a s e f o r t h e eliminat i o n of s t r u c t u r e d i n e q u a l i t y i s i n evidence.
Barbados (1974)
had a N a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n of Women o r i e n t e d toward t h e broad
spectrum of a c t i v i t i e s and r e g u l a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g women's l i v e s .
Jamaica had an Ad Hoc Advisory Committee on Women i n t h e M i n i s t r y
of Youth and Community Development f o c u s i n g on g e n e r a l development and p l a n n i n g .
T h i s committee was r e p l a c e d by t h e Women's
Bureau which assumed a much wider range of f u n c t i o n s ,
T r i n i d a d and Tobago o r i g i n a l l y focused on
employment and t h e Women's Bureau i s l o c a t e d i n t h e M i n i s t r y
of Labor and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y (United Nations ST/EAS/SER/.B/7,
1975).
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e Women's Bureaus, both Barbados and
T r i n i d a d and ?'obago have done s t u d i e s on t h e s t a t u s of women
through n a t j o n a l commissions e s t a b l i s h e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e women's
status i n v i t a l areas
--
economics, law, e d u c a t i o n , e t c .
Women have i n i t i a t e d some of t h e s e s t u d i e s through s o c i a l o r g a n i zations
or professional interests.
a c t i v i s t s r o l e s on b e h a l f of women.
They have assumed
These a c t i v i t i e s s u p p o r t
t h e s t a t e m e n t made by t h e c o o r d i n a t o r of The Women and Development Unit t h a t :
t h e Caribben h a s s h i f t e d from women's programs
p r i m a r i l y concerned wiih women i n t h e i r time-honoured and
t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e a s mother and homemaker t o t h e i r r o l e i n
t h e development p r o c e s s a t t h e n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l l e v e l s
(Peggy Ant r o b u s , Sunday C h r o n i c l e , J a n u a r y 2 0 , 1980).
Yet, t h e problems f a c i n g women i n t h e 1980's a r e not
u n r e l a t e d t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s , a t t i t u d e s , a m b i g u i t i e s , and
paradoxes t h a t have r e p r e s e n t e d t h e t o t a l i t y of t h e i r h i s t o r i e s .
Women t h e m s e l v e s , have c o n t r i b u t e d t o gender r o l e r e i n f o r c e m e n t
through t h e i r s t r o n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with t h e mother r o l e s and
de-emphaslc on a l l o t h e r s o c i a l r o l e s .
Biological differences
c o n t i n u e t o i n f e r i o r i z e women's p o s i t i o n i n t h e Caribbean
a n d , i t seems, t h a t a s l o n g a s women c o n t i n u e t o g i v e second
p l a c e t o a l l o t h e r s o c i a l r o l e s , t h e y w i l l never a c h i e v e s o c i a l
equality.
The s t a t e m e n t of t h e d i r e c t o r of t h e Jamaica L i b r a r y
S e r v i c e i s an example:
If t h e r e h a s t o be a c h o i c e between f a m i l y and
p r o f e s s i . o n , i t would be f o r t h e f a m i l y
I know I can r u n a l i b r a r y s e r v i c e ; I ' v e done
i t f o r 17 y e a r s . But my f a m i l y i s my g r e a t e s t
challeng?. I must g i v e my c h i l d r e n a s e n s e of
v a l u e s and m a i n t a i n a s e n s e of v a l u e f o r myself.
A p a r t of my c a r e e r i s s e e i n g my c h i l d r e n grow
t o become good c i t i z e n s
(Quoted i n Tuesday
Magazine, August 1973: 7 ) .
....
Other women I n r e s p o n s i b l e p o s i t i o n s have expressed s i m i l a r
s e n t i m e n t s even when t h e y c o n f e s s e d t h a t t h e y d i d n o t f i n d t h e
p r o s p e c t of f u l l - t i m e home-making a t t r a c t i v e (Gordon, 1974:
33).
T h i s a t t i t u d e , however, i s n o t l i m i t e d t o m i d d l e - c l a s s women.
A s t u d y of working-class women i n Jamaica ( ~ u r a n t - G o n z a l e s ,
1976:
201) r e v e a l e d s t r o n g emphasis on t h e mother r o l e :
Women's economic a s w e l l a s "good muma" r o l e s a r e
ad.mired l o c a l l y -- t h e l a t t e r t r a n s c e n d s l o c a l i t y ,
w e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n , r a c i a l o r i g i n and c o l o r .
And one should n o t i g n o r e c l a s s .
Gonzales concluded t h a t t h e mother r o l e i s h i g h l y v a l u e d
because o f l i m i t e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s u c c e s s i n o t h e r f i e l d s
and t h a t m c c e s s a s a mother i s rewarded, i t g i v e s h i g h s t a t u s
a s t h e primary s o c i a l r o l e of women.
If t h i s i s t r u e f o r working-
c l a s s women, t h e same cannot be s a i d f o r m i d d l e - c l a s s women who
have h i g h s t a t u s o c c u p a t i o n s b u t w i l l i n g t o emphasize mothering
a s t h e i r primary r o l e .
Even .;omen i n t r a d i t i o n a l male o c c u p a t i o n s g e t "feminized"
by o t h e r women.
A r e p o r t e r , a woman, p r o f i l i n g J a m a i c a ' s f i r s t
Queen's Counsel under t h e subheading, " B r i l l i a n t C a r e e r , " made
t h e f o l l o w i n g comments:
...
Mrs. M i l l e r e n l i v e n e d t h e l o n g and f r e q u e n t l y
d u l l proceedings by h e r charm, d i g n i t y , and s h a f t s
of w i t .
It was obvious t h a t t h e B r i t i s h b a r r i s t e r s
a p p e a r i n g o p p o s i t e h e r i n t h e c a s e were i n t r i g u e d
and f a c i n a t e d by t h e young women Q. C : , When t h e
c a s e was d e c i d e d i n f a v o r of t h e Jamalca government,
i t almost seemed t h a t t h e y were happy about l o s i n g
t o s o charming a n opponent (Jamaica Weekly Gleaner,
( N . A . , J a n u a r y 2 7 , 1976: 2).
One word, " p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m " could have been s u b s t i t u t e d f o r a l l
t h o s e "feminine" words which, i n f a c t , s u g g e s t e d t h a t charm,
d i g n i t y and s h a f t s of wit r a t h e r t h a n s y s t e m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n
of evidence and p r o f e s s i o n a l h a n d l i n g of t h e c a s e brought
victory t o her client.
The r e p o r t e r u n c o n s c i o u s l y r e - i n f o r c e d
sexism s i n c e t h e r e was o b v i o u s l y no i n t e n t t o d e v a l u e t h i s
woman's achievement.
She c o n t i n u e d with t h e q u e s t i o n r e s e r v e d
f o r females:"did h e r husband and f a m i l y g e t i n t h e way o f h e r
career?"
P r e d i c t a b l y , t h e response was "when t h e r e i s c o n f l i c t ,
I put the children f i r s t . "
While i n d i v i d u a l s should have t h e
p r i v i l e g e t o s e t t h e parameters of t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l l i v e s , women
have n o t y e t demanded t h i s a s a r i g h t .
Child r e a r i n g i s b a s i c a l l y a f e m a l e ' s job; d i s c i p l i n i n g
t h e c h i l d r e n i s o f t e n t h e o n l y male c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e
s o c i a l i z i n g p r o c e s s of c h i l d r e n .
Change i n f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s
must i n c l ~ i er o l e s f o r males i n domestic a c t i v i t i e s ,
Women
have monopolized f a m i l y r o l e s , t h u s e x c l u d i n g t h e . a l r e a d y
r e l u c t a n t males.
T h i s b e h a v i o r may have i t s h i s t o r i c a l
p r e c e d e n t b u t c u r r e n t p a t t e r n s of male/female b e h a v i o r r e v e a l
-
d i s t a n c e between t h e s e x e s which makes companionship and s h a r i n g
i m p o s s i b l e (Lowenthal, 1972:
106; Henry and Wilson, 1975:
168-169).
The development of t h e f a t h e r r o l e i s e s s e n t i a l t o e q u a l i z i n g
t h e s e x e s s o t h a t men, t o o , can develop t h e q u a l i t i e s of empathy
and g e n t l e n e s s which a r e , supposedly, female c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
arid i d e a l f o r n u t r i a n t r o l e s .
Men must a l s o develop t h e
t o l e r a n c e and d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h a t a r e needed f o r t h e t e d i o u s
jobs which a r e n e c e s s a r y t o s o c i e t y but d i s c r i m i n a t o r i l y d e l e g a t e d
t o women.
The u n c o n d i t i o n a l acceptance of mothering and o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e
r o l e s have c l e a r e d t h e way f o r male dominance,
Women a r e d i s -
t r u s t f u l of each o t h e r and, n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y , a woman w i l l exclaim:
"I d o n ' t keep women f r i e n d s . "
They do n o t keep men f r i e n d s
e i t h e r b e c a u s e , t r a d i t i o n a l l y , men s o c i a l i z e with o t h e r men
while women a r e d e p r i v e d of t h e f r i e n d s h i p of both men and
o t h e r women (Henry and Wilson, 1975:
168-9; Lowenthal, 1972:
106).
Adult women a r e t h e most i s o l a t e d people i n t h e s o c i e t y and
p o s s i b l y , t h e reason why theyover-emphasize t h e mother r o l e .
T h i s over-emphasis on t h e "mother r o l e " i s a c o n t r a d i c t i o n of t h e
many n e c e s s a r y
s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of women, e s p e c i a l l y economic a c t i v i t i s s .
An
i d e o l o g y i s needed t o o r i e n t norms, v a l u e s and b e l i e f s t o t h e
r e a l i t i e s and c o n t e x t of Caribbean women's l i v e s .
Women must
c r e a t e t h i s i d e o l o g y a s one woman i n d i c a t e d :
If you s a y t h i s i s a male-dominated i m p o s i t i o n
i n a day and age when e d u c a t i o n i s f a i r l y
a v a i l a b l e t o men and women throughout t h e
Caribbean, t h e n I q u e s t i o n t h e assumption....
How does a woman s e e h e r s e l f ? It i s a male
dominated s o c i e t y because women l e t men r u l e
them....
When you a s k about t h e s t a t u s of women,
i l m n o t s u r e t h e Caribbean i s one of t h e t e r r i t o r i e s t h a t women, i f t h e y knew what t h e y
wanted, c o u l d n ' t g e t i t , I d o n ' t know b u t a
few p l a c e s , where women a s a group have s a t
down and s t u d i e d t h e laws of t h e c o u n t r y a s
( T h i s was done
t h e y a f f e c t women and c h i l d r e n .
i n Jamaica).
But t h e y have t o s t u d y t h e law
f i r s t and have women who understand what t h e y
mean. We t a l k about churches i n t h i s system.
You never h e a r of a s t u d y group i n a church
t a k i n g s o c i a l and economic q u e s t i o n s i n t o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n and t h e n i n v o l v i n g t h e community
i n some a c t i o n program,
I am n o t t a l k i n g about
some e x p e r t r e a d i n g a s t u d y p a p e r ; I am t a l k i n g
about t h e kind of t h i n g t h a t could i n v o l v e women
i n s e e i n g t h a t t h e y know what i t means when s h e
h a s no f a t h e r r e g i s t e r e d f o r h e r c h i l d , and what
it means f o r t h e c h i l d ' s f u t u r e . I ' v e h e a r d
of none of t h e s e groups and it i s t h e f a u l t of
What we r e a l l y
women l i k e me and o t h e r s
need t o a s k i s , a r e t h e t h i n g s r e a l l y a f f e c t i n g
t b e s t a t u s of women unchangeable o r have t h e y never
been challenged'? (Barrow, 1973)
....
The c h a l l e n g e t o e x i s t i n g b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s must show
awareness of t h e wider s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and economic c o n t e x t .
There i s t h e awareness of economic e x p l o i t a t i o n and e x t e r n a l
manipulati-on of t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s which can and have sabotaged
t h e p l a n n i n g of development s t r a t e g i e s t h a t meet t h e s p e c i f i c
needs of t h e s o c i e t y . .The s t a t e m e n t " c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o i t men
and men e x p l o i t women" (Kathleen Drayton, 1975) s u g g e s t s a n
awareness of a h i e r a r c h y i n t h e o p p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e , t h a t men
themselves a r e v i c t i m s , who must a l s o be l i b e r a t e d i f women a r e
t o be l i b e r a t e d .
Comparing t h e Women's movement i n t h e
developed c o u n t r i e s w i t h t h e Caribbean e x p e r i e n c e , t h e f o i l o w i n 5
.
comment was made:
White women i n t h e l i b e r a t i o n movement come from
in e x p e r i e n c e where t h e y were pampered and s t i l l
have l i t t l e t o do with t h e i r own houses. T h e i r
e d u c a t i o n i s used t o a s s i s t t h e i r husbands i n
c l i m b i n g t h e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y . For most Caribbean
working women Lwho do p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y t h i n g i n
t h e i r h o m e d t h e o n l y k i n d of l i b e r a t i o n i s from
t h e c l u t c h e s of w h i t e economi-c, p o l i t i c a l and
c u l t u r a l domination ( S i s . Asha, 1975).
The dilemma 2xpressed i n t h e s t a t e m e n t i s comparable t o t h e
problems of Black American women i n i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e
women's movement (Deckard, 1975:
361-364).
While women recognized
s e x u a l o p p r e s s i o n , t h e y a r e a l s o aware of r a c i a l o p p r e s s i o n i n
which t h e y s h a r e w i t h Black men.
The dilemma of sex and r a c e
a r e double burdens Black women s h a r e r e g a r d l e s s of where t h e y
a r e l o c a t e d i n a world economic system.
Caribbean c o u n t r i e s
a r e p a r t of t h e world economic system c h a r a c t e r i z e d by dependency.
A s predominantly Black c o u n t r i e s t h e problems of racism
e x p l o i t a t i o n a l d a l l t h e o t h e r n e g a t i v e s a s s o c i a t e d with economic
underdevelopment a r e embodied i n t h e development of women.
The i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n n e c e s s a r y irivolves recommitment
of r e s o u r c e s and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of new p r i o r i t i e s .
The
governments have t a k e n s t e p s towards e r a d i c a t i n g t h e s t r u c t u r a l
b a s i s of i n e q u a l i t y and women have played important r o l e s i n
i n i t a t i n g and implementing o t h e r a c t i o n s .
These, however, a r e
mere p r e l u d e s t o what needs t o be done:
(1)
The m o b i l i z a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n of women t o assume
l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s i n t h e s o c i e t y comparable t o t h e i r
contribution.
Women v o t e , pay t a x e s , engage i n independent economic
a c t i v i t i e s , have t h e primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r a i s i n g c h i l d r z n ,
a r e a c t i v e i n church and o t h e r s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and have
comparable e d u c a t i o n s w i t h men.
The b a s i s f o r e q u a l i t y e x i s t s .
The a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r of men and women need t o be r e oriented,
S i n c e men's i d e o l o g y h a s c r e a t e d t h e unequal s t r u c t u r e s ,
women have t h e r e s p o r l s i b i l i t y t o c r e a t e a c o u n t e r i d e o l o g y t h a t
w i l l d e f i n e women b o t h i d e a l l y and i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e i r s o c i a l
realities.
The warning a g a i n s t t h e "me t o o syndrome" which would
a c h i e v e s t a t u s p o s i t i o n f o r few women and p e r p e t u a t e t h e s t r u c t u r e
of i n e q u a l i t y (June Nash above) i s r e i t e r a t e d by G l o r i a J o s e p h s
(1980:
I
143-161) who i s concerned about c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s among
women and t h e p o s s i b l e n e g a t i v e consequences f o r a s o c i a l
r e v o l u t i o n which w i l l l i b e r a t e t h e s o c i e t y from t h e impact of
r a c i a l , s e x u a l and economic o p p r e s s i o n .
(2) Governmental promotion of women's r i g h t s p o l i t i c a l l y ,
economically, e d u c a t i o n a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y through
l e g i s l a t i v e and d e m o n s t r a t i v e a c t i o n s .
Caribbean p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s have t h e p r o p e n s i t y f o r
a d o p t i n g democratic i d e a l s : The a c c e p t a n c e of t h e United N a t i o n s
D e c l a r a t i o n on D i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t women and t h e t a k i n g
of " a p p r o p r i a t e measures" t o a b o l i s h laws, customs, r e g u l a t i o n s
and p r a c t i c e s which a r e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y a g a i n s t women i s an example.
i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r , t h e governments e s t a b l i s h e d such mechanisms
t h a t could i d e n t i f y d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
The r e v i s i o n of f a m i l y
laws t o b r i n g e q u i t y t o women and c h i l d r e n i s a c a s e i n p o i n t .
The government and t h e p o l i t i c a l system g e n e r a l l y a r e
dominated by men who haveriot undergone metamorphosis i n s o c i a l
As
a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r toward women.5
T h e i r a c t i o n on b e h a l f
of women w i l l be l i m i t e d by t h e i ~p e r c e p t i o n of women and
women's r o l e s i n t h e s o c i e t i e s .
Cuba, t h e one s o c i a l i s t
c o u n t r y i~ t h e Caribbean r e g i o n , h a s n o t succeeded i n i n c o r p o r a t i n g women i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l decision-making p r o c e s s ( C o l e , 1980:
1'75-4).
There i s t a c i t agreement t h a t t h e e x e r c i s e of power
i s men's r o l e .
There a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t women i n power p o s i t i o n s
t o i n f l u e n c e p o l i c y r e l a t i n g t o women's e q u a l i t y .
Women a r e t h e " c u t t i n g edge" i n removing t h e s t r u c t u r a l
barriers t o t h e i r inequality.
On a c l a s s - b y - c l a s s
women a r e t h e e q u a l o f men i n most a r e a s .
basis,
The c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
between t h e r o l e s women perform and t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n of what
a r e t h e i r p r i m a r y r o l e s , c a n be e l i m i n a t e d when women have
t o e v a l u a t e t h e m s e l v e s on a m u l t i p l e r o l e b a s i s
w i f e o r l o v e r , worker, p o l i t i c i a n
t h e y occupy.
--
--
a s mother,
o r any o t h e r s o c i a l r o l e
The a t t i t u d e s of women a r e c r u c i a l and t h e b u i l d i n g
of s u p p o r t a c r o s s c l a s s l i n e s i s e s s e n t i a l .
I n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e e n d u r i n g and r e s i s t a n t t o
change.
The h i s t o r y of t h e Caribbean h a s c r e a t e d c o n d i t i o n s
which make s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s and c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s l e s s r e s i s t a n t
t o change.
Even w i t h good i n t e n t i o n s , however, implementation
of change i s d i f f i c u l t .
The economic r e s t r i c t i o n s on p o l i t i c a l
and s o c i a l a c t i o n have n o t been d i s c u s s e d , however, t h a t c o n t e x t
i s understood.
w i t h males w i l l ,
The advancement of f e m a l e s toward s o c i a l e q u a l i t y
a s J e s s e Bernard ( 1968: 14
t a k e away p r i 1 : i l e g e s from men,
'
) suggested,
Ilowever, i t h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l
Note t h e Prime Minister of Barbados' a t t i t u d e toward Barbadian
women w i t h " f o r e i g n " husbands above,
f o r d e v e l o p i n g more c o o p e r a t i v e r o l e s between men and women, based
on s o c i a l and economic r e a l i t i e s , n o t on i d e o l o g y t h a t i s n o t
o n l y no l o n g e r r e l e v a n t b u t a l s o d e s t r u c t i v e .
Appendix
Employment c a t e g o r y
A p r ~ i c u l t u r a l( S u g a r )
Wage
Male
Female
9/6
7/0
Hours
8 h r s . p e r day
It
Yublic U t i l i t i e s
48 h r s . p e r week
132/8
Electrici~.~~
Serviceman
117/4
Linesman
106/5
-
Laborers
74/1
-
Plumbers
80/8
-
Manufacturing
Vegetable P r o d u c t s
68/3
66/1
Confectionary
Carbonated Beveragesl05/0
Chemical P r o d u c t s
76/11
& 39 h r s . r e s p e c t i v e l y
II
& 39 "
"
II
& 43
"
II
& 47
48/11
48/0
62/6
56/4
44
46
44
46
*
55 h r s . p a w .
54 & 53 r e s p e c t i v e l y
45 & 44 r e s p e IcI t i v e l y
4 4 & 39
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and
Communication
100/6
Bus o p e r a t o r s *
Conductors
68/9
Telephone workers + 85/?
Cable workers
+ 145/11
67/2
105/1
155/6
Commerce
Clerks
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