SAMPLE ANSWERS FOR PERSIA
Section III Personalities in Their Times
Option E Xerxes
a) What did Xerxes owe to his family background? (10 marks)
Xerxes owes his lifestyle to his family background. In particular, his family background can be linked to
his noble education, the respect that most people unquestionably gave him, and ultimately, the throne of
one of the most vast and wealthy empires in the world – the Persian Empire.
Without his family’s noble status, Xerxes would not have received such a prestigious education.
Xerxes was a direct descendent of the Achaemenid dynasty. While his father, Darius, was not a direct
member, Herodotus records that Atossa was Xerxes’ mother, who was the daughter of Cyrus the great,
and therefore, a direct member of the Achaemenid dynasty. Little is known of the training of children
during the Achaemenid period, in particular, in Xerxes’ time. However, of the limited knowledge, written
sources have revealed that the aim of Persian education was, apart from ethical guidance, to produce
efficient soldiers. This seems reasonable since there was a strong expansionary tradition that Cyrus
established, and that each of the subsequent kings – Cambyses, Darius and Xerxes – had to live up to.
Without an empire of strong and efficient men, the constant expansion of the Empire would not have
occurred. Callender, a modern historian, states that while there is little known about the childhood of
Xerxes, “there is no doubt that he would have been brought up to be good at hunting, fighting, spearthrowing and archery in particular”. Boys were also taught how to make weapons, and were trained to
endure heat and cold. With an emphasis on creating soldiers, little time was spared to teach boys how to
read and write – even nobles and highly placed Persian civil servants were illiterate.
On the subject of education, Herodotus states that “they train their sons from their fifth to their
twentieth year in three things only: horsemanship, archery, and truth telling”. Additionally, Herodotus
states that they regarded lying as the worst of offenses, whereas prowess in arms was the mark of
manliness. A noble’s education, which would have been the type of education Xerxes received, was similar
to this education, however Xenophon states that “they were also instructed in justice, obedience,
endurance, and self-restraint” and that until the age of 16 or 17 years the sons of Persian nobles were
brought up at the royal court, where “a child can pick up many lessons in good behaviour”. Economic
records and an inscription from Borsippa strongly suggest that Xerxes’ education included the
administration of the satrapy of Babylon in 498 BC. The position of Satrap would not have been awarded
to him at such a young age – or even at all – if he was not of Persian nobility or a member of the royal
family.
The vast majority of the Persian Empire’s population gave Xerxes unquestionable respect,
particularly after he became king. Without his connection to the noble dynasty of the Achaemenids,
Xerxes would have been treated like any other member of the 50 million-strong population (Olmstead) of
the Persian Empire. The Treasury relief, which depicts Darius as king, also indicates the level of respect
that people have for the king. This is indicated through the person addressing him, who is slightly bowing
and raising his hand to his mouth, presumably as a sign of respect. This respect would have been shown
to Xerxes, despite failure to expand into Greece, and in particular his loss at Salamis in 480 BC. Therefore
respect Xerxes received in life was a reflection on the greatness of the family
The throne of the one of the most vast and wealthy empires in the world was the greatest legacy
that Xerxes received due to his connection to the Achaemenid dynasty. Cyrus 11 – the Great – expanded
the empire after he overthrew the Medians, Lydians and Babylonians. Cambyses conquered Egypt in 525
BC and the empire reached its greatest extent in Darius’ time, stretching from Egypt in the south, to the
Indus river in the east, and up around the black sea region (Thrace) in the north. Therefore, when Xerxes
ascended the throne, he gained a vast empire, which was exceptionally wealthy due to the resources such
as cedar wood, gold, silver and ivory. Much of these resources were used to build palaces throughout the
empire – Xerxes used the resources to continue building Persepolis after his father began building it in
519 BC. The building of Persepolis indicated that Xerxes was keen to continue the building tradition
established by Cyrus. Therefore, Xerxes inherited a vast and wealthy empire based purely on his family
background, with Darius presumably choosing him because he was the most capable, and because he was
the first born son to Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and directly linked to the Achaemenid Empire.
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b) Discuss the images presented by ancient and modern sources on Xerxes. (15 marks)
Ancient and modern sources present differing views of Xerxes. It is difficult to be decisive about Xerxes’
character and effectiveness as a king since there is an inherent bias in these sources. While Greek sources
such as Aeschylus and Herodotus are often biased against Xerxes, Persian sources, such as inscriptions
and bas reliefs tend to be biased in favour of the great king. Modern historians such as Olmsted, Callender
and Kelly present a more reliable, or at least considered, account of Xerxes. Modern sources are often
tentative in the image they present of Xerxes since the majority of ancient sources contain much bias
regarding Xerxes’ character.
Aeschylus’ “The Persians” is an Athenian tragedy. It was a play with a moral purpose, and was
written for a religious festival. It was designed to reaffirm the power of the Gods. Xerxes’ invasion of
Greece was presented as an example of hubris (excessive pride) which must be punished by the Gods.
Aeschylus was a Greek playwright, writing for a Greek audience about the Persian Empire. Naturally, the
play contains many inconsistencies. A feature of any tragedy is that it depicts a person falling from
greatness. In “The Persians” Xerxes’ apparent fall from grace is demonstrated, with the implication that
his actions led to the downfall of the empire: “Alas! How great an ocean of disaster has broken on Persia”.
However, at Persepolis, in the Hall of 100 Columns, Xerxes is depicted courageously fighting off a monster
from the door jambs. Thus, the apparent downfall of Persia and the demoralisation of Xerxes are
contradicted by archaeological sources at Persepolis.
Herodotus in “The Histories” did not make a personal attack on Xerxes by described him in two
ways. Firstly as a typical oriental despot whose subjects revered and feared him, and also as a ruler who
the gods has decided to punish for the arrogant use of his power. Such arrogance is displayed through his
bridging of the Hellespont, the digging of the canal through Mt Athos and destroying the Greek temples.
Herodotus also recounts instances of Xerxes being short tempered such as through his treatment of
Pythius’ eldest son: “Xerxes as once gave orders that them men should find Pythius’ eldest son and cut
him in half”. Herodotus also describes how he executed the engineers of the Hellespont bridge when it
was destroyed, and how he also executed the Phoenician captains after Salamis. Once again these
depictions are contradicted by Persian archaeological sources such as the inscription from the field near
Persepolis. This inscription claims that Xerxes is “a friend to the right” He also claims that he is “not hot
tempered… I am ruling firmly in my own will…” Despite this, it must be considered that these Persian
sources also have a significant degree of bias since these inscriptions were used as propaganda, and
therefore, present Xerxes in a completely favourable light.
Xerxes effectively used bas reliefs and inscriptions as a propaganda tool. Through these mediums
at Persepolis, Xerxes efficiently emphasised his right to rule and his power. He used his image to maintain
control over his empire as the "King of Kings". Additionally, the king had to appear strong and legitimate
in order to control the nobles and potential throne challengers. In many bas reliefs Xerxes is much larger
than his counterparts. His right to rule is also emphasised through the fact that he is often depicted as
being supported by nobles, immortals and subject peoples. The size of the king, the robes he wears, his
beard, his position on the throne and on a platform, and the number of servants, subjects and advisors are
designed to emphasise his importance. Xerxes is always disproportionate to the people around him. This
technique emphasised his importance, and aids his image as a capable ruler and a great king. An example
of this disproportionate size is on the Apadana reliefs, where Xerxes towers over the tribute bearers.
From Persepolis, the seals show the king as a great hunter and as a triumphant hero.
Additionally, reliefs depict Xerxes fighting a lion monster, which also suggests he is a good warrior. The
reliefs at Persepolis also emphasise Xerxes’ right to rule through divine sanction. In the Tripylon,
Ahuramazda is placed above Xerxes to symbolise his support of Xerxes. Additionally, Ahuramazda is also
placed over nobles and immortals to emphasise their importance.
Through the inscription from a field near Persepolis, Xerxes reveals the image he would like to
possess. Generally, this inscription presents Xerxes as a fair and just ruler, and contains phrases such as:
“I am a friend to right… I am not hot tempered... I am firmly ruling over my own”. This inscription also
implied Xerxes’ right to rule through divine sanction. Finally, this inscription presents him as the most
capable of Darius’ sons: While “there were other sons of his… Darius my father, after himself me he made
great”.
Modern historians such as Olmsted present Xerxes in a less biased light, however, they often
share differing opinions about his success as a king and his success as a military commander. Olmsted
states that “against his one military failure… must be placed a whole series of victories”. Such victories
include his extensive building program and the swift suppression of the Egyptian and Babylonian revolts.
Olmsted is understanding of Xerxes’ economic sense, and states that “if he failed to understand the
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economic forces which were sapping the empire’s strength, he was no worse than others of the ancients”.
However, Olmsted also presents a negative image of Xerxes towards the end his reign, saying that his
failed expansion into Greece “opened the way to harem intrigues with all their deadly consequences”.
Thus, Olmsted presents a balanced view of Xerxes on the basis of both Persian and Greek source available
to him in the mid twentieth century, and identifies both his numerous successes and his failures as a king.
Callender is a modern historian who presents Xerxes in a favourable light. This is an example of
how the analysis of ancient sources can lead to differing opinions of Xerxes due to their bias. She
rightfully states that in the Egyptian and Babylonian revolts, his actions “show him as a decisive leader”.
While not considering the outcome of the Persian wars, and the many oversights that Xerxes had,
Callender states that Xerxes’ preparations allowed him to “reveal himself as a superb and careful
strategist and planner in war”. Yet Xerxes’ oversights concerning his vast army, loyalty, motivation and
unfamiliar terrain suggest that Xerxes’ planning was not as thorough as Callender claims. Additionally,
while Callender states that “Persian inscriptions suggest that Xerxes was level headed, self controlled and
with a sharp concern for justice” she fails to acknowledge the bias and propaganda within these sources.
Thus, while Callender presents a favourable image of Xerxes she has failed to consider his shortcomings,
which would have made her assessment of Xerxes more accurate.
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