Bottled Water: How Safe Is It?
Author(s): Sean D. Raj
Source: Water Environment Research, Vol. 77, No. 7, Stockholm Junior Water Prize Research
Papers (Nov. - Dec., 2005), pp. 3013-3018
Published by: Water Environment Federation
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25045920 .
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Water:
Bottled
How
Is It?
Safe
Sean D. Raj
in recent
Sales of bottled water have increased dramatically
sales of more than $35 billion, largely because of the
years, with worldwide
public perception of purity and safety and public concern about the quality
there are no Food
and Drug Administration
of tap water. Presently,
ABSTRACT:
recommendations
D.C.)
(Washington,
regarding temperature and duration
of
of storage for bottled water once it is opened and used. The objectives
the effects of time and storage temperature on
this study were to examine
bacterial growth and characterize the types of microorganisms
contaminating
bottled water after drinking once from the bottle. Bottled and tap water were
tested using standard microbiology
culture techniques. The bacterial count in
bottled water increased dramatically,
from less than 1 colony per milliliter
to 38 000
(col/mL)
over
col/mL
of
48 hours
at 37?C. Bacterial
storage
reduced at cold temperatures (refrigeration) compared
growth was markedly
in 24 hours and
with room temperature, with 50% fewer bacterial colonies
in 48 hours. Interestingly,
84% fewer colonies
tap water resulted in only
growth, especially at cold temperatures (<100 col/mL at 48 hours).
findings may be useful to increase public awareness and development
on storage temperature and expiration
time for bottled water
of guidelines
once it is opened and used. Water Environ. Res., 77, 3013 (2005).
minimal
These
bottled
KEYWORDS:
bacterial
tap water,
International
Bottled
water,
regulation,
guidelines,
Environmental
Protection
Water
Association,
and Drug Administration.
Food
Agency,
safety,
U.S.
growth,
experts
of more
a current
with
increasingly
popular,
than $5.7 billion
and a worldwide
industry of
become
at a rate of
approximately
that bottled water will
anticipate
as America's
and
10% per year,
become
second
only
industry
to soft
of choice
2002; FDA,
2002).
(Bullers,
beverage
in the bottled water
is presumably
growth
industry
drinks
Such
explosive
result
of people's
of purity,
better
taste,
safety,
perception
awareness
of
and
and
fitness
convenience,
public
increasing
effects
of drinking water on health. Furthermore,
because
beneficial
a
water
bottled
a diet
drink
no
contains
and
is often
are
Americans
caffeine,
water
bottled
drinking
or
calories,
as
it is used
sugar,
as a statement
viewed
than
one-half
all Americans
of
one-third
approximately
lifestyle.
record
numbers?
in
the
of
drink
public
bottled
water,
consumes
it
and
regularly
(NRDC, 1999). Once the bottle is opened, it is stored at varied
temperatures,
ranging
as offices,
homes,
from
such
1996).
Water
are
bottled
and
state,
or days
such
stringent
1997;
is self-regulated
2005
by
on
sports
consumed
temperatures.
three
IBWA,
the
places,
or cold
and
is often
levels:
2004;
U.S.
International
However,
Virginia).
with U.S.
Environmental
(Alexandria,
compared
hot
garages,
opened,
or outdoor
is regulated
water
Association
as cars,
once
industry
association
(FDA,
trade
November/December
(in
temperature
to extreme
indoor
schools)
at room
water
Bottled
less
and
places,
bottled water,
Furthermore,
fields).
over several hours
The
room
(in outdoor
temperatures
is also
All
Maryland).
standards,
quality
water
bottled
labeling
must
with
FDA's
comply
and Good Manufacturing
products
regulations,
Practices (FDA, 1997; IBWA, 2004). In addition, the bottled water
to state regulatory
is subject
are directed
to the quality
industry
regulations
However,
there
currently,
the
are
no
All
of these
requirements.
of water
in a sealed bottle.
and
temperature
storage
regarding
once
is opened
the water
bottle
and used
to retard microbial
preservatives
growth.
Because
time
many
store
and
one
outdoors,
or guidelines
recommendations
of
the duration
for
storage
the use of
or regarding
use water bottles
over extended
of
people
periods
or in extreme
at room
them
heat
temperature
concern
is that there may
be bacterial
potential
water
growth
in bottled
Therefore,
it is important
over time in bottled
that may
have
to investigate
once
water,
health
implications.
potential
whether
there is bacterial
and used, and study
opened
on the quality of bottled water with regard
of temperature
on
to microbial
contamination.
Based
these
observations
and
growth
the effects
a hypothesis
was
and
generated
to address
the following
objectives.
were
experiments
and used, bottled water may undergo
contamination
opened
oral microflora,
which
could
and limit its usage
life,
grow
for its mode
of use and storage.
requiring
guidelines
potentially
with
Objectives
The objectives of the study were to (1) determine if there is
a time-dependent
bacterial
in bottled
growth
water
once
opened
and used, (2) study the effect of different ways of storage (room
temperature
versus
cold
on bacterial
temperature)
growth
in bottled
in the
and tapwater, and (3) identify the types of microorganisms
bacterial
growth.
of
approximately 18 bil. L (5 bil. gal) in the year 2001 (Bullers, 2002).
More
and
product
Once
has
approximately $35 billion (BottledWater Web, 2002). The market
is growing
a food
is considered
regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Rockville,
Hypothesis
water
market
water
Bottled
1996).
designed
Introduction
U.S.
EPA,
rationale,
doi:10.2175/106143005X73901
Bottled
(U.S. EPA) regulations for tapwater (NRDC, 1999; U.S.
Agency
Materials and Methods
Materials.
Sixty-eight drinking water bottles (250 mL each)
same manufacturer
the
and
lot were
purchased
were
in
of tap water
collected
supermarket.
Samples
from the laboratory
where
the experiments
bottles
(250 mL)
from
of Texas
conducted
Houston,
plates
EPA,
Bottled
regulations
Protection
M.
D.
Anderson
Cancer
(University
=
Blood
Texas).
(n
30), MacConkey
agar plates
=
=
culture plates
CNA
(n
36), Columbia
(n
36),
sterile
were
Center,
culture
and 0.22
um Nalgene filters (n = 90) were purchased from Fisher Scientific
(Hampton,
federal,
from
a
New
The
Hampshire).
laboratory
microbiology
was
fully equipped with all of the instruments and equipments required
for experiments
cold
incubator,
colony
large
counts,
flasks,
carried
out
room,
autoclave
colony
sterile
in this study,
counter,
gloves,
room,
and
laboratory
pipettes,
3013
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sterile
including
sonicator,
hoods,
microscope
supplies,
Pipetman
an
for
including
(Gilson,
Inc.,
Raj
Methods
schema of study. Water unused or
Figure 1?Simplistic
time and
incubated for a specified
after one sip was
temperature and filtered. Filters were then placed on agar
plates in an incubator and the colonies per milliliter were
counted after 48 hours.
Middleton,
icance
and
Wisconsin),
was
determined
A
Procedure.
bacteria
incinerator.
a paired
t test.
of
schematic
simplistic
Statistical
signif
by
the
study
^3B3P
filters
of microorganisms:
Figure 3?Characterization
were placed
in Columbia CNA (for Gram-positive
organ
(for Gram
isms), as shown on right, and MacConkey
on
as
left.
shown
culture
plates,
negative organisms)
in
is shown
the
Determining
(Uncontaminated)
the contents
water,
hood
through
were
carefully
Bacterial
Bottled
of
Water.
Colony
After
Count
in
the
Unused
of
the volume
checking
were
in a sterile
filtered
12 unopened
bottles
a sterile
filters. Using
the filters
technique,
on the blood
a scalpel blade and placed
agar
with
and one large), covered
lids, and labeled
Nalgene
cut with
(three regular
plates
then
The agar plates were
time point (baseline).
with
the appropriate
at 37?C in the incubator. After
the "agar up" position
incubated with
and
the incubator,
from
removed
the agar plates were
48 hours,
a colony
counter.
count
The
the
Determining
1 to 3.
Figures
was
numbers
a microscope
using
performed
were
as
recorded
of colonies
and
colonies
^SP
^rap^
^5SEP^^Bp'
colony
per
milliliter by dividing the total colonies by the volume of water filtered.
Bacterial
in Water
Count
Colony
After
Ten bottles for
Drinking Once from the Bottle (Contaminated).
of the other time points
were
bottles
of
hours)
(2, 8, 24,
unopened
one
one
three
of
the
time
after
healthy
by
drinking
normally
analyzed
for
and sonicated
After one sip, the bottles were vortexed
volunteers.
and
1 minute
the
of
mixing
a
into
pooled
The
pooled
and
water
recorded,
time
for different
stock
the
uniform
then
thorough mixing.
the volume was
at 37?C
for each
bottles
from
48
for
was
bottles
and five
0 hours
time point
inoculate.
Water
(4-L)
autoclaved
large
was
the bottles
(0, 2,
points
of
duration
and
8, 24,
for
flask
sterile
into
poured
were
labeled
these
from
and
48
bottles,
incubated
hours).
The
("time point 0"
an autoclaved
were pooled
in
immediately),
analyzed
samples
and filtered
and sonicating
flask after vortexing
through Nalgene
on the
cut out, placed
as described
The filters were
above.
filters,
at
incubated
37?C.
and
labeled
blood
agar plates,
appropriately,
were counted
and the number
colonies
After 48 hours of incubation,
after
bottles,
the appropriate
incubation
were
as before.
was calculated,
per milliliter
on Bacterial
the
of Storage
of Temperature
Effects
Determining
versus
The
above
Water.
Bottled
Water
Growth
Tap
of
Colony
two
sets of bottles
were
with
containing
repeated
experiments
that was
and two sets of bottles
bottled water
tap water
containing
of colonies
uncontaminated
bottles
The
(unused)
and
bottled
containing
contaminated
water
and
(after one
were
water
tap
time
use).
incubated
for different time points (baseline, 0, 24, and 48 hours) at two
different
ature
the
were
48
(room
temperatures
The
appropriate
[4?C]).
agar plates
conducted
hours,
and
were
volume
at
All
incubated
and
[23?C]
temperature
dilution
37?C.
was
of
cold
temper
and
filtered,
the
experiments
conducted
after
count was
in triplicate. The colony
of colonies
the number
per milliliter
was
calculated
by multiplying by the appropriate dilution factor.
Characterizing
Bacteria.
The
water was filtered through a Nalgene
Figure 2?After
filter, the filters were carefully cut with a sterile blade,
and placed on agar plates for in
lifted with forceps,
cubation.
the
above
Types
of Organisms
were
and
Identification
conducted
of
using
special
and
for Gram-negative
media
agar plates
organisms
(MacConkey
of
instead
for
Columbia
CNA
agar plates
organisms)
Gram-positive
of species,
identification
For further
the usual
blood
agar plates.
on blood
and
streaked
from
the blood
the colonies
agar were
3014
Water
experiments
Environment
Research,
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Volume
77, Number
7
Raj
One
Drinking
bacterial
To
Time.
the effect
determine
after one
growth
sip, the bottles
to simulate
at 37?C
time points
different
outdoor
As
shown
count
remained
colony
there was a significant
bacterial
8 hours,
from
colonies,
<1
low
increase
one
After
for
at baseline
col/mL
and
temperature
body
unused
4, at baseline,
in Figure
colonies.
temperatures.
water was free of bacterial
bottled
time on
storage
over
incubated
of
were
2 hours.
time use,
in the number
and
0
time
the
after
However,
of bacterial
to 3, 28,
point
3014, and 37 938 col/mL at 2, 8, 24, and 48 hours, respectively
(p < 0.0001) (Figure 5).
Effects of Temperature on Bacterial Growth Over Time in
versus
Bottled
at
different
Because
Tap Water.
temperatures,
on bacterial
to
determine
the
temperature
growth,
room
(23?C) and cold
temperature
time points. As shown
in Figure
6,
in the number
of bacterial
colonies
of time on bacterial
Figure 4?Effect
water after drinking one time.
growth
in bottled
8 hours.
In contrast,
the cold
chocolate
and
identified
and
species
by morphological
in a clinical
performed
routinely
microbiology
or by 16S rDNA
laboratory
(Murray et al. [Eds.], 2003)
sequencing
as described
et al. (2002).
of the clones,
analysis
by Han
Briefly,
was
DNA
from
culture
colonies
extracted
and
pure
genomic
to amplification
chain
reaction
for
subjected
by a polymerase
agar,
biochemical
tests,
a 593-base pair fragment of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene (16S
rDNA).
A
set
of
universal
bacterial
primers?5'
TGCCAG
CAGCCGCGGTAATAC 3' and 5' CGCTCGTTGCGGGACT
TAACC y (515-1107 of Escherichia coli J01859)?was used for
was
amplification
sequenced
by the dye
in an ABI
377 sequencer
(Applied
Biosystems,
was
Foster
and
California),
sequence
City,
analysis
performed
a GenBank
database
Center
for Biotechnology
(National
through
BLAST
Information)
query.
the amplification.
terminator method
The
At
bottles
were
bottled
water
of
storage
at
incubated
(4?C) over various
temperature
there was a progressive
increase
over 48 hours,
after
especially
growth
the cold
effects
was
reduced
significantly
(4?C), the number
temperature
50% lower
at
of
at 24 hours (mean ?
standard error of
256 versus
8027 ? 308 col/mL;
=
and more
than six times lower at 48 hours
0.003)
p
(3800 ? 808
=
versus
?
to room
25 667
3950
col/mL;
p
0.03)
compared
in Figure
7, the bacterial
(23?C). As shown
temperature
growth was
bacterial
were
temperature.
was
colonies
the bacterial
store
people
the
approximately
the mean,
4486 ?
even at room temperature.
in tap water,
The number
in the tap water 48 hours after one sip were 40
colonies
lower than in the bottled water at room temperature
(683 ? 96
very minimal
of bacterial
times
versus 25 667 ? 3950 col/mL; p = 0.012) and 80-fold lower at the
cold temperature (53 ? 12 versus 3800 ? 808 col/mL; p = 0.02).
Characterization
filters
plates
Identification
Growth.
of
To
the Type
determine
of Micro
type of
one time,
in the water
after drinking
organisms
growing
on
were
incubated
agar culture
special
plates?Columbia
culture
for
and MacConkey
culture
plates
Gram-positive
for Gram-negative
As
shown
in Figure
8, the
organisms.
organisms
microbial
CNA
and
in Bacterial
the
were Gram-positive.
After 48 hours
types of organisms
at room temperature,
the number
of bacterial
colonies
on Columbia
CNA was seven
times higher
than on the MacConkey
=
culture
of both Gram-positive
8). The growth
(Figure
plates
(p
predominant
of incubation
Results
Effect of Time on Bacterial Growth
in Bottled Water After
bacterial growth (left panel) in bottled water after 2 hours (top left), 8 hours (top
Figure 5?Time-dependent
progressive
of blood agar plates showing growth of
right), 24 hours (bottom left), and 48 hours (bottom right). Higher magnification
bacterial colonies
in bottled water after 48 hours following one-time drinking.
November/December
3015
2005
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Raj
of temperature on number of bacterial
Figure 6?Effect
colonies over 48 hours in bottled water after one time use.
=
and Gram-negative
0.02) was
(p
organisms
significantly
at the cold
number
of both
8). The
temperature
(Figure
0.016)
reduced
(683 col/mL) and Gram-negative
Gram-positive
(287 col/mL)
was very low in tap water
after 48 hours of incubation
organisms
room
water
with
bottled
9). At
temperature
compared
(Figure
cold
temperature,
the growth
was
further
reduced
for both
at
the
Gram
positive (52 col/mL) and Gram-negative organisms (35 col/mL) at
48
were
these
values
lower
9). All
(Figure
significantly
with bottled water at similar
and time points.
temperature
hours
compared
To determine whether bacterial growth of the bottled drinking
water
could
reduced
time
bacterial
growth
in the uncontaminated
bottled
water
com
pared with bacterial growth observed after one-time drinking (11 133
? 970 versus 25 667 ? 3950 col/mL; p = 0.035). Storage at the cold
temperature
compared
reduced
this growth
further, to 453 ? 58 col/mL
greatly
=
at room temperature
with growth
at 48 hours
0.03)
(p
(Table 1). Thus, bottled water that is opened and used without
to the mouth
the bottle
touching
showed
temperature
and
significantly
that was
tap water
Similarly,
stored at the cold
subsequently
reduced
bacterial
amplification.
not
to
touched
the mouth
(un
contaminated) had strikingly minimal growth (Table 1) at room
(up to 132 col/mL
temperature
or no growth
at 48 hours)
at the cold
temperature (2 col/mL at 48 hours). Thus, drinking bottled or tap
water
either by using a cup or without
can greatly
reduce bacterial
growth
oral microflora.
Identification
be reduced
than by touching
uncontaminated
different
the bottled water
into a cup rather
by pouring
the bottle to the mouth,
bottles
that were opened
but
were
at room and cold
incubated
at
temperatures
over
was
48
hours.
There
50%
points
approximately
of temperature on bacterial growth of
Figure 8?Effects
(Columbia CNA) and Gram-negative
organ
Gram-positive
isms (MacConkey) over 48 hours of incubation.
of Bacteria.
were
colonies
pure
were
further
tests
identified
et al.
(Murray
To
on blood
streaked
to the mouth
the bottle
touching
by avoiding
contamination
with
further
the organisms,
identify
and chocolate
agar and species
tests. These
and biochemical
by morphology
resulted
2003)
in identification
[Eds.],
of Gram
of coryneform
bacteria,
positive
organisms,
consisting
mainly
Stomatococcus
mucilaginous,
Staphylococcus,
Coagulase-negative
aureus.
and Staphylococcus
For Gram-negative
that were
organisms
to identify
difficult
routine
bacterial
clones
from
chocolate
tests,
by
to 16S-ribosomal
agar were subjected
(Han et al., 2002). Molecular
gene
Neisseria
and Neisseria
subflava
RNA
sequencing
gene-sequencing
analysis
led to identification
of
pharyngis.
Discussion
There
has
been
a dramatic
increase
in bottled
use
water
in
theUnited States in recent years (Ferner, 2002; NRDC, 1999). The
bottled water industry is one of the fastest growing businesses in the
United
with
States,
(5 bil.gal)
of water.
annual
Total
consumption
bottled water
of more
sales
have
than
18 bil.
increased
L
from
6% per year to more
than 13% per year over the last
approximately
five years. Accordingly,
it has been predicted
that bottled water may
soon become
the nation's
second most
after soft
popular
beverage,
drinks.
One
of
the
reasons
choose
people
to drink
bottled
water
instead of tap water is because of the perceived purity of bottled
water.
consider
are willing
to spend a lot of money
People
a purer, safer, and tastier drink. Therefore,
for what
it is important
they
to
ask the following question: "Bottled Water: How Safe Is It?"
In the United
two
of temperature on number of bacterial
Figure 7?Effect
colonies over 48 hours in tap water after one time use.
EPA
on
different
States,
agencies;
tap water.
regulates
the production,
3016
Water
bottled
are regulated
and tap water
by
water
bottled
and U.S.
regulates
EPA has issued extensive
regulations
and quality
water. The
of drinking
water
the FDA
U.S.
distribution,
Environment
Research,
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Volume
77, Number
7
Raj
organisms
(Columbia CAN, left panel) and Gram-negative
organisms
growth of Gram-positive
Figure 9?Bacterial
(MacConkey culture plates, right panel) in bottled water (left plate, each panel) versus tap water (right plate, each panel)
after 48 hours of incubation at 23?C.
bottled water as a food
regulates
Act. The FDA describes
and Cosmetic
FDA
the Federal
bottled
Food,
in bottles
and that is sealed
consumption
that
it may
added
except
ingredients,
or safe and suitable
antimicrobial
agents,
use antimicrobial
human
produced
(CGMP)
unopened,
The
consumption.
FDA
an
to have
with
standard
quality
properly
sealed
as
any
shelf
specific
bottled
if
life,
it is
processes
manufacturing
in an
and
is stored
regulations
not
FDA
container.
does
Therefore,
good
an expiration
date for bottled water.
on
to
include
their label the chloride
required
once the bottle
time or storage
temperature
of
purpose
bacterial
have
safe
are not
Manufacturers
require
dependent
scesses,
such
Furthermore,
indefinite
current
in accordance
and
not
does
of water.
chlorination
requiring
regulations
water
is considered
recognized
contain
that bottlers
require
specifically
as long as the water
is safe
water,
in bottled
agents
or the expiration
is opened
and used.
levels
to determine
if there was
time
study was
in bottled water
and study the effects
of
growth
once
on bacterial
water
the
bottled
has
growth,
into a significant
bacterial
that far exceeds
growth
limit proposed
the
Natural
Resources
Defense
by
multiplies
the 500-col/mL
Council and 100 col/mL limitmandated by the European Council
(European Council, 1998; NRDC, 1999). The number of bacterial
colonies
increased
to more
than
3000
col/mL
at 24
hours
negative
staphylococci,
as a significant
been
genesis
dental
rate
the
retarded
significantly
of microbial
growth
with
In sharp contrast,
storage
tap
temperature.
compared
over the entire storage
water had only minimal
bacterial
time
growth
was most
no growth
at a cold
which
and virtually
temperature,
a result
of
may
the chlorination
not be a great
may
be more
vulnerable
health
concern.
to drinking
some
However,
contaminated
bottled
people
water
compromised
immune
chemotherapy,
with
people
people
Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) or other immune disorders, frail
patients,
the most
cause
of
catheters
indwelling
also considered
disease,
ab
in humans.
For
common
and Engelkirk
[Eds.],
such as Staphylococcus
caries.
The
in approximately
flora
80%
2000).
cause
of
Coagulase
are
epidermidis,
in immunocompro
Stomato
(Von Eiff, 2001).
to be normal
oral flora, has
infection
areas also
of gingival
of the population
(Davis,
or infants
November/December 2005
can be particularly
at risk
for
infections.
Oh
(col/mL)
Samples
Bottled
causes
2000).
24 h
(col/mL)
48 h
(col/mL)
57 (3.5)
584 (79)
6833 (549)
11 133(970)
water
Room
temperature
(23?C)
0.8
MacConkey
(0.3)
69.9 (2.5)
Columbia
Cold temperature (4?C)
MacConkey
Columbia
0.8
(0.3)
69.9
(2.5)
88.1 (45)
237 (5)
523 (78)
453 (58)
Tap water
Room
process.
with
than the general
People
population.
such as cancer
systems,
patients
receiving
who
have
organ
transplants,
undergone
elderly
dental
caries
periodontal
infections
Table 1? Bacterial growth in the uncontaminated
bottled
water versus tap water over different periods of time/
In healthy people, the accelerated microbial growth in bottled
water
1989).
of
is
of
regarded
should
be
an opportunistic
catheter
pathogen,
causing
et
endocarditis
Poirier
and
al.,
1990;
(Lemozy
to the patho
to contribute
It is also
thought
and
sepsis
Graudreau,
caries,
all be
potential
to be
reported
related
aureus
can
study
pathogenic
are hallmarks
Staphylococcus
illness
(Burton
at room
likely
Dental
2000).
and endocarditis
recognized
mised
patients with
coccus
mucilaginosus,
their
flora,
example,
food-borne
and
approximately 38 000 col/mL at 48 hours at 37?C. Storage at a cold
temperature
(Davis,
in this
identified
organisms
the normal
this
storage
temperature
and used. The results of this study indicate
been opened
that, after
one
water
bottled
is contaminated
by oral microflora,
sip only,
which
Although
as part of
or other
not
does
the FDA
Drug,
that is
as water
no
with
fluoride
optional
ozone. However,
The
water
for human
intended
containers
for
under
temperature
(23?C)
0 (0)
MacConkey
Columbia
2.8
0.14(0.05)
Cold temperature (4?C)
0 (0)
MacConkey
Columbia
*
Data
shown
represent
mean
3017
This content downloaded from 141.166.151.230 on Fri, 11 Apr 2014 12:13:29 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
41.3(2.2)
132(18.3)
0.3
(0.02)
1.97(0.46)
2.1 (0.37)
0.38 (0.02)
0.14(0.05)
values.
(0.3)
1.9(0.3)
(?
standard
error
of
the mean)
Raj
Previous
studies
ical water
have
quality
and reported on the microbiolog
water
and
(Hernandez-Duquino
examined
of unused
bottled
Rosenberg, 1987; Lalumandier and Ayers, 2000; Rosenberg, 1990).
Observations
made
in the present
study
the pathologic
investigate
to
research
the need
suggest
bacteremia.
bacteria
significance
with active
infections.
This
propagation
bacteria with
concern
in
potential
of the infection by self-inoculation
One
or others.
patients
may
if bottles
The
of
that the development
of
suggest
ing the taste of water. These
findings
FDA guidelines
for the storage temperature
and usage
life for bottled
The label should
and used, should be considered.
water, once opened
also
for refrigeration
and expiration
time once
The results of this study also would
awareness
concerns
about the potential
public
the need
display
is opened
and
to increase
useful
used.
water
that is inappropriately
stored.
contaminated
drinking
to not store opened
these findings,
it might
be prudent
water
for an extended
of time, especially
bottled
period
or high
temperature
outdoor
Based
and
the
be
of
used
at room
temperatures.
of
for
potential
and
This
used.
information
will
be
information
water
in bottled
useful
about
once
the
of bottled
to my mentors
I am very grateful
Tarrand,
Jeffery
of Texas M.
the Microbiology
Laboratory
(University
me the
for providing
Cancer Center, Houston,
Texas),
Credits.
of
D. Anderson
to carry out this work
and teaching me
in his laboratory
opportunity
on my
and providing
the microbiology
techniques
supervision
the
for his excellent
Rolston,
throughout
guidance
project; Kenneth
and
project
interpretation
for identification
Program
(Houston,
I could
and
and
my
experiment
designs
reviewing
for
his
with
the
and Xiang
Han,
assays
help
to the Volunteer
of bacteria.
I am very
thankful
critically
of data;
at the University
Anderson
Cancer
Center
of Texas M.D.
to carry out this study. Finally,
for the opportunity
Texas)
the support
not have conducted
this research project without
from my
that I received
encouragement
At
the time of the study, Sean
Author.
family.
D. Raj
was
attending
Hightower High School, Missouri City, Texas. Raj is currently
a sophomore
University
of
this paper
is March
15,
(2002) Bottled Water:
Better Than
(accessed April
the Tap? FDA Consumer
Flora.
InMedical
4th ed.; Baron,
Microbiology,
Ed.;
Council
European
(accessed
http://gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch006.htm
Chapter 6.
2003);
(1998)
Council
Consumption;
April
Intended for Human
Quality
of Water
Directive
98/83/EC;
European Council: Brus
The
sels, Belgium; November.
Ferner, C. (2002) Bottled-Water
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of Federal
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Market Burgeoning.
World Paper, October.
(1997) The FDA Bottled Water Regulations.
Parts 129 and 165, Title 21; Food and
Regulations,
Rockville, Maryland.
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Food and Drug Administration
(2002) What Americans
Food
2002.
and Drug Administration:
Washington,
are Drinking
D.C.;
in
http://www.
at New
York
and Sciences
in the College
of Arts
to New York University's
School
and has been accepted
Am. J. Clin. Pathol,
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118, 796-801.
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H.; Rosenberg,
(1987) Antibiotic-Resistant
in Bottled Drinking Water.
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Pennsylvania.
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S.,
for
of guidelines
and appropriate
development
water
time once
for
and
refrigeration
expiration
labeling
in this area may
Future
research
lead to water
the bottle
is opened.
is
but also
of improved
that is not only pleasant-tasting,
quality
against microbes.
protective
of
importance
Davis,
the
increasing
of appropriately
using and storing bottled water.
public knowledge
health
because
This finding
also has potential
global
implications
water
research
the
is used
worldwide.
This
bottled
suggests
opened
Raj,
(accessed April 2003).
fda.gov/fdac/features/2002/waterchart.html
Han, X. Y.; Pham, A. S.; Tarrand, J. J.; Sood, P. K.; Luthra, R. (2002) Rapid
and Accurate
Identification of Mycobacteria
RNA
by 16S Ribosomal
new
this project
provide
bacterial
growth
progressive
results
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Mag,
July-August.
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Burton, G. R. W.; Engelkirk,
(Eds.) (2000). Microbiology
for the
Health Sciences,
6th ed.; Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins:
Philadelphia,
on
Conclusions
The
to submit
deadline
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Bullers, A. C.
direction
bottle
to Sean
addressed
2006
Bottled Water Web
be
a future
this study also provide
findings
a potential
to the problem,
for finding
solution
such as
a preservative
that can retard microbial
growth without
compromis
The
be
References
of potentially
harmful
in this setting may be the
are shared among
family
concern
use. Another
repeated
for cross-contamination,
potential
members
these
should
Correspondence
for future
of
bottled water
of patients
contaminating
in patients
would
be especially
that are immunocompro
important
as
cancer
with
and fever, patients
such
mised,
patients
neutropenia
or young
inflicted with HIV, elderly patients,
infants with pneumonia
or
of Medicine.
NYU College of Arts and Sciences, 140 East 14th Street, Suite
1214B, New York, NY 10003; e-mail: [email protected].
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Research,
Volume
77, Number
7