CHAPTER - VII
RELIGION. RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND WOMEN
DIVERSITY IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
Assam
beliefs,
and
is
a
land
of
diverse
cults. Mahapurishiya
neo-Vaishnavism
which
is
the
religions,
Bhagawati
Dharma
major' religion
of
or
Assam
today developed only in the early part of the sixteenth
1
century
Before
as
response
this, Saivism
religions
Vishnu
a
to
the
Indian
Bhakt i movement.
and Saktism were the most
popular
in this land. There were, however, worship of
or Suryya
(Sun God) and
prevalence
of
Buddhism
of
these
also, but these were minor cults.
Before
institutionalised
the
emergence
religions, there might
have prevailed
some primitive form of religion, whose nature can only be
guessed but not definitely ascertained. As pointed out by
B.K. Kakati, traces
of Buddhism
or
any
other
religion
could not be traced out, which could have supplanted the
primitive form of religion.
the
non-vedic
or
institutionalised
into
contact
tribal
character
with
However, in course of time,
vedic
religions
and
or
later
also
when
Brahmanic
they
religion
took
came
and
culture, some of their elements got modified, reformed or
sometimes even extinguished. Thus
of
Aryan
and
non-Aryans
1. B.K. Kakati, Purani
1955, pp.lOff.
cults,
Kamrupar
from the assimilation
the
religion
Dharmar
that
had
Dhara, Kamrup
(242)
developed in Assam, is termed by the author of the Yogini
2
Tantra as 'Kairataja' .
Tribal beliefs : Tribal belief in Assam, as it
had been elsewhere in the world, consisted of fetishism,
3
head-hunting, animism. Belief in reincarnation, ancestor
worship, influence of heavenly bodies, magic and sorcery
4
and such other practices also widely prevailed.
These
beliefs
Siva
and
and
practices
Sakti,
were
which
accepted
mixed
in
the
worship of
with; Vajrayana
Buddhism led to the rise of Tantrikism in Assam.
form
of
5
Saivism - Saivism or the worship of Siva was
possibly the earliest
form of institutionalised
in Assam.
was
That
indicated
tribal
by
God
Siva
the
fact
called
originally
that
Siyraj
a
tribal
religion
deity
is
the Bodos has worshipped
Bathau.
The
Kacharis
a
also
worshipped Ghar Bura who was akin to Sivraj Bathau. All
the kings of ancient Assam were worshippers of God Siva.
For
instance,
friendship
devotion
to
with
God
Bhaskaravarman
Harsha^ardhan
[C594-606
being
AD)
inspired
Siva. Harjaravarmana
(C815-835
made
by
his
AD), a
powerful king of the Salastambha dynasty built the lofty
temple of Hetukasulin
(a tribal God
identified with God
Siva) in his capital at Harapeswara identified with modern
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ibid, p.11
P.C. Choudhury, O p . c i t . , p.388
N.K. B a s u , O p . G i t . , p . 2 2 7
Ibid
S.N. S a r m a , O p . C i t . , p . 1 9 0
(243)
Tezpur.
this
7
Vanamalavarmadeva (c 835-865 AD) another king of
dynasty,
rebuilt
the Hetukasulin
temple
and
made
Q
gifts of land and dancing
girls to this temple.
Gunabhiram
Barua
of
in western
in his history
Assam
states
that
Kamrup there reigned a king named Jalpesvara, who built
the temple of Jalpesvara (now in Jalpaiguri) and who used
9
to propagate Saivism. The Avantya Khanda of the SkandaPurana also speaks of a king named Jalpa, who with the
advice of Vaisista Worshipped
an Anadi Linga and finally
10
merged in the 1inga which came to be known as Jalpesvara.
The Kalika Purana states that long before the
advent of Naraka into Kamrupa, the land was reserved by
Sambhu
for
Kiratas
these
his
own
domain. 11
'
During
this
time,
the
inhabitated this country and it is narrated that
aboriginal
kiratas
were
under
the
protection
of
Siva, because it has been said that they were expelled to
the eastern sea with the consent of Sambhu. 12 Siva as the
tutelary deity ofthe kiratas, fought with Arjuna of the
Mahabharata in the guise of Kirata, i.e. Bhagadatta. 13
That
can
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
be
Siva v/as a tribal God of indigenous origin
inferred
from
the
legends
associated
with
the
P.O. Choudhury, Op.Git., p.216
Ibid, p.218, Tezpur Grant, v.24
G.R. Barua, Op.Cit., p.32
B.K.Kakati, Mother Goddess Kamakhya,
Gauhati,1961,pp.l2,13
I b i d , p.13
Ibid, p.14
B.K. Kakati. Purani Kamrupar Dharmar Dhara, p.52
(244)
with
the founders of various states of medieval
Assam.
For instance, it is learnt from the Kachari Buranji that
the wife of Manik,
the progenitor
of
the Kachari
gave
birth to a cat conceived through God Siva in the guise of
14
a Sanva_sj. .
In the same Buranji it was stated that
Mahadeva (Siva in the guise of a Kachari co-habited with
a deodhani. who gave birth to a child and
was
named
Kingdom. 15
as
Bisarpatifa,
Likewise,' Biswa
later
who
founded
Singha,
the
the
on,
he
Kachari
founder
of
the
Koch Kingdom was born from the union of Mahadeva and the
wife
of
one
developed
Haria
during
Mandal.
medieval
That
period
Saivism
can be
was
seen
fully
from
the
various names with which God Siva was associated. He was
named
Parameswara,
Mahesvara,
Isvara,
Mahavaraha,
Adideva, Sambhu, Sankara and Prajadhinatha. The names of
Hatakasulin,
Gauripati,
17
Somanath etc. are connected with various Siva myths.
Hei
is also
Hara,
described
Khatvanga,
Parasu,
Kamesvara,
Pasupati,
in the records
Pinaka
and
as using his
Sula. His
weapons
vehicle
is a
bull, Sasikala shines on his forehead and he has a girdle
of
the
lord of
snakes. He resides on the peaks of the
mountain Kailasa. He is the lord of Gauri having Ganges
18
on his head.
Siva was also worshipped by the people in his
phallic
emblem
Linga,
which
is
set
with
an
upright
pillar of rod of stone erected on a pedestal calFed Yoni.
14 . Kachari Buranji, p. 1
15.
16.
17.
18.
Ibid, p.9
Deodhai Assam Buranji p . 174, S a d a r Amin, Asam B u r a n j i , p . 2 7
B . K . B a r u a , A C u l t u r a l H i s t o r y of A s s a m , p p . 1 6 3 , 1 6 4
Ibid, p.164,165
(245)
The Yogini
Tantra
staes
that
the
number
of
1ingas
in
Kamrupa exceeds a million. 19 From the numerous relics and
ruins of »Siva temples found in the nook and corner of the
state, the prominence
of Saivism before and during
the
the medieval period can be clearly; unflerstood.
Sakt i sm - With a tribal base in the society,
the worship of male deities could not have gained grou'nd
without
tribes
due
honour
to
their
worshipped, both' male
female
and
counterparts.
female
deities
The
and
amongst some of them, female deities had even a preponderant
position.
The
Kacharis
worshipped
a
Goddess
Moinou , or Ghar-Buri . who was the consort of
Ghar-Bura
harvest.
and whose worship
20
The RabH"a"S"i—a
was supposed
section
of
called
their God
to bring
the Bodo
good
Kacharis
worshipped a male God called Rishi along with his consort
21
Charipak.
This primordial
God and Goddess of the non-
Aryan tribes were accepted in Hinduism as Bura Gosain and
Buri-Gosaini.
The
Khasis
before
they
migrated
to
the
neighbouring hills worshipped a Goddess called Kamoi or
22
Kamet.
The Bodo Kacharis worshipped a Goddess named
23
Kamakhi or Kamalakhi.
It is possible that Kamakhya is
only a Sanskritised
19.
Ibid, p.165
form of the another Goddess Kamoi or
'
~
20.
B.Narzi.Boru Kacharir Samaj Aru S a n s k r i t i . Gau hati,1966 ,p.251
21. B.C. Gohain.Human Sacrifice and Head Hunting in Northeast India
India, Gauhati, 1977, p.89
22. B.K.Kakati,
Purani Kamrupar Dharmar Dhara, p.24
23. Bishnu Rabha Rachanawali, ( e d . ) . Bishnu Rabha Suarani Samiti,
Nalbari, 1982, p.64
(246)
Kamet or of the Bodo Goddess Kamakhi or Kamalakhl.
Chutiyas
human
and
worshipped
a Goddess
sacrifice. The koches
another
Goddess
mother Goddess
Goddess
is
led
called
Called
The
Kochaikhat1
worshipped
both
Thakurani.
The
with
" .Kamakhya
concept
of
to the growth of Saktism, where the
worshipped
as
Sakti
or
Supreme
energy.
According to B.K. Barua, the Sakti cult was considered to
have
its
Kamakhya.
centre
in Kamrupa
that
the
its
medieval
chief
period
temple
at
leading
religion of Assam may be assumed to be Saktism. 25 It is
presumed
Throughout
with
the
the Kalika purana, in which various forms
of Sakti, called Mahamaya, the system of her worship and
different
systems of
was written during
we have ground
Assam
to believe
Purana.
staunt
discussed
that Sakt i cult prevailed
in
the composition of the
Many kings of ancient Assam, who were
advocates of Saktism had
the Pala
are minutely
the period of the 11th century. Thus
from the period or before
Kalika
Thus
sakt i cult
kings of Assam
also
wroshipped
worshipped
Sakti.
both Hara and
Gauri and the Koches worshipped both Siva and Durga. The
Ahom
kings
also
were
votaries
of
both
Saivism
and
Sakt ism.
24. Ibid.
25. B.K. Barua, Op. cit . , pp.166, 167.
26. H.
Sarma
Doloi,
Asamat
Sahitya.Borpeta, 1983, p.44
Sakti
Sadhana
Aru
Sakta
\
(247)
Kamakhya is the most holy and famous shrine of
Saktism and with its worship has been associated various
rites, mant ras, and sacrifices. The name of the hillock
where
the
shrine
stands
is
Nilachal
(blue
mountain).
According to the Kalika Purana, the genital organ of Sat i
fell
here, when
thither
in
mountain
Sati's
her
frantic
represented
genital
dead
body
sorrow
by
was
carried
her
husband
hither
Siva.
the body of Siva himself
organ
fell
on
it,
and
'The
and when
the mountain
turned
blue. The Goddess herself is called Kamakhya, because she
came
there
secretly
to
satisfy
her
amour
(kama)
with
Siva.'^"^
Sakt i or Devi
is worshipped
in various other
forms and names like Dasabhu ja-Durga, Surasabhuja-Durga,
Ugratara,
Ugrachandra,
Sivadut i,
Tripura,
Jayant i ,
Annapurna,
Kouciki ,
Kameswari,
Dirgheswari,
Dipteswari ,
I
Byaghraswari, Dakhyina
Kali , Bhadra
Kali , Smasan
Kali,
Tara Chandi , Mangal Chandi , Jogadhat ri , Bhairabi , Manasa^.
o o
Si tala
etc.
Charles Eliot
Thus,
Saktism
has
been
defined
by
Sir
'as the worship of a goddess of many names
and
forms, who
is adorned
with
sexual
rites and
29
sacrifices of animals or when the law permits of men.'
During
religious
kings
the Ahom age, Saktism became a strong
culture
beginning
receiving
royal
with Siva Singha
patronage.
The
Ahom
(1714-1744 AD) became
adherents of Saktism. Land grant inscription of Kamakhya
27.
28.
29.
B.K. Kakati, Mother Goddess Kamakhya, p.34
H. Sarmah Daloi, Op.Cit.. p.97
M. Neog, Religions of the North East, New Delhi,1984, p.105
(248)
temple of Siva Singha.in 1715 A.D., the erection of the second
temple at Silghat along with its rock inscription by king
Paramatta Singha in 1745 A.D. 30
. the rock inscription of
the Utsava Mandir of King Rajeswar Singha (1759 AD) 31 and
the copper plate inscription of Goddess Kamakhya of King
Gaurinath Singha (1782 A.D.) 32 are clear evidence to the
patronage
of
the
Ahom
Phuleswari
who
performed
kings
Durga
to
Saktism.
worship
Bor-Raja
in her
capital
even attempted to make Saktism the state religion.
Vaishnavi sm - It was through Sankardeva and his
disciple
Madhavdeva that Vaishnavism
religion
became
a
major
in Assam. This worship of Visnu as Adaitya or
monothaism
in Assam is
termed
by
the
scholars
as neo-
Vaishnavism, because records are available in regard to
the worship of Vishnu and his incarnation
in this land
from early times and also association of Vishnu Krishna
with Pragjyotisha
or
ancient
Assam
is well
known. The
latter form of worship, however, was limited in form and
extent.
The Kalika
Hayagriva
Madhava,
Purana
Matsya
indicates
the
Madhava
and
worship
Vasudeva
of
in
different places of Kamrupa. 33 In the Kalika Purana the
30. Prachya Sasanawali, pp.148, 149.
31. Ibid, pp.148, 149.
32. H. Sarma Doloi, Op.Git., p.61
33. Kalika Purana,Chap,81, 82,
(249)
following
five manifestations
of Vishnu
are mentioned
along with the places where they were worshipped.
(a)
Vishnu
as Hayagriva
killed
Jvarasura
(Kalika
^urana 81/75) in a place called Manikuta.
(b)
Vishnu
as
worshipped
Matsya
or
fish
incarnation
in the Matsyadhvaja
was
mountain, east
of Manikuta (Kalika Purana 82/50)
(c)
Madhava
in
the
form
of
a
Bhairava
named
Pandunatha in Raksakuta (Kalika Purana 82/65.).
(d)
Vishnu
as
Boar
incarnation
in
the
Citravaha
mountain east of Pandu (Kalika Purana 82/74)
(e)
Vasudeva-Visnu_
in
the
Dikkravasini
region
(Kalika purana 83/90)..'^'^
No doubt, in the 12th century and during' the
time of Dharmapala, Vaishnavism
came into prominence. 3 5
The name of Gopala Ata's forefathers, as indicated by the
Katha-guru-charita signify the popularity of the Vasudeva
cult in the north eastern region of Assam.
some
The names of
other forefathers like Basudeva, Harideva of some
Vaishnava saints indicate the prevalence of the Vasudeva
cult in Assam prior to the propagation of Sankardeva of
the new Vaishnavite movement. 37
34. Cf B.K. Kakoti, Mother Goddess Kamakhya. p.68
35. B.K. Barua, Op.Cit.. p.169
36. Katha-Guru-Charita, pp.323, 324
37. S.N. Sarma, Op.Cit.. p.207
(,250)
A
the
good
different
be,tween
number
places
the 8th and
of
Vishnu
Assam
the 14th
era, testify
clearly
and
flourished
Saktism
of
images
which
recovered
could
centuries of
that Vaishnavism
parallelly
be
from
placed
the Christian
along with Saivism
in
Assam
during
the
Q ft
first
five hundred years of the second millenium A.D^
Buddhi sm-
the
country
ignore
of
Though
widely
Buddhism
during
did
medieval
not
times,
prevail
we
can
it
is
stated
that
king
Bhaskarvarmana
though not a Buddhist, treated equally the Buddhist
and the Brahmin priests.
ground
to
influence
believe
fell
Buddhism
and
distinction
40
in
'Kamrupa
some
between
the visits
of
way
or
other
Buddhist
of Kamrupa. According
became
happened
remained
monks
From this report we have ample
the people
this
From
39
that
upon
Choudhury
Gods'.
not
the trace of this religion wholly. In the reports
Huen'-Tsang,
P.C.
in
at
to
a
stronghold
of
later
a
time
no
sharp
when
Brahmanical .. and
Buddhist
the Buddhists of Bhutan
and
Tibet and even from Ladakh and south-western China to the
Madhava
temple
'Mohamuni'
38.
Ibid,
39.
For
40.
Ibid,
of
and by
Hajo
named
the Lamas
as
by
the
Buddhists
'Muni Muni Mohamuni. ' We
p.208
details,
p.404
see
P.C.
as
Choudhury,
Op.Cit . ,
p.403
(251)
have to
believe
that
in
certain
periods
and
possibly
after the visit of Huen Tsang, there was founded a Buddha
41
monastery in Assam which had been ruined later on.
It is held
by
Nagarjuna
in
that Mahayana Buddhism
the
first
century
propounded
A.D. assumed
character on the revival of Brahmanism during
Gupta period, which gradually developed
from
the
Kings
eighth
of
century
Magadh
and
Buddhisatavas with
and
other
developed
into
Cauda.
their
Buddhist
by
Mantracharyya. Hinduism,
spirit of the time,
into
its
system.
42
the
rule
Images
the early
Tantrikism
of
of
the
Pala
Buddhas
and
female energies were worshipped
Gods
mysticism
began to be tolerated
during
into
a new
gradually
and
the
came
sorcery.
teachers
ever
in,
which
The magic
rites
of
anxious
spells
to
called
imbibe
the
absorbed the Buddhist Tantric rites
Katha-guru-charita
speaks
of
two
Buddhist magicians who practised magic at Belaguri.
In
advocate
of
the garden
of
Sri
Sisir Kumar
Barua, an
Uzan
Bazar, Guwahati, a Terrakota Buddha
44
image was unearthed.
In the prayer-house (Gosai Ghar)
of
Sri Jogabandhu Das of Gauhati, there was a Buddha
image. 45 In the Kirtanaghosa, Sankardeva says that the
Kalki form of God will descend on earth at the end of the
Kol i age and kill
the Mlechchas and all the Buddhas and
set the truth. In the ,Kirtan-ghosa,Buddha is taken as one
of the ten incarnations of God. There it is stated 41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
D.N. Sarmah, (ed.), Awahan, 1858, Sak, 8th yr. 3rd issue,
N.K.Mishra, 'Kamrupat Baudha Dharma, p.345
Extract from S.K .Bhuyan,Anglo Assamese Relations, pp.190,191
Katha-Guru-Charita. p.57
N-K. Mishra, 'Loc Cit.,'
N.K. Mishra, 'Loc Git'
(252)
'Buddha Kalki Name Dasa
Akriti dharicha Krishna
Taju
We
disciples
Assam,
Buddhist
that,
47
had
disturbed
Janardana
Sukresvara
Janardana.,
find
Sankardeva
was
Buddhists).
the
also
of
he
. 46
pranama'
paye Karoho
hill
There
shrine
is
when
been
by
also
stood
to
the
Vishnu
is
Gopala,
image
the
at
the
part
of
(Tantrlk
Gauhati
known
tradition
where
eastern
of
Bauddhas
generally
a
one
that
below
as
Bodha
originally
temple
of
a
Goddess
Kamakhya now stands. 48
Tant riki sm
-
The
Tantriks
were
left
handed
worshippers. In their worship, there was no distinction
of
caste
religious
and
rites
creed.
at
They
night
usually
for which
Rati-khowa or Arit iya. 49 So secret
performed
their
they were known as
is the practice that
the scholars failed to collect the adequate data for fult
investigation.
They were the votaries of five makara -
madya (wine), mansa( flesh), matsya(fish), mudra (parched
grain)
and
mai thuna
(sexual
union). 50
A
women
was
--.worshipped as a living Goddess and all other women had
46.
M.. N e o g , (ed), Kirtan
p.684
Namghosa
,
,
5th
ed.
1967
Gau.
47. M. Neog, Sankardeva and His Times, p.144
48. M. Neog,Religions of the North East India, p.68
49.
For details on the
'The Night
50.
practices of this cult, see, SC, Goswami,
worshippers' the work of the kamrupa
Anusandhan
Saraiti,Gauhati,1920, also A.Guha,Medieval And Early Colonial
Assam,
p. 124 ff
H. Sharma, 'Asomar Utsab', Asam Gaurav (ed) Asam Gaurav
Editorial Board, Cotton College, .Gauhati;, 1978,p.173
(253)
free access
to the rites. Though
the philosophy behind
was high and the ideal was to conquer all the temptations
associated with
five makaras mentioned above, in actual
practice, there was much moral degradation which lowered
the prestige of
women
in society. Tantric writers
like
the author of the Yogini Tantra even advocates esoteric
rites for the purpose of gaining Siddhi or salvation. It
enjoins that a maiden of sixteen should be the object of
meditation
and
describes' what
wine
and
what
women
are
most suitable for sexual union respectively, and goes to
the
extent
of
permitting
sex
with
every
women
one's mother. 51 Of course, it concludes by
union as the union of
the souls but
except
interpreting
the esoteric rites
which is permitted to be performed in the temples led to
moral degradation and affected the status of women in the
society.
The
Tantrikism
vedic
Hinduism
associated
with
was
magic
and
connected
with
sorcery.
Some
serious diseases, pains and wounds, were believed to have
been cured by the mantras. Muslim writers like the author
of
the Alamgir=nama
that
Assam
was
and
a centre
the Bahari|St en-i-Ghaybi
of magic
and
sorcery
opined
and
any
foreigner coming to this place being overpowered by ^he
mantras
lost
their
way home. 52
It
is mentioned
in the
51. Yogini Tantra. Chapter VI, VV 35-45
52. M. Neog, Purani Asamiya Samaj Aru Sanskrit!, Gau,1971,p.68
(254)
Darrang Raj Vamsawali
the
Sultan
mantras.
of
53
the
of
Bengal
from
snake
bite
by
enchanting
In Sikh religious texts alsot there is mention
prevalence
According
that Chilarai cured the mother of
to
Sikhi'sm, when
this
of
magic
source.
visited
and
Guru
Kamrupa
sorcery
Nanak,
in
the
Assam.
founder
in the early part
of
of
the
16th century fell a prey into the hands of a woman expert
in magic.
She
tried
her
best
to
charm
the
guru
with
54
mantras but failed and ultimately accepted his initiation.
Warden, one
of
the
disciples
of
Guru
Nanak, had
been
turned into a lamb by a witch, who was again brought to
the original
form by
the
guru. 55 Deodhai
Asam
Buranji
also gives reference to a kind of magic cloth. A kiqg of
Burma presented a magic cloth to the king of Nora, i.e.
Mungkong through his daughter-in-law to make him weak and
accordingly, when the king put on the cloth, he lost his
56
•invincible strength.
During Moamaria Rebellion, Radha
and Rukmini, the two wives of Naharkhora, a Moran leader
were said to have possessed
the
strength
of
which
they
of super natural powers, on
could
catch
bullets in the corners of their chadars.
53. Darrang Raj Vamsawal j.,pp. 526 , 527.
54. M. Neog,~Op.Cit., p.67
55. Ibid,
56. Deodhai Asam Buranji, pp.206, 207
57. G.R. Barua, Op.Git.. p.105,106
c. 7
the
enemy's
C255)
There was also a belief
Sitala manifested
that at times Goddess
herself through
some woman who had an
attack of small pox. Such woman was said to have Ai-joka
meaning
that
During
she became
this period
abnormally
and
an incarnation of
the woman was said
predict
future.
Such
the Goddess.
to hay.a behaved,
beliefs
exist
in
Assamese society till today.
Minor
cults
like
religious
the
Ganesh, Manasha
worship
cults
of
- Some minor
Surya
(sun),
religious
Agni
(fire),
(Snake) etc. were also widely prevalent
in Assam from the very earliest times.
Sun worship - Worship of Surya (sun) though was
not
the main cult of the Hindu Assamese society, yet it
has a remote antiquity. Reference can'be cited that after
taking
initiation
used to
from
the guru
(priest),_ the disciples
worship, the sun after taking bath. The earliest
reference to Pragjyotisa as a centre of sun worship can
be
obtained
from
the Grihya
Sutras. 58
The
Sankhyayana
Grihyasamgrha also states that a student should visit the
holy place of Pragjyotisha
before
Kalika
the
Goalpara
Purana
refers
was
the main
that
abode of
the sun rises.
Sri
Surya
the sun God
symbols of -worshipping other Gods are found.
58. P.O. Choudhury, Op.Cit., p.406
59. B.K. Barua, Op.Cit. p.174
59
mountain
The
of
though the
(256)
The
can
better
prevalence
be
proved
of
the system of
from
the
sun
exsisting
vworship
remains
of
temples found in Dah Parvatia, Gahpur, Sukreswara, Surya
Pahar,
Suaikuchi
and other places of ancient
Assam.
Originally, the sun was taken as an incarnation of the
great
God
Vishnu
which
has
later
been
diverted
to
independent worship.
Worship- of
Agni
worshipped as a Sun God
(fire)
-
Agni
was
also
from the 6th century onwards.
In the Vedic age also agni was worshipped by the people
as
prime
God.
In Assamese
Hindu
society
even
today a
great pile of fire is worshipped on the eve of Magh Bihu
by reciting the slokas
'Agni Prajalitang Bande
chatusbanya sutasanam'
In the performance of a Hindu marriage of Vedic
rites, both the bridegrooms and the bride are to sit by
the side of sacrificial fire called,homa.
Manasha-
'Viforship of
Monasha
originated
from
the worship of snakes. In a certain period of history the
people assumed
an exquisite beauty queen of snakes who
was named as Manasa. She is generally identified with the
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid, p.410
(257)
sister
of
the Serpent
hermit
Jarut
according
Karu
king
Vasuki , who
and became
was married
the mother of Astika
to
and
to the Mahabharata was to save the Nagas from
being exterminated by the snake Goddess.
Generally the worship of Manasa was confinad to
the
places
eastern
of
lower
Assam, this
Brahmaputra
system
was
valley.
not
In
parts
prevalent
in
of
early
times nor it is practised
to-day. The Manasa Puja which
is
rainy
celebrated
Sravana
during
and Bhadra
still a popular
Darrang.
the
months
(from mid May
festival
to mid
Jeth, Ahar,
September) is
in the District of Kamrupa and
64
i
Gods
associated
of
with
Ganesh
Siva.
and
Kartikeya
Ganesh
is
are
intimately
worshipped
as
the
bestower of success and the remover of obstacles. He is
also considered
and as such his
to be the guardian deity of the village
image is installed
in one of the four
quarters of almost every village. In general form, Ganesh
is sculptured as a four handed deity holding in his hands
a_
cake
lotus, his own tusk, a battle axe and ball of rice
and
having three eyes. 6 5 Generally
this
puja
is
celebrated now-a-days in the months of Aswin or Kartika
(from mid September to mid November).
63. Quoted from B.K. Barua,op.cit, P. 217
64. Ibid, p.218
65. Ibid, p.206
(258)
Neo - Vaishnavism - It was the neo - vaishnavi sm
which brought profound changes to the AssameseSociely.lt must
be
admitted
that
before
the
rise
of
neo-Vaishnavism,
though some religious faiths and beliefs were prevalent,
it was not
possible on the parts of
the people
to get
themselves involved in the religious ceremonies directly
without
a priest
or
guru. This
gap
was
filled
Sankardeva, the propagator of neo-vaishnavite
by
Sri
ideals in
the early part of 16th century.
The basic
tenets
o^f Sankardeva's
religion
is
Eksarana/Tiama Dharma or worship of one God only through
prayer.
The
forbidden
worship
by
religious
him.
of
As
performances
deities
there
taught
other
was
than
Vishnu
simplicity
by him and
is
in
the
equality among
all disciples, so his religion became very popular in the
society. Sankardeva based his teachings primarily on the
Bhagavata Purana. which deals with the life and teachings
of
Lord
Krishna
and
hence
his
creed
is also
known
as
Bhagawat i Dharma. It was based on the principles of Bhakt i
or undivided devotion to God.
To
make
understandable
to
translated
several
vernacular
language
the
the
tenets
the
common
Skandhas
and
of
wrote
of
Bhakt i,
people,
the
many
Sankardeva
Bhagawata
metrical
dramas and hymns to popularise his creed.
cult
into
episodes,
He also used
66. S.K. Bhuyan, Anglo Assamese Relations, p.192
(259)
the
media
of
art,
like
performance of devotional
established
dance,
music,
^.theatrical
plays composed by himself. He
the community prayer hall known as namghar,
where the members of the village could assemble for daily
or occassional prayers. In his official head quarter at
Bordowa,
he
first
established
institution
became
organisation
and
the
later
one
nucleus
on
along
such
of
namghar.
the
with
This
Valshnjava
the
Vaishnava
monastery called Satra, this spread throughout the three
states of Assam, Kamrupa and Koch Behar existing in the
Brahmaputra valley at that time.
The door of Sankardeva's religion was opened to
everyone
irrespective of one's
caste or creed. Amongst
his disciples Govinda was a Garo, Joyram a Bhutiya, Ghand
Sai
a Muslim, Paramananda
a Wishing, Narahari an Ahom,
Morari and Chilarai, the famous Koch general.
the plain
tribesman
like
Chutiyas,
Wishing,
Ahoms,
Later on,
the Kacharis, Koches, Rabhas,
Mataks,
Morans
etc.
were
the
most
brought into the Vaishnava fold.
According
to
Vaishnava
teaching,
efficacious methods of cultivating the state of devotion
are
the
acts
of
listening
to
(Srj^vana)
and
chanting
(Kirtana) the names of God especially in the company of
6J_, M.Neog, Sanakardeva and His Times, p.369
(260)
devotees
sacred
(Satsanga).
Sanskrit
Assamese
68
The
texts
verses
are
Bhagavata
which
chanted
were
Purana
rendered
during
and
into
the worship
other
homely
by
the
congregation. This part of the service is called nam or
ri.amprasanga^.
Ghosha,
Every
Kirtana
nam
has
four
parts
Upadesha. 69
and
e.g.
Bargeet ,.
Like-wise,
the
neo
Vaishnavism propagated by Sankardeva in the period of our
study
rendered
significant
service
in forming
a united
and healthy Assamese society.
/
I s 1 am /- As a result of th'S . repeat ed invasions
of the Turko Afghans and the Mughals to Assam, Islam had
entered
to
this
state
as
early
as
the
13th
century.
Sultan Ghiya-suddin Tughril Khan of -Bengal
Kamrupa
Assam
in 1257 AD.and during
first
introduced
the
.invaded
the period of his stay in
reading
of
the Khutbah
in
Assam. Later in 1611A.D.a masjid was built at Garurachal at
Hazo , where Ghyasuddin Aulia died. It was named
Mecca.
quite
In
a good
here. They
local
course
of
number
settled
people.
numerous
of Muslim
Muslim
detained
in Assam and inter-married
Vi^ith the
from
manners
the
prisoners
invasions,
were
Their
indistinguishable
the
as Poa
and
natives
habits
that
were
so
Shihabuddin
Talish, the chronicler of Mir Jumla's Assam expedition,
68. Ibid, p.218
69. A.
Cauti1ie, / The
pp.138, 139. i
Assamese,
London,
Dublin,
1984,
(261)
remarked
that
they had
nothing
distinct
but
only
the
name 'Islam' and that their hearts were more with the non
Muslim
indigenous
inhabitants
than
with
their
co-
religionists of the invading group.
After
the end of
the Ahom Mughal
wars in the
later part of the 17th century, some respectable Muslim
families came and settled in Assam. Ajan Fakir, who came
to Assam
during
the
reign
of Gadadhar
Singha
(1680-96
A.D.}, was the first Muslim saint to instruct the Muslim
population of Assam to enchant the Namaz at the call of
Ajan, 71 for which he was called Ajan Fakir, his real name
being
Shah Milan.
giving
rent
71
free
The Ahom kings patronised
g.rants
called
peerpal
Islam by
for
the
maintenance of the Mosques. Ajan Fakir had his dargah at
Charagua
near
Dikhowmukh.
There
are
other
dargahs
at
places like Dichang, Simaluguri and Charaideo established
at different times during the medieval period.
Neo-Vaishnavism and the Status of Women - Neo
Vaishnavism
had
its
also on the material
impact
on
life of
the status of
women and
the people. The Vaishnava
reformers were advanced agriculturists and artisans. They
70. Cf. E.Gait, Op.Cit . , p.149
7 1 . Abdus S a t t a r ,
Sangmrisanat
Asamiya
Sanskrit i,
J o r h a t , 19 8 6 , p . 3 3 ; M.Saikia, Assam- Muslim Relation and
i t s Cultural Significance, p.201 ff
72.
Ibid.
(262)
taught people advanced mode of cultivation. They had also
advocated
zhuming
women
a
patriarchal
was
lost
giving
way
their main
society.
to
At
their
ploughing
and
initiative,
as
a result,
role in cultivation, as ploughing
could not be done'by them. This had indirectly made them
subordinate to man. Vaishnava reformers like Madhavadeva,
who advocated puritanism, considered women as a source of
temptation
and
tjierefore passed
women. This is learnt
Katha-Guru-Charita.
Madhavadeva
to
Madhavadeva
repeat
from an incident
Once
his
refused
to
Vishnupriya.
requested
the proposal. His attitude
on
in the
proposed
daughter
and
comments
narrated
Sankardeva
marry
flatly
derogatory
him
not
to
towards women can be
gleaned from his following comment.
'Mayamai bisai , posupakhir sari-rate pai
Aka lagi asha bharasa kara nai'
meaning - This
bodies
of
is
birds
a
and
temptation
which
existed
in
animals. I am not hankering
the
after
that. Again
'Bihmai bih bahnit nepelava'
meaning
'please drag me not
to the
fire of poison and
. 73
pain.
But
liberal
in
Sankardeva
his
attitude
on
his
towards
73. Katha-guru-chari ta, p.89
part
women.
was
He
some
what
had
great
(263)
respect
for his
grand mother Khersuti, who brought
him
up*. He had also led the life of a householder and did not
encourage
celibacy.
But
he
had
restriction
in
giving
initiation to women which is clear from his own statement
made
before
king
Naranarayana,
who
wanted
to
get
his
initiation. Sankardeva replied that he never wanted to be
guru
of
the
Brahmanas,
the
Kings
and
the
women.
He
perhaps feared that a woman would not be able to observe
the tenents of his religion going against the will of her
husband, as laws laid down by him were very strict.
Sankardeva was sceptical about the independent
entity of women. He thus wrote in Rukmini Haran Kavya
'Swavabate tiri jati, nohe swatantari'
meaning 'independence is not the nature of women' 74
In the chapter of Hara Mohana
in the Kirtana,
Sankardeva describes woman as a source of temptation and
hence be avoided.
'Ghor stri maya sarba m'ayate kut-chi t,
Mahamuni g;anoru katekhe hare chit
Darsane kare top, jop, •jog bhanga
,75
Jani yajni jone kaminir era isanga'
meaning
all
'women are the greatest sources of temptation in
their
forms. They
can
74. Rukmini Haran. V.133
75.
Kirtana. V.528. p.131
pierce a man's
heart
at a
(264)
single glance and by their very appearance can break his
meditation
and disturb
his
thoughts. Knowing
all
these
the wise avoids the company of women.
Sankardeva stressed upon the chastity of women
and described a chaste woman or sati as one who had not.
glanced at any person other
words, he advocated
from
the story
guru-chari ta
seclusion
of Radhika
and
thaa iier husband.
some
In other
for women. This
sat i narrated
Assamese
is clear
in the Katha-
Buranj is.
The
story
relates that, when several attempts to build a spur in a
flood
affected
approached
attempt
Bhuyan
village
Sankardeva.
The
went
futile,
latter
replied
would be successful, only
the peopli?
that
the
if a jar filled
with
water to the brim brought by a Sat i or Sant i (meaning a
chaste
place
woman)
of
village
in a
foundation.
and
the
(Kaivarta) woman
could
leaked
not
accidently
hold
her
vessel
Sankardeva
task
was
co.uld be
then
performed
put
to
its
appeared
in
the
by
a
called Radhika. She admitted
all
the water
eyes
fell
in
on
the pot
her
low
casie
that
because
husband's
she
once
elder
7 fi
brother.
Radhika
was
hailed
as
an
became an example to her fellow sisters.
76. Katha-guru-charita, p.51
ideal
woman
and
(265)
Vaishnava
reformers
also
taught
the
tribal
woman, who were never accustomed to veils to cover their
heads at the time of prayer. Gradually all married tribal
women used
to cover
their heads. In the upper circles,
those women were looked with regards, who were devoted to
their husbands, confined themselves to the four walls of
their
homes
and
discussions,
spent
Harigati,
their
the
times
wife
in
religious
of
Mukunda Ata, a
77
Vaishanva reformer, was one among such women. Sulochana,
the queen of the Karaata King was also very virtuous. In a
like
way
,
Swargadeo
Jayadhaj
Singha's
mother
was
respected by all for her virtuous qualities.
There
mental and
an
were
women
intellectual
honoured
position
who
could
evidence
their
calibre and could claim rightly
in
the
Vaishanva
order.
Most
prominent among them was Kanaklata alias Lakshmi Ai^, who
was
the first of the three wives of Chaturbhuj Thakur, a
grandson of Sankardeva. She was a veby accomplished and
efficient
propagation
lady.
of
She
the
greatly
Vaishnava
contributed
faith. She
was
for
the
also
the
first woman to become the head of a Vaishnava monastery
who even appointed other persons as superiors. When her
husband nominated Damodara.a minor, as his successor she
77. P. Hazarika ted] Prabandha Saurabh. A.C. Choudhury,
'Bharatiya
Siksha
1966, P. 123.
Sanskrit
Narir
Awadan' ; Dibrugarh
(266)
put Damodara
her
and other disciples under her care. After
husband's
female
death, Kanaklata,
members
Kingdom
and
henceforth
of
settled
came
initiated many
to
her
family
at
a
be
with
proceeded
place
known
people of
along
as
some
to
the
other
Ahom
near
Ai
Bardowa, which
78
bhet i .
She had
the locality
to the vaishnava
faith and deputed twelve disciples, six Brahmins and six
non brahmins to different parts of Assam to propagate the
new faith. The twelve satras, established by these twelve
apostles, came to be known after her name as Kanaka bara
79
janiya satra.
Kanaklata later moved to the north bank of the
Brahmaputra
for
missionary
work.
Following
Kanaklat^a,
other grand daughters-in-law and also the grand daughters
of
Sankardeva
established
Sat ras.
The
monasteries
established by the latter were called Sri Sankar Jiyari
Vamsar
Satra,
meaning
'monasteries
founded
by
Q rs
Sankardeva's female descendants.'
Again Padmapriya, the daughter of BhavaniPriya
Gopal
Ata, is
credited
the first Assamese Woman
81 •
composed Bargi t s. The pious lady Dayal,
PQet , who even
to be
78. M., Neog, Sankardeva' and this times, pp. 150,151
79
Ibid
BU,Ibid-,_-p. 15.-1
•
'
'- -
SI, A.C. Choudhury ;'Loc.cit
.
.
^
,
.
.
(267)
wife of Telekrishna, acted as a medhi over one hundred
and twenty queens and could recite in a very sweet tone
82
'
the Namghosa and the Kirtana. Sankardeva's wife Kalindi
Ai
also
commanded
a special
order. She was highly
position
in
the
Vaishmava
respected by Madhavadeva
and al'l
other disciples of Sankardeva. She had survived till she
was hundred and forty years old. At her death bed she had
instructed
the assembled
Vaishnava
apostles
to write a
biography of her husband, which was very faithfully done
by them. A copy of this Guruchari t has been preserved in
83
the library of the Gauhati University.
The
proficiency
performing
became
common
in
reciting
Vaishnava
an additional
marriage
respected
women
and
any
by
all.
the
hymns.
too
could
Vaishnava
In
course
qualification
woman
It
having
has
common woman pointed out
evidence
been
for
that
texts
of
new
faith, wives
and
time,
a girl
mentioned
above
in
this
for her
proficiency
was
how a
to Sankardeva, his omission of
the Vaikuntha Briksha, while he was drawing
heaven. In the initial
their
stage of
were making
a scene of
the propogation of the
their husbands
free
from
their duties in order to make them enable to attend the
Namkirtana. It is related
in thie Kastha-guru - chari t a that
\'l . K.atha-guru-charita , p.6.62
33. M. Neog (ed.) Pabitra Asam, Jorhat , 1960,p 32
(268)
-an old couple of the village, Sundari, in lov/er Assam,
arranged among themselves that the wife would manage the
I
household duties and the husband would daily attend the
Namkirtana
held
by Gopal
At a and his disciples
during
the day times and would recite the verses to his wife in
the
evening.
recite
One
day,
however
the
old
man
failed
to
the verses, at which, his wife refused him food
and drink till he would go back and learn the verses. The
poor man then went to the Sat ra and related his plight to
a
disciple,
who
felt
pity
on
him
and
taught
him
the
. 84
verses again.-
After
used
in
of
the namghar women
to attend prayers there regularly and participated
the
bhaona
religious
or
religious
moulded
that
a
enlightment.
in medieval
land
reputation
through
temperament
robbery
of
spread
They
theatrical
instruction
theft,
unusual
dicourses.
religious
the
spiritual
as
the establishment
and
It
and
also
witnessed
performances
to
the
get
them. Such popular medias
outlook
was
of
perhaps
such "oYher
the people
for
this
cTi'mes—were
for
reason
very
times and Assam gained a reputation
religious
as
far
recital
as
and
Rajputana,
84. Katha'Guru-Charita, Intro. P-IV,421
prayer.
so
This
that, v/hen
(269)
Raja Ram Singh of Ambar was asked by emperor Auragazeb to
lead an expedition to Assam, he was advised by his mother
and wife to decline the appointment, as it would disturb
85
the religious habits of the people.
It
intelligent
may
be
ladies
noted
in
in the royal
this
connection
circles
that
sometimes used
the Vaishnava texts to overcome certain delicate issues.
The Borkunwari vor chief
named
Sudaipha
or
consort
Parbaitya
of
an Ahom
Raja
Swargadeo,
(1677-79)A.D:was the
daughter of the then Premier Atan Buragohan. According
" to
the customs prevalent in the country, when a queen raised
to the status of Barkunwari, all oflicers and ministers
were to show their respect to her by laying prostrated on
her
feet. When her
father had
to do it like wise, she
felt it very delicate and thought of some means to evade
it. Accordingly,
she
put
a Vaishnava
written by Madhavadev, on a raised
father
eased
laid
her
prostrate
filial
before
conscience
it
and
text, Ratnawali,
tray before her. The
and
thereby
satisfied
the
queen
her
royal
K
w
^86
husband.
85. Sukumar Mahanta Assam Buranji intro. P,xxi
86. S.K. Bhuyan, Studies in the History of Assam, Gauhati,
1965,P,.196
(270)
Despite
women
all
this,
it cannot
be asserted
that
in general were treated as equal with men in the
Vaishnava order. The apostles of Sankardeva were somewhat
reserved
on
the point
of
treating
men
and
women on an
equal footing. Some later apostles went a step further and
treated women as inferior to men. This is more propounded
in
the
Borpeta
Kirtan
Ghar.
There
women
are
still
prohibited entrance to the prayer hall. They cannot have a
look at the Satra deity and are to. witness the religious
recitals performed
there from outside.
humiliation
which
the
Assamese
v/omen
till
tolerating.
But,
as
stated,
women
of
intelligence
overcame
beliefs
rites
and
the obstacles
and
also
by
This is really a
talent
placed
social
today
by
are
and
religious
institutions
and
contributed their share to the progress and prosperity of
the country.
Religious
Institutions
religious
intitutions
like
In
medieval
Assam
temples, namghars
there
and
were
sat ras
where people could meet for prayer or worship. Before the
Sat ras and the Namghars were set up by Sankardeva and his
apostles, only
the temples
served as places of worship.
Even after the establishment of these institutions temples
87. It
is
believed
that
once
Mathura
Das' wi f e, v/hile
cleansing the Kirtanghar, had her monthly courses and
thenceforth women are not allowed to enter to it.
M. Neog,(Edi Pabitra Asam, Gauhati 1991, P. 259.
See
(271)
dedicated to Siva, Durga, and Vishnu continued to be built
mainly by the Ahom kings.
Temples - The
temples of Ha jo, Kamakhya, Dubi, Umananda,
Biswanath, Dergaon, Numaligarh
Sibsagar
still
town
which
reflecting
society
of
ruined
or
the
were
the
built
religions
period. Of
lying
in
including
these
those of modern
in medieval
life
of
times
the
are
Assamese
temples many have been
dilapidated
conditions,
while
fortunately some are yet in existence. One Biswanath Siva
temple
at
considered
hill
at
remains
Tezpur
was
by
Brahmaputra
which
was
to be anterior to the Ahom period. On a small
Negheriting
of
eroded
a
of
temple of
Dergaon, under
the
same
Golaghat
epoch
is
district
found.
Later
during the Ahom period, a new/ Siva temple was built on the
same
site. In Numaligarh, under Golaghat
ruins
of
a
temple
are
found
on
district, some
Deoparbat
Deogarhporbat . Near it, a Siva temple was built
during
Siva
possibly
the Ahom period where people are paying homage to
even
erected
Rudra
or
today.
a Siva
Singha
Ahom
king
temple on
Gadadhar
the Umananda
(1697-1714 A.D)
Singha [ 1B81-96-A.D)
of Gauhati. King
also built
Siva
temple on
the banks of the Joysagar Tank near Sibsagar. The queens
of Siva Singha (1914-1944 A.D") built temples on the side of
Gaurisagar and Sibsagar tank which were dedicated to Lord
(272)
Siva.
Rudreswar
Pramatta
Siva
Singha
Manikarneswara
and
temple
of
Gauhati
(1744-51A.D) .
and
Vaisisthasrama
was
the
were
built
by
temples
of
built
by
king
Rajeswar Singha (1751-69^A.D)
Of
the other
temples, mention may be made of
Aswakranta, Dergheswari, Haygriva
Ganesa,
Gookarna,.
Jalpeswar,
Kameswar,
Bireswar,
Madhava, Kedar Temple,
Tukreswar,
Narasingha,
Sri
Joganath,
Surya,
Bagheswari,
Urbasi, Agastya, Gonemar.Bhugeswar, Siddeswar, Gopeswar,
Kalikapith,
Ugratara,
Mangalchandi,
Nabagraha,
Pingaleswar, Kurmamadhav, Dipteswar, Maheswar, Dharmeswari
^ 88
etc.
Namghar/.- The namghar
within
a
together
and
village \or
to
where
the
to offer prayers and to discuss
cultural
point
Sat ra
is a central
matters. The
the
constructed
east
and
ends
of
the west. On
at perpendiculars
this
institute
inhabitants
get
socio-religious
hall
generally
its eastern
to it, another
end
small
is
hall
whose length roughly equals the breadth of the prayerhall.
89
This small hall is generally known as manikut.
88. Ramdhenu , Sak, 1872, 3rd year 9th issue, B.Handique
'I
1
Asamat Devotar SthanbilakJ P. 666
89. M. Neog, Sankardeva and His Times, P 314
(273)
The namghar is a large open hall where devotees
can sit together to offer prayers and the manikut
sanctum where the thapana containing
is the
the religious texts
i.g. the Bhagawata the Kirtan and the namghosha are kept.
The meaning of
the
namghar,
precious
as
the term manikut
the
religious
pearls.
The
is a treasure house. In
texts
thapana
are
is
a
considered
richly
as
decorated
terraced platform made of wood where the sarais and lamp
stands of different si'zes are kept.
The original
open
hall
in
type of namghar
the middle
and
side
consists
aisles
with
a wide
rows of
wooden,posts. There is no hard and fast rule in regard to.
the size of the namghar and it is built depending upon the
capacity of the disciples. The namghar, of course, remains
open but it may consist of about three to five rooms.
the west
side of
the namghar
is
the righthand
taken
post, the second pair of
called
90
Laikhuta. It is generally kept wrapping with a red apron.
If any Sat radhikar
as
On
the main
post
which
is
(main preceptor of Sat ra) or Mahanta
attends anyfunction of the namghar he is offered a seat at
the base of the Laikhuta. The main hall of the namghar is
30. S. Raj guru, op.Cit =,,^p-t .264
(274)
placed on two rows of big sized wooden pillars, A Chhoghdr
is
also
constructed
in
small
size
on
particularly
the
opposite side of the manikut . This is used on the day of
the performance of Bhaona^.where the make up of the actors
are done. At the gate point of the namghar ^ a two roofed,
small hut
is erected known as Bat chora. Though it is not
possible
to date
the
exactly,
it
be
prominent
can
establishment
safely
of
namghar
surmised • that
namghar or kirtanghars
like
or
some
sat ra
of
the
those of Borpeta,
Dhekiakhowa at Kakojan (Jorhat) and Athktielia at Golaghat
were founded during Sankardeva's time.
/
Satras // Another
institution
created
by
the
(/
o
neo-vaishnavite movement
very prominent
people
is that of Sat ras which played a
role in the cultural
in medieval
times. Originally
life of the Assamese
the term Sat ra vms
used in the sense of sacrifice. But in the neo-vaishnavite
period
the word lost its original meaning and came to be
used
in the sense of a religious association or sitting
91
where recitation of the Bhagavata Purana took place daily.
Vaikuntha Natha Bhattadeva
in his Saranamalika gives the
definition of a Sat ra basing
upon the stage of his days
in Assam 'where the sole devotees of the Lord perform pure
91. S. Raj guru, Op . c i t •. , p~ 26 7
(275)
religious
rites,
prevails day
where
ninefold devotionoa to the Lord
92
in and day out
. As the sat ras played the
part of well organised religious institutions, Vaishnavite
preachers established hundreds of Sat ras in various places
of Assam. On the basis of the Vaishnavite tradition, king
Rudra
Singha
(1696-1744
A.D)
recognised
several
hundred
Sat ras
throughout
Jiis
kingdom
along
with
various
93
officials
. Tlie Ahom kings during theiT rule had also donated
rent
free
lands
to
various
sat ras.
In
fact,
the
four
prominent Satras of Auniati, Dakhinpat, Garamur, Kuruabahi
which
had
Brahmin
pontiffs
were
founded
by
the
Ahom
kings 94
Sankardeva did not establish any Satra
himself
95
, it
was
done by his chief apostle Madhavadeva himself. Sankardeva's
central
religious
place
was
known
as
Barpeta
Than
and
there, in the year 1573 A.D, a satra was established there
by Madhavadeva. By the way, twelve disciples of Madhavadeva
established twelve
other
sat ras
in
different
places,
Harideva, another disciple of Sankardeva, was also one
of
92. M. Neog, Religions of the North East India, p. 145
93. S.N. Sarma, A Socio^. Economic
Medieval Assam p. 104.
94. H. Barbarua, op .cit . , p. 510
95. Ibid.
and cultural History of
(276;
the pioneers who largely contributed
Satra
institution.
places
of
Through
religious
his
to the growth of the
consistent
activities
were
efforts
turned
into
According to Charit puthi , the first satra.-
many
Satras.
at Bahari vil-
lage in the present district of Borpeta was established
by Harideva
were
. After this,Maneri, Jagara, Baniakuchi, etc
established
in
the
then Koch kingdom.
time, numerous satras
were
different parts of Assam
97'.
'-.
In
parties
the
sat ra
constitute
a
set
up
by
his
institution
community
In course of
disciples
four
among
in
principal
themselves.
They
I.
were the-[l)Sat radhikar who
deka satradhikar who
Bhakatas
satra
(4)
e.g.
the
the
is
^is
the
devotees
Sisyas
the
or
head
of
junior
who
and
and
with
four
four
gateways
rows of huts
at
called
four
(2)
(3)
The
of
remain
the
in
the
Adhikars
who
resided in their own houses. A satra campus had
wall
Satra
.adhikar
work
disciples
the
sides
enclosure
called
chari hati.
99-
At
9B
karapat.
the
centre
•a-
remains the namghar and to its east remains the manikut.
Prominent of the non-brahmin satras were those
of
Bardowa,
Belguri,
9b'.G .B .Goswami ,'Sri
Hari
Gangmau,
kamalabari,
Deva
the
and
Reform
Borjoha,
Movements'
Sentinel, 24th May 1990.
97'. G.B. Goswami, Loc. cit.
9 8-. M. Neog, Religions of the North East
99'i.. S. Raj guru , op. pit,; p 27 2.
India, p 143
Barpeta,
Patbausi,
Ganakuchi , Kumarkuchi,
Sundaridiya,
Befiia, Madnupur, Baikunthapur etc. At tne intitiative of
Gopaldeva
of • Bhawanipur
twelve
satras
were
first
established
at upper Assam, six of them having Brahmin
Pontiffs and
the other six having non brahmin pontiffs;
Among
these
Satras
six non-Brahmin
were most
satras.Mayamara
important.
and Dihing
Anirudhadeva, disciple of
Gopaldeva, founded, the Mayamara sat ra in 1611 A.D. which
played
a very
leading
to
prominent
the
role
Moamaria
in
the politics of Assam
rebellion,
which
paved
the
downfall of the Ahom kingdom. Of the Brahmin satras, most
noted were those of Mahara, DaKhinpat, Auniati, Garamur
100
and Kuruabahi' . Originally the Barpeta Satra was the
main Sa t ra and
lit
it has its fame even today. An oil lamp
by Madhavadeva
himself
is still
lighting
and
this
bont1
(lamp) is called today the Akhay bonti (lamp
101
eternal) . Likewise hundreds of satras and thans were
set up during the medieval period and these institutions
played a very vital role in forming
a greater Assamese
society.
The Sat ras were not only places of religious
congegration,
100. B.
they
were
Handique, Asamat
also
centres
Devotar
Sthan
of
learning
and
Bilak,^ Ramdhenu^
Puh. 1872 Saka, p,666.
101. A.C. Hazarika,
100.
Ushabar
Rangchora , Shi 1 long
196 3 , P.
M-278)
"•If,
education. The bhakats residing
there, got
from
the gurus on the religions
the
theological
discussions,
instructions
texts, participated
mastered
as
actors
in
of
bhaonas (theatrical performances on religious themes) and
learnt different arts and crafts. It was thus the Satras.
which moulded the cultural life of the Hinduised Assamese
society
in medieval
times. To quote Dr. S.N. Sarma
'In
short, the cultural history of Assam in respect of fine
arts
and
crafts
literature
and
sixteenth
century
of
fine
education
arts
since
till
the
and
learning
and
of
the
beginning
of
the
advent
of
the
British
developed centering round the Vaishnava movement which in
'102
turn found expression through the satra institution'
Pan Indian Culture Continuum -
Till
the
rise
of the neo-Vaishnavite movement in the early part of the
16th
century
Assamese
Hinduisation
society
was
Vaishnava
reformers
performed
at
the
or
somewhat
Sanskritization
limited.
through whose efforts
grass
root
level,
The
It
the
of
the
were
the
task was
contemporary
Hinduised Indian society was then regulated mainly by the
codes of the Manu Samhita. The Hinduised Assamese society
of the period also was naturally influenced by the codes
of the same text as its Indian counterpart.
102.
S.N. Sarma, The Neo Vaisnavite movement
satra Institution of Assam, p 17 9.
and
the
(^79;
According
to Manu
'Women should not be given
independence and they must be kept
and night
adheres
by
to
the males of
the
in subordination day
family
the doctrine of women's
. Although
inseperabi1ity
he
with
men in religious matters, he assigns a decidedly inferior
place
to
women. ,He
oblations
hymns
be
to
the
forbids
fire
women
but
also
not
to
only
recite
to
offer
the
vedic
104
-. He asserts 'no sacrifice, no vow, no fast must
observed
by
women
apart
from
husbands 105
their
Gautama also supports Manu by laying down that
is not independant
sacred
all
law
those
of
with regard to the fulfilment of 'the
. Yajnavalkya
the religious
'a wife
rites-'in
marriage
must
be
too is of
the opinion that
the case of
a woman except
carried
in
out
silence 107
Sukra, a renowned writer of post epic age, holds women to
be
inherently
attributes
weak
the
'falsehood,
and
instinctly
following
inconsistency,
eight
and
Mahabharata,
vices
deceit,
impurity, cruelity and insolence'
Ramayana
given
were
to
vice.
to
women
stupidity,
He
greed,
. Even the epics, the
disgraceful
of
women.
lOd. Manu Samhita, IX - 2, Cf. Indra, Status of Women in
India , p^ 31
104. Ibid, 11-66, IX-96, Gf, Indra, Op.Git., p. 126
105.. Ibid. V 15 5
106. Gautama, XVIII-I, Cf Indra, oprcit, p 126
107. Cf Indra, cp. cit, p 127
108. Sukra 111^183, 6f
Indra, op.cit, p 16
(280)
Thus records a passage in the Mahabharata. 'There is nothing
that xs more sinful
roots of all evils
it speaks
than women. Verily the women are the
. Again through the mouth of Bhisma,
'woman is the burning
fire. She is the illusion
that Daitya Maya has created. She is the
sharp
the razor. She is fire. She is verily all
edge
these
in
of
a
ilo
body'
. The Ramayana too makes similar observation
'The
faces of women are like flowers, their words are like the
drops
of
honey
and
hearts
are
like
sharp
interior of them no one can know.'Again,
whom
a
woman
sincerely
loves.
purpose, does not hesitate
Illchildren and bro'thers'
Such
attitude
heroes had greatly affected
to
of
She,
kill
the
law
razor,
'there
for
even
is
none
serving
her
givers
the
her
husband,
and
epic
the status of women in Indian
society. The marriageable age was lowered. Further she was
debarred
from
taking
vedic
education.
She
was
thus
reduced to the status of a Sudra. As she could be married
when
she
was a child she could not demand anequal position
her husband. The Smri tis,
109. Mahabharata
Anushasan
therefore, advocated
Parva,
38,12,25,29
with
that
Cf
'the
Indra,
op., cit, p. 12
110 . Ibid 43-22, Cf Indra, op. cit p, 13
111. Bhagavata
Skandha, V 1-41, 42 S IX, 14-36 Cf, Indra
0 p.> c i t , p 15
(281)
husband was the wife's god and her only' duty was to obey
and serve him.^^'^
Adultery on the part of the husband
became more common owing to the custom of child marriage.
But whatever his faults were, he was to be worshipped as
god by his wife, whereas slightest unfaithfulness on the
part
of
a wife
declared
was
'though
to be
severely
unobservant
of
punished.
approved
Thus
usage
he
or
enamoured of another woman or devoid of good qualities,
yet
a husband must
certainly be revered
wife' 113 . Manu
virtuous
has
as a god by a
authorised
a
husband
to
inflict corporal punishment on his wife if she refused to
obey him. With a view to guarding and controlling woman,
Manu had declared
the
collection
everything
in
the
'the husband should employ his wife in
and
expenditure
of
wealth,
in
keeping
clean in the fulfilment of religious duties,
of his food and looking after the
household utensils' 114 . It is true that Manu had declared
'woman
preparation
should
be
kept
in
comfort
and
happiness
and
virtues of them should be highly honoured but his general
attitude towards women was one of the respectful distrust
and reverent disbelief' 115
112.
A.S.
Altekar.The
position
113.
Civilization p. 355.
Manu
Samhita,V-154.also
of
Woman
Gautama
op-ci t, p. 37.
114'. Ibid IX-II Cf Indra, op-cit , p. 33.
115. Ibid III - 51, Cf Indra op cit, p. 39.
in
Hindu
XVIII-2,
of
U82)
To
quoto
Indra, 'He
(Manu)
most
certainly
treated them as caged birds in the household and regarded
them as unworthy of sharing the serious responsibilities
of men. In his opinion women were ornaments of the house,
who were to be safe and looked after with utmost care and
vigilance. The only
were
confined
duties
to the
that
they
four walls of
had
to
discharge
the house. Even in
this limited sphere woman was not an absolute mistresis,
as she
certainly
was
in
the vedic
times, but
a mere
dependent, always subordinate to the male members of the
family
- .
The
impact
of Manu' s code was very wide and
far reaching in the Indian society. It exists even today.
The upper stratum of the Assamese society had also come
under
the
impact
influence
on
earlier
the
of
the Manu
commonality.
chapter
that
It
child
Samhita
has
been
marriage
which had
its
stated
the
came
in
into
vogue
amongst the Brahmins, which practice existed among them,
till recent
by
them.
times. Widow re-marriage was also discarded
Certain
Hinduised
tribes
like
the
Koches
imitating the upper class Hindus had also practised child
marriage
and
discarded
widow
remarriage. Although
such
practices did never become popular,husbands in Assam too
116. Cf Indra, op-cit , pp. 39 ff
[28i)
asserted
their superiority
restrict
the
freedom
raischievious and
over
of
ficklemin^ed
the wives and
tried to
women
portraying
them
. Thds
is
from
gleaned
certain proverbs running as follows :
'hajaro lao dangar hok
tathapi patar tal
meaning whatever
large a gaurd be, it is always covered
by leaves (gaurd here symbblises vi/ife and leaves a husband)
or
_
^
' tirimiri bhatau koa
ei chari j"atir asai -napoa'
meaning
a woman, a middle man, a parrot
and a crow are
not reliable. Besides the aphorisms of Dak had restricted
woman's
free movement
and encouraged early marriage and
subordinate status of women to men. One colophon from Dak
states that
the downfall of those families are sure who
keep grown up girls in their homes. At another place, he
discourages
remarriage
of
a widow having
a male
child
which is reproduced as follows :
' Dskar bachan vedar pani
polongS boari gharalai nani
toko banche, muko banche
bhel bh"al khini putekaloi sanche
meaning, Regard
the saying of Dak as injuctions of the
Vedas, never admit a woman with a son as a wife into your
(284)
house. She will deceive both you and me and reserve all
that is best for her son 117 . Again
'Ji Nari b"ariya karay b"at
Yuvati hai behai hat
Jalake pai talake jai
_ \
Pake bole talk nidiba" thai, ' which means that
Dak
advises
never
to
give
shelter
to
that
woman
who
allows a passage through her compound and goes to market
though young and who moves about at her sweet will 11^
Husbands claiming superiority over wives often
treated
them
as
slaves and did not
them,
thinking
claim
equal
status
early
part
of
observation on
humiliating
that
the
if
they
with
19th
that
(Assam) subject, cannot
so,
century,
together
the
them. Robinson
this aspect
than
did
dine
made
wives
writing
the
with
would
in the
following
'A state of dependence more
to which
the weaker
sex
is here
easily be conceived. Like most
women of India, they are denied even the least portion of
education and are excluded from every social circle. They
are even accounted unworthy to partake of religious rites
except in conjunction with their husbands and hence that
remarkatole proof of barbarity, the wife held unworthy to
11.7.i„ D.
Neog,
New
light
on
the
History
Literature, .Gauhati, 1962, p. 79
118. Ibid, p. 77,
of
Asamiya
-'U85)
eat
with
her
husband
is
also
prevalent. The woman
fact, are in ali respect held in extreme degradation
in
-.
Lakhinath Bezbarua, a reputed literary figure
of Assam, who was also the editor of the famous journal^
Jonaki, which played a very important' role in the growth
of the nationalist ideas in Assam during the days of the
freedom struggle, has portrayed
in his well known short
story Bhadori^.how an arrogant and dominant husband often
treated his wife with inhuman cruelty. Bhadari could not
serve meal to her husband, an ordinary peasant, in. time
for not having kitchen fuel. At this he struck her on her
back with a kitchen knife, that was used by Bhadari to
cut
fishes and meat
and as a result Bhadari had
to be
hospitalised
Ideal of Womanhood -
All this shows that cha-
stity and devotion to husband were considered as supreme
ideals of womanhood in Assam as elsewhere in India. This
was true not only of the Hindu families but also of some
of
their
tribal
counterparts. At
the time of marriage.
119. W. Robinson, op. cit, p. 274
120 .L.N.Bezbarua.Sadhu Kathar Kuki . Gaahati, 1972, p. 1417, Bezbarua Granthawaii, voli Ii Sahitya Prakash,
Gauhati 1988, p. 644.
(286)
the bride was asked
and not
to be fully devoted
to her husband
to do anything that displeased him. In the Ahom
marriage too, the bride was asked to respect her husband
like a god and take care of him more than her own. Some
Vaishnava
reformers
too advised
the womenfolk
to treat •
their husbands as gods. Thus it is learnt from Katha-Guruchari t a that Madhavadeva
address
and
treat
her
suggested
husband
Sankardeva's wife to
as
'Gosain'
meaning
a
God 121 . At the time of initiation, a Vaishnava woman was
instructed
husband
by
the
preceptor
every morning
the Ahom
royal
to
considering
circles
bow
her
head
him a living
too, the wives
their .consorts as Bangahardeota meaning
were
to
her-*
god. In
to address
'the god of the
family'. In the non "Hinduised tribal families, of course,
such ideal of subordination of a wife to her husband was
not there. They were to consider each other as equal and
life
long
friends
and
procreate
and
work
together
for
material happiness of the family.
The
the nobility
ideal
of
supreme devotion
circle was exhibited
to husband
in
by princess Jaymati,
the wife of the king Godadhar Singha (1682-1696AD)and the
mother
of
the greatest
Ahom king Rudra Singha
( 1696-
1714AD).She is still adored as a mahasat i meaning a great
12T . Katha-Guru-Charita, p.88
[2m)
chaste woman and her death anniversary is still performed
in the early part of the March every year throughout the
Brahmaputra valley as Jaymati Utsab. During the period of
ministerial
supremacy
three
successive
power
were
(1669-aiA6)in
powerful
killing
or
the Ahom
ministers
rule, when
becoming
mutiliating
the
mad
Ahom
after
princes,
Godapani, whose father, Gobar had once been a king for a
few days during that very period had to conceal himself.
Unable to find out his whereabouts, the king ordered that
his
wife
Jaymati
should
be
brought
interrogated. This was done^but
to
Jaymati
the
court
refused
and
to say
anything about her husband. At this, she was ordered to
inflict " punishment.
The kali
Bharat
Buranji
of
Dutiram
Hazarika
which is the only source dealing in details about Jaymati
informs
us
punishment
year
old
Jaymati
that
which
she
was
she had
daughter
killed
then
pregnant
and
the
first
three
to bear
was
to get her
before
her
own
remained unmoved, she was tortured
eyes 122
' . But
mercilessly.
The source further informs us that when the sad news fell
into
the
ears of
Godapani, he made
a visit
to her
in
disguise. But Jaymati recognised him and indicated him to
leave
that
place.
Finally,
122, S.K. Bhuyan, ( ed.) Asamar
pp. 13ff
'
after
sustaining
inhuman
Padya Buranj i i Gauhat i ,1964
~~ '
^^288)
corporal
field,
punishment
for
she breathed
her
fourteen
last
days
in
the
. The date and
Jerenga
the place
of her death has been given in a buranj i, a transcript of
which
was
obtained
by
Dr
Lila
Gogoi.
The
date
of
Jaymati's demise is given there as 13th Chaitra,Thursday,
Saka
leOl''"^ ,
Contemporary
states
not
his
eventually
mentioned
in
sources
that
brought
corresponding
29/30
pregnant
tortured
March
wife
for
to death
125
there
Buranji,
had
been
A.D.
simply
at home, the kings' men
interrogation
. As
the
a
who
incident
in the Ahom Buranj i and her name
chronicle,
1679
like the Tungkhungia Buranji
finding Godapani
Tungkhungia
rooarj^jj^_a
to
some
doubts
in
is not
is not
contemporary
was
given
official
some
circles
thp h i q t p r 1 c 11V of J 8 vma t j . However, 'it was the
Buranji \recovered
by
removes
suspicions.
all
these
L.
Gogoi,
It
mentioned
also
above,
which
gives her name as
well as the date of her death.
There
as
Jaymati.
excavated
Her
is another
eldest
evidence
son
to support her name
Lai,alias
Rudra
Singha,
the Jaysagar tank on the place where his mother
123 . I b i d
1Z4. Manuscript recovered by Dr, Lila Gogoi in Jhanji
No. 84
12 5 . T u n g k h u n g i a B u r a n j i p . 15
area,folio
(289]
was tortured
bank
to death and constructed
. Usually
temples
were dedicated
some gods and
goddess but
Jaydol
completely
tank
it
as
was
Jaysagar
and
the Jaydal on its
in the name of
in the case of Jaysagar and
the reverse. The name of
the
temple
as
Jaydol
the
clearly
indicates that Rudra Singha's mother's name was Jaymoti.
Jaymoti
is
highly
adored
in Assamese
society
for
her
chastity and self sacrifice, which saved the country from
internal
turmoil
and
led
to
the
accession
of
the
Tungkhungia line of kings, under whom the Ahom power rose
to its zeni th.
Sadhani, the queen of the Chutiyas, had also
exhibited
another
patriotism.
splendid
Sadhani
was
example
the
only
of
chastity
child
of
and
king
Dhi^rnarayan alias Dharmadhaj Pal (c 1500-20AD).Her father
not finding a suitable groom for her organised an archery
contest
honouring
in
which
her
a
cowherd^ named
father's
word,
Nitai
married
won^
Sadhani,
Nitai,
who
subsequently ascended the Chutiya throne taking the name
Nit.i' Pal. His lack of administrative knowledge and skill
encouraged the Ahoms to lead an expedition to the Chutiya
kingdom during the days of Suhungmung, the Dihingia Raja
126. H. Barbarua, Op. cit p<.235
(290).
in 1523 A.D. Being defeated
the Chu t iya king sued for peace
but
would not
the victorious overlord
agree unless
the
queen and the family heirlooms of the Chutiyas consisting
of a gold cat and a gold umbrella
gifted
to them by Kubera, the lord of the wealth, were
surrendered. —Sadhani " was
led
to
, said to have been
the
resumption
of
- prepared i for none
war. When
the Ahom
which
soldiers
climbed up the hi 1 l.^Chandagiri , where Sadhani and Nitipal
were
taking
shelter
and
wherefrom
they
were
killing
a
number of Ahom soldiers by throwing stones and were about
to catch hold of
them, Sadhani
for the fear of getting
herself fallen into the hands of the enemy and partaking
with her
family heirloom,
committed
into the ground from the top of
A ballad
called
suicide by
the hill
Mainamatir
jumping
12R
geet
relates
the
story of unfortunate but devoted wife called Mainamati.
She was the seniormost of the hundred and eighty wives of
her husband, king Manik Chandra, who being bored of her
husband's
licentiousness
left
the
home
and
made
her
separate establishments. But when her husband's rule was
12,7 . Deodhai Asam Buranji , p. 200
12'8. Ibid, p 200
(291)
cut short at the 'gfurse of the providence and misfortune
tjefell him, she came back to his side and moved heaven
and earth for his welfare 129 .
,
Such emphasis on chastity
in the upper clas's
homes had some impact .on the commonality. The Vaishnava
reformers
being
families
the
stressed
evidenced
by
ardent
on
the
the
story
supporters
chastity
of
of
'Radhlka
woman, whose chastity was publicly
of
patriarchal
women.
This
is
Sant1 ' , a Kaivarta
tested by Sankardeva
which had been discussed earlier in this chapter.
Tegiprie Women : Devadasl-
The institution of
devada|j^^<5r temple women in A s s ^ has a remote antiquity.
In south
said
India also, this institution prevailed. It is
that
some parents
while propitating
to get
their desires
fulfilled
gods pledged to dedicate one of their
daughters for the service of the temple deity. The girl
could
not
votaries
marry
could
gave birth
but
have
to any
the
temple
sexual
priest
relations
child, he was
and
some
with her.
taken
other
If
she
care of by her
father. The devadasis in Assam were usually called nat is
or
temple
attached
dancers.
to
them
The
noted
were
of
12Q . D. Neog, op. cit . pPi9 3 ff
temples
which
Negheriting,
had
Singari
nat is
and
(29,Z.]
Rangpur, Pari Hareswala
temple of D o b i a n d
the
Haygriva
Madhat^a t emple at Hajo. Besides^ there were centres in some
villages
music
royal
where girls were
for
occasionally
palaces. Of
Chinatali,
of
even
performing
and
them
Dergaon.
in dance and
in
temples
may be made of
Initially
the
temple
composed
accomplished
songs
called
and
beautiful. Some of
Nati
Nachar
git
130
Raj a Phuleswari, of Kalugaon was a"dancer attached
,Siva
temple
and
looked with contempt by the society. Some
them were highly
them
training
such villages, mention
Kalugaon
girls were not
imparted
at
Neghriting
who
was
very
. Bar
to the
proficient
in
dance and music.
Intitialiy the temple girls led celebale
dedicating
gradually
got
their body
corruption
converted
into
and
soul
crept
a sort
to
into
of
lives
the temple deity. But
the
temple
institution
and
prostitution.
As
it
a
result, people also lost their regard to the institution.
Late Rajani Kanta Bordoloi in his book Rahdai Ligiri has given
a description
of
devadasi
130.
P.
of
or
this moral degration
nat is
Chaliha,
Edited
and
Board, Deptt
131
. William
"Asamar
Nritya
published
by
in the
institution
Robinson
too,
relating
Kala",
Asam
Gaurav,
Asam
Gaurav
editorial
of Assamese Cotton College, 1978, p.
401
131. R.K.
Bordoloi,
121. p.p
Rahdai
Ligiri.
Gauhati,
1973,
p
(293)
the worship in the Kamakhya
performance
of
the
temple describes, in brief,
female
temple
dancer
and
the
degradation that has set into the practice. To quote his
words, "During the daily ceremonies of worship performed
before the image, the spectators are very few, and these
led no interest whatever in the mummery giving foreward.
Were it not for those who come to pay a visit of ceremony
to the image, and to present their offerings, the temple
would be as little crowded on festival as on common days,
but as soon as the well knovm sound of the drum is heard,
calling the people to mid-night orgies, the dance and the
song, whole multitude
dense.
The
women
assemble,
employed
to
and
dance
occasiojn.. are those consecrated
the
crowd
and
sing
becomes
on
these
to the temples of whom,
it is reputed there are no less than five hundred. Their
presence,
together' with
their
filthy
songs
obscene dances form the chief attractions'
existed
great
disparity
Hinduism which honoured
goddess
not
only
of
prosperity,
condemned
between
ideal
learning
her as the source of
more
. Thus there
and
woman as a mother
wealth,
and
practice.
goddess or a
and
the
like
all evils but
also exDioited her under the banner of religion.
System of Sati society,
IX
contemporary
particularly of north India, much emphasis
132. W. Robinson, op. cit; p 258
Indian
was
(294)
laid
on
forced
chastity
to
burn
and
a woman
herself
on
was
the
encouraged
funeral
and
pyre
of
even
her
husband. Although national thinkers raised their voice of
protest against it, ascetic ideals were gaining the upper
hand in society and a widow performing Sat i was extolled
as the most glorious examples of supreme self sacrifice.
It v,/as held
that a woman performing
sat i would
recover
her husband from all sins and raise him to heaven to live
in
eternal
union
with
his
wife
13-3
' . It
was
for
such
extollation that the practice of Sa t i which v;as initially
prevalent
among
the
fighting
classes
became
popular
amongst the Brahmin widows and also among those belonging
to other castes
13$
. In case of the death of the kings and
nobles, several women used to ascend their funeral pyre.
Thus
when Raja Ajit
Singh
of Marwar
died
in 1724, 64
women performed Satis, Again when two rulers of the Nayaka
family of Madura died in 1611 and 162b as many as 400 and
700 women were said to have performed sati. These numbers
may be exaggerated
ones, but
it is a fact
that a large
136
number ascended the funeral pyre of their husbands
133. op. cit. p 125
134. 'In Mahakosala, the sati stones near Saugar show
that widow belonging to weaver, barber and mason
classes were often becoming satis during 1500-1800
A.D' Cf. Altekar, op. cit, p,130
135. Altekar, op. cit, p 131
(295)
The
from
700
highly
custom of
A.D
when
extolled
ascend
the
law
sati became very popular
givers
like
Angira
and
it. Later, often widows were
funeral
pyre
of
their
husbands.
only
Harita
forced to
Medieval
travellers like Mannuci tells us that khatriya women were
burnt
against
their, wishes
and he himself had
rescueda
one such woman, who was eventually married to one of his
European
friends.
. Nicoloconti
gives us
the
economic
reason behind the forced practice of the custom that the
woman would
lose her right
to St ridhana, if she decided
to survive. On the other hand, there were numerous cases
of voluntary performance of the custom which helped
its
long survival.
Although the practice was widely prevalent in
Bengal
till
it
could
be
abolished
by
the
efforts of social reformers and humanists
Mohan
Roy and
Iswar Chandra
with British administrators
Vidyasagar
in
strenuous
like Raja Ram
co-operation
like Lord William Bentinck,
it could not gain any ground in Assam. There is only one
instance of the performance of sati and that was done by
a
concubine
of
king
Bhaskarvarman
the reference
137
appears in a literary work of south India
. In a like
136 . Ibid p 135
13?. P.C, Choudhury, op. cit, p. 324
and
(296)
way, in
the
reference
entire medieval
to
period
the
practice
13 8
mother
. The
Sankardeva's
of
we have
Sat i
Yogini
a solitary
performed
Tantra,
century
religious work, enjoins self immolation
Brahmin
widows
women
too
devotion
if
permits
to
they voluntered
their
husbands.
the Vaishnava
to do
He
16th
for the
and
Sudra
it, out of extreme
for the
unchaste woman and for those having many children 139 . But
we
to
and
a
by
prohibits
it
have no source to show that it was ever performed by
any other woman except Sankardeva's mother. The instance,
\
therefore, is an exception and not a rule.
The
causes
for
the
non
prevalence
of
the
custom are to be found in the socio-economic organization
of
medieval
Assam.
As
stated
dynasties of Assam and northeast
earlier,
the
ruling
were tribal. In tribal
societies, there is no restriction for widow remarriage.
Even in royal circles, kings used to marry the wives of
the
deceased
Kuranganayani,
monarchs.
the
It
daughter
is
of
on
the
record
that
Manipuri
king,
Jaysing, who was married
to the Ahom Swargadeo
Singha
was
(17 51-17 6 0
A.B)
accepted
as
wife
Rajeswar
by
his
138. K.atha-Guru-Charita, p.31
139. Yogini
Tantra
Chapter-V, VV
302-308, B.K. Kakati,
Purani Kamrupar Dharmar Dhara, pp.80 ff
(297)
brother • Lakshmi
Singha
(1769-1780
A.D)
and
later
Raghab, the Barbarua, of the Moamaria regime
history
of
the
Chandraprabha
modern
who
at
Cachar
too,
the death
of
we
know
by
. In the
of
queen
her husband , Krishna
Chandra
was taken as wife by his brother Raja Govinda
141
Chandra
. When widow remarriage was practised in royal
circles,
it
further
strengthened
and
popularised
the
practice among the commonality.
Besides this social attitude, there were also
economic reasons for which sat i could never gain ground
in Assam. In Assam there was no system of dowry among the
common
people
and
therefore
the
question
of
taking
1
possession of her dowry or st ridhan by.killing her in the
name of ideology giving
it a "religious sanctity did not
arise. Moreover, Assamese women were comparatively more
self dependent
than her fellow sisters in other parts of
India. Her proficiency in weaving gave her an occupation
with
which
family.
she
There
could
was
also
maintain
no
herself
restriction
and
also
in movement
the
of
women. Thus a widow could persue a small trade like that
140. Tungkhugia Buranji, pp 55, 7 0
141. The Dimachas however alleged that the marriage was
not according to Gooda boo rites and the orthodox
Hindus, particularly Begalees, condemned the union
of Chandraprabha with her husband's brother and the
widow
remarriage was not recognised by Hindu
ethics' J.B. Bhattacharjee, Cachar under the British
Rule in North East India, New Delhi, 1977, p 55
[298)
of selling arecanut, fish, vegetables, fuels etc and thus
eke
out
he'r
community
living.
feeling
Added
amongst
to
the
this,,
there
village
was
folk
strong
which
was
fostered both by community worship of Neo vaishnavism a'nd
the
organisation
of
the
village
militia
by
the
paiK
system of the Ahoms. Under this social atmosphere a widow
was
not
the
lonely
burden
of
a
single
family
but
a
collective responsibility of the whole village, so that a
lonely
widow
got
every help
and
co- operation
from the
members of the village. For all these reasons an Assamese
widow did not think of ascending the funeral pyre of her
husband to become a sat i .
'I* '1" V '^ '<* 'fi *(• V V 'p