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PP: 38 - 52
ISSN: 2348 - 8921
R. Paper 07/ Design: Experimental
Received on March’2015 - Reviewed on Aprl’2015
RELATIONSHIP OF ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS WITH
BATTING SKILL IN SOFTBALL AMONG MALE SOFTBALL PLAYERS
AUTHORS
*Dr. Sukhdev Singh
**Mandeep Singh
* Head and Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education (T), Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India.
** Research Scholar, Department of Physical Education (T), Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India.
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to ascertain relationship of anthropometric and body composition
characteristics with batting skill of softball among softball players. Total one hundred and fifty male softball
players, aged 18-30 years, from the various states and universities of India were selected to participate in
the study. Body weight of the subjects was measured with a portable weighing machine. Height
measurements were taken using the standard anthropometric rod. The circumferences of body parts were
measured with the help of flexible steel tape. The diameters of the body parts were assessed with the help of
sliding caliper. The skinfolds thicknesses of body parts of the subjects were taken with Harpenden skinfold
caliper. Percentage body fat as estimated from the sum of skinfolds was calculated using the standard
equations. The Karl Pearson’s product moment analysis was performed to assess the association (if any)
between the anthropometric and body composition parameters with the batting skill in the softball players.
The results of the correlation analysis revealed a significant association of weight (p=0.009), total arm
length (p=0.032) and the lower arm lengths (p=0.043) with the batting skill. The batting skill was also
observed to be significantly associated to upper arm circumference (p=0.004), forearm circumference
(p=0.004) and the chest circumference (p=0.011).The biacromion (p=0.003) and the bicondylar humerus
(p=0.004) diameters were also observed to be significantly associated to batting skill in softball players.
None of the skinfold thicknesses (biceps, triceps, subscapular, supra-iliac and calf) were observed to be
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significantly associated to batting skill. Among the body composition parameters only lean body mass
(p=0.001) was observed to be significantly associated to the batting skill in the softball players. The findings
of the present study are in concordance that the anthropometric variables have an indispensable role in
performance of the players in softball.
Keywords: Anthropometric Characteristics, Softball, Performance, Batting, Entail
INTRODUCTION
Softball is a bat and ball sport played between two teams with nine players from one team on the field at a
time. The game of softball entails throwing, fielding, pitching, catching, base-running and hitting (Craig et
al., 1985; American Academy of Pediatrics. 2012). To develop in these areas, many factors play a significant
role like skill, practice, level of physical activity, techniques, psychological traits, nutrition and other
environmental factors. However, a particular body size and shape and certain genetically conditioned
abilities and features are required in order to achieve top level performance in softball. Anthropometric
characteristics of an individual player are the most important factors that contribute to the competitive
success of a whole team. According to Maud and Foster (1995), anthropometry is the science that deals with
the measurement of size, weight and proportions of the human body, as body size and proportions, physique
and body composition are important factors in physical performance and fitness. Many studies have been
reported that success in sport competitions is associated with specific anthropometric characteristics, body
composition and somatotype (Bayios et al., 2006; Duncan et al. 2006; Hakkinen, 1993). An athlete’s
anthropometric characteristics represent important prerequisites for successful participation in any given
sport (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001). Indeed, it can be assumed that an athlete’s anthropometric
characteristics can in some way influence his/her level of performance, at the same time helping to determine
a suitable physique for a certain sport (Carter and Heath, 1990; Rienzi et al., 1999; Duncan et al.,2006).
Carter (1970) suggested that the basic anthropometric characteristics must be present to achieve success in
different sports. Parnell (1958) has also indicated that the choice of sportsmen for a particular event is largely
determined by the inborn characteristics. The other factors such as physical training and exercise can
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improve the performance up to a certain limit that is set up by his genotype (Bouchard and Malina, 1983).
There have been some reports on investigations on the relationships between anthropometric characteristics
and physical performance and sport performance. Chen (1999) examined the influence of anthropometric
characteristics and physical performance on the competition results and suggested that anthropometric
characteristics and physical performance are closely correlated to each other.
Apart from the considerations of body size, the constitutional make up of body composition
components are also important. Body composition is an important aspect of fitness (Reilly et al, 1990) and
can be predicted from anthropometric measures (Maud and Foster, 1995). Body composition of athletes is an
important tool to evaluate the health of the athlete, monitor the effects of a training program, and to
determine optimal competitive body weight and body composition (Prior et al, 2001). It is generally accepted
that a lower relative body fat is desirable for successful competition in most of the sports. This is because
excessive adipose tissue acts as a dead weight in activities where the body mass must be repeatedly lifted
against gravity during locomotion (Reilly, 1996; Mala et al., 2015), it slows down the performance and
increases the energy demands of the activity. In contrast, lean body mass contributes to power production
during high-intensity activity and provides a greater absolute size and strength for resistance with high
dynamic and static loads. Studies of body composition in certain sports such as football, weight lifting and
shot put indicated that athletes who were lean but heavy because of a well-developed musculature were
superior in performance in competitive sports activities (Bullen, 1971). The aim of present study, therefore,
is to study the relationship of anthropometric characteristics and body composition with the batting skill in
softball among the inter-university and national level male softball players.
METHODOLOGY
The subjects of the present study were purposively selected from the university level and national level male
softball players. 150 male softball players, aged 18 to 30 years, of different universities and states of India
were selected to participate in the study. The data for the study was collected during the 33rd Senior National
Softball Championship held at Anantpur District of Andhra Pradesh from 18th to 23rd January, 2012 and All
India Inter University Softball Championship held at Panjab University, Chandigarh in February 2012. Body
weight of the subjects was measured with a portable weighing machine to the nearest 0.5 kg. Height
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measurements were taken using the standard anthropometric rod to the nearest 0.5 cm (HG-72, Nexgen
ergonomics, Canada). Body mass index was then calculated using the formula weight (kg)/height2 (m). The
circumferences of body parts were measured with the help of flexible steel tape. The diameters of the body
parts were assessed with sliding caliper. The skinfolds thicknesses of body parts of the subjects were taken
with Harpenden skinfold caliper.
Body Composition
Percentage body fat as estimated from the sum of skinfolds was calculated using equations of Siri (1956) and
Durnin and Womersley (1974). The regression equations for the prediction of body density from the log of
the sum of skinfold thickness at four sites in mm are as following:
17 to 19 years age group
Body Density (gm/cc) = 1.1620-0.0630 (X)
20 to 29 years age group:
Body Density (gm/cc) = 1.1631-0.0632 (X)
Where X = log (biceps+triceps+Subscapular+suprailliac).
Percent Body Fat = [4.95/ body density-4.5] 100
(Siri, 1956)
Total Body Fat (kg) = (%body fat/100)  body mass (kg)
Lean Body Mass (kg) = body mass (kg) – total body fat (kg)
Batting Skill Test
Batting skill test of the players was assessed as given in the AAHPERD softball skill test battery edited by
Dr. Roberta Rikli (AAHPERD, 1991). This test item assesses power and placement in softball. Based on the
concurrent validity calculated from the relationship between test scores
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Fig. 1 Marking area for batting test.
and experts skill ratings, validity coefficient ranged from 0.54 to 0.85. Reliability coefficient was found to be
0.69 to 0.91 as calculated from the intra-class test-retest scores’ coefficient of correlation. For this test the
softball field was designed as shown in fig. 1. Three power zones were created at a distance of 60’, 180’ and
240’ away from the batting site. The softball was placed on a batting tee (adjustable to a proper height) and
the subject was required to hit the ball as long and as straight as possible. Each subject was given six trials.
The score to the batted ball was assigned as per the landing zones scores shown in the figure. The sum of the
six balls was the final score.
Statistical analysis:
Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 16.0 for windows (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL,
USA). The data was presented as descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, standard error of
mean, minimum value, maximum value. Karl Pearson’s product moment co-efficient of correlation was
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computed to assess the relationship between anthropometric characteristics and batting skill test of softball
among the softball players. Significance levels were set at p<0.05.
RESULTS
The descriptive data of the age, weight, height and body mass index of the softball players is presented in
table 1. The mean weight of the softball players was 65.62 kg, whereas, the standard deviation of weight was
8.35. The average height of the softball players was 173.49 cm with 6.12 of standard deviation. The average
body mass index of the players was observed to be 21.80 kg/m2 with a standard deviation of 2.62.
Table: 1 Descriptive statistics for age, weight, height and body mass index of the softball players.
Variables
N
Mean
SD
SEM
Minimum
Maximum
Value
Value
Height (cm)
150
173.49
6.12
0.50
155.00
187.00
Weight (kg)
150
65.62
8.35
0.68
47.00
89.00
Body Mass Index
150
21.80
2.62
0.21
16.90
31.91
2
(kg/m )
SD: standard deviation, SEM: standard error of mean
The data showing the descriptive statistics of the length measurements of the body parts of the softball
players is given in table 2. The average upper and the lower arm lengths were 31.65 and 45.78 with a
standard deviation of 1.80 and 2.10 respectively. The average upper and the lower leg lengths in players
were observed to 43.88 cm and 50.87cm with a standard deviation of 3.10 and 2.41.The average total arm
length was 77.44 cm with standard deviation being 2.99.The mean total leg length was 94.75 cm with a
standard deviation of 4.41.
Table: 2 Descriptive statistics of length measurements of body parts of the male softball players
Variables
N
Mean
SD
SEM
Minimum Maximum
Value
Value
Total Arm Length (cm)
150
77.44
2.99
0.24
68
85
Upper Arm Length (cm)
150
31.65
1.80
0.15
23
35
Lower Arm Length (cm)
150
45.78
2.10
0.17
40
57
Total Leg Length (cm)
150
94.75
4.41
0.36
84
105
Upper Leg Length (cm)
150
43.88
3.10
0.25
36
52
Lower Leg Length (cm)
150
50.87
2.41
0.19
44
57
SD: standard deviation, SEM: standard error of mean
Table: 3 Descriptive statistics of circumferences and diameters of various body parts of the male softball
players
Variables
N
Mean
SD
SEM
Minimum Maximum
Value
Value
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Upper Arm Circumference
150
25.99
2.84
0.23
20
34
(cm)
Forearm Circumference
150
24.43
2.21
0.18
20
30
(cm)
Chest Circumference (cm)
150
87.56
6.33
0.51
71
106
Thigh Circumference (cm)
150
53.60
4.36
0.35
39
61
Calf Circumference (cm)
150
33.30
2.52
0.21
27
42
Biacromion Diameter
150
41.66
2.03
0.16
38
47.9
(cm)
Bicondylar Humerus
150
6.62
0.35
0.03
5.6
7.6
Diameter (cm)
Wrist Diameter (cm)
150
5.41
0.27
0.02
4.8
6.2
Bicondylar Femur
150
9.73
0.46
0.04
8.4
10.8
Diameter (cm)
SD: standard deviation, SEM: standard error of mean
The descriptive statistics of circumferences and diameters of various body parts of the softball players is
presented in table 3. The upper arm circumference was observed to be 25.99 cm with a standard deviation of
2.84. The mean forearm circumference was observed to be 24.43 with a standard deviation of 2.21.The mean
chest and thigh circumferences were observed to be 87.56 cm and 53.60 cm with a standard deviation of 6.33
and 4.36 respectively. The average calf circumference was 33.30 cm with a standard deviation of 2.52. The
mean biacromion diameter was 41.66 cm with a standard deviation of 2.03. The average bicondylar humerus
diameter was observed to be 6.62 cm with a standard deviation of 0.35.The average wrist diameter of the
players 5.41 with a standard deviation of was 0.27. The mean bicondylar femur diameter was 9.73 with a
standard deviation of 0.46.
Table: 4 Descriptive statistics of skinfold thicknesses of body parts and components of the body composition
of softball players
Variables
N
Mean
SD
SEM
Minimum Maximum
Value
Value
Biceps (mm)
150
5.77
1.99
0.16
2
14
Triceps (mm)
150
10.69
3.70
0.30
3
27
Subscapular (mm)
150
13.85
5.56
0.45
5.5
36
Supra-iliac (mm)
150
13.72
6.28
0.51
3.5
39
Calf (mm)
150
10.28
3.24
0.26
4
22
Percent Body Fat (%)
150
16.55
4.66
0.38
4.21
28.77
Total Body Fat (kg)
150
11.09
4.03
0.32
2.07
23.88
Lean Body Mass (kg)
150
54.52
5.63
0.46
40.27
68.52
SD: standard deviation, SEM: standard error of mean
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Table 4 further presents the descriptive statistics of skinfold thickness of body parts as well as the
components of the body composition. The mean thickness of biceps skinfold was 5.77 mm with standard
deviation of 1.99. The triceps skinfold thickness was 10.69 mm with a standard deviation of 3.70. The mean
subscapular, supra-iliac and the calf skinfolds thicknesses of the players were observed to be 13.85 mm,
13.72 mm and 10.28 mm with standard deviations of 5.56, 6.28 and 3.24. The average percent body fat was
16.55 % with a standard deviation of 4.66. The average total body fat was observed to be 11.09 kg with a
standard deviation of 4.03. The mean lean body mass was observed to be 54.52 kg with a standard deviation
of 5.63.
Table: 5 Relationship between height, weight and body mass index with the batting skill of softball among
the softball players.
Variables
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Coefficient (r)
Height (cm)
150
0.124
0.129
Weight (kg)
150
0.213
0.009*
Body Mass Index (kg/m2)
150
0.157
0.055
* indicates p<0.05
The table 5 presents the correlation analysis of height, weight and body mass index with batting skill test of
softball among the inter-university and national level softball players. The results of correlation analysis
revealed a significant positive association of weight (r=0.213, p=0.009) with the batting skill. The height and
body mass index of softball players did not demonstrate significant association with the batting skill of
softball.
Table: 6 Relationship of the length measurements of body with the batting skill of softball among the softball
players.
Variables
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Coefficient (r)
Total Arm Length (cm)
150
0.175
0.032*
Upper Arm Length (cm)
150
0.098
0.233
Lower Arm Length (cm)
150
0.166
0.043*
Total Leg Length (cm)
150
0.081
0.325
Upper Leg Length (cm)
150
0.074
0.368
Lower Leg Length (cm)
150
0.052
0.523
* indicates p<0.05
The table 6 depicts correlation analysis of various length measurements of body parts with batting skill
among softball players. The results of correlation analysis revealed a significant association of batting skill
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with total arm length (r=0.175, p=0.032) and the lower arm length (r=0.166, p=0.043). On the other hand, the
upper arm length, total leg, upper leg and lower leg lengths did not demonstrate significant relationship with
batting skill among softball players.
Table: 7 Relationship of the circumferences and diameters of the body parts with the batting skill of softball
among the softball players.
Variables
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Coefficient (r)
Upper Arm Circumference (cm)
150
0.234
0.004*
Forearm Circumference (cm)
150
0.231
0.004*
Chest Circumference (cm)
150
0.207
0.011*
Thigh Circumference (cm)
150
0.014
0.864
Calf Circumference (cm)
150
0.149
0.068
Biacromion Diameter (cm)
150
0.240
0.003*
Bicondylar Humerus Diameter
150
0.235
0.004*
(cm)
Wrist Diameter (cm)
150
0.048
0.559
Bicondylar Femur Diameter (cm)
150
0.140
0.089
* indicates p<0.05
The correlation analysis of the various circumferences and diameters of body parts with the batting skill
among softball players is presented in table 7. The batting skill was observed to be significantly associated to
upper arm circumference (r=0.234, p=0.004), forearm circumference (r=0.231, p=0.004) and the chest
circumference (r=0.207, p=0.011). The bicromian (r=0.240, p=0.003) and the bicondylar humerus (r=0.235,
p=0.004) diameters were also observed to be significantly associated to batting skill in softball players. The
thigh and calf circumferences showed no significant association with the batting skill. Similarly the wrist and
bicondylar femur diameters did not demonstrate significant relationship with batting skill among softball
players. The correlation analysis of skinfold thicknesses and components of body composition with batting
skill of the softball players are presented in table 8. However no significant association of the skinfold
thicknesses of the body parts viz. biceps, triceps, subscapular, supra-iliac and calf with the batting skill was
observed. Though among the body composition only lean body mass (r=0.281, p=0.001) was observed to be
significantly associated to the batting skill in the softball players. There was no significant association
between batting skill and percent body fat of the softball players.
Table: 8 Relationship of the skinfolds thicknesses of the body parts, components of body composition with
the batting skill of softball among the softball players.
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Variables
N
Biceps (mm)
Triceps (mm)
Subscapular (mm)
Supra-iliac (mm)
Calf (mm)
Percent Body Fat (%)
Total Body Fat (kg)
Lean Body Mass (kg)
* indicates p<0.05
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
ISSN: 2348 - 8921
Pearson Correlation
Coefficient (r)
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.067
-0.025
-0.041
-0.046
-0.010
0.049
0.049
0.281
0.414
0.758
0.622
0.576
0.901
0.554
0.550
0.001*
DISCUSSION
The primary goal of the present study was to evaluate the anthropometric characteristics of the male
university and national level softball players and to ascertain the relation of anthropometric characteristics
with batting skill of the softball. The height of the male softball players in the present study was comparable
with height of the interuniversity softball players studied by Koley and Kumaar (2012). The softball players
were shorter than the inter-college level softball players studied by Singh and Gaurav (2014). Similarly the
softball players in the present study were shorter than the baseball players from minor and major baseball
league reported by Hoffman et al (2009) and Cuban baseball players studied by Carvajal et al (2009). The
weight of softball players in the present study was almost comparable with the weight of inter-university
softball players studied by Koley and Kumar (2012). On the other hand, the softball players in the present
study were lighter than the inter-college level softball players, minor and major baseball league players and
Cuban baseball players (Singh and Gaurav, 2014; Hoffman et al, 2009; Carvajal et al, 2009). Body mass
index of softball players in the present study was comparable with the body mass index of Indian intercollege and inter-university level male softball players (Koley and Kumaar, 2012; Singh and Gaurav, 2014).
No study was found on the length measurements, circumferences and diameters of body parts on the male
softball players in the literature. In the present study, all these parameters were evaluated of softball players
as these parameters might be important for better performance in softball. These anthropometric
characteristics could not be compared with players from other parts of the country as well as the world due to
scarcity of studies on these characteristics in the existing literature. The percent body fat of the male softball
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players was within the normal limits and was higher than the under-15 Indian softball players studied by Rao
and Kumar (2015). Similarly the players in present study had higher percent body fat than the minor and
major baseball league players reported by Hoffman et al (2009). On the other hand, the softball players in the
present study had lesser percent body fat than the Cuban baseball players (Carvajal et al, 2009). In case of
lean body mass, the players of present study were found to have lesser lean body mass in comparison to the
minor and major baseball league players and Cuban baseball players (Hoffman et al, 2009; Carvajal et al,
2009).
The correlation analysis revealed a significant association of weight with the batting skill. While
hitting the pitched ball in the softball, the players transfer body weight from back foot to the front foot during
swinging phase to execute longer and powerful hits thus gaining a high momentum due to increased weight
of the player which is further transferred to the ball and the ball thus travels quickly and powerfully. This
might be the reason that the weight of the softball players showed positive significant association with
performance of hitting skill. These findings are in conformity with those reported by Szymanski et al (2010)
on baseball players in which a positive relationship between linear bat swing velocity with height and body
weight was observed. The findings of present study reported a positive significant association between total
arm length and lower arm length with the batting skill. The range of motion is increased due to the longer
arm length since the longer radius is directly proportional to the angular velocity in the angular motion.
Therefore, the longer arms are helpful to increase the speed of bat swing while hitting in softball. In softball
the high speed of bat swing is advantageous while hitting against the fast pitched balls in softball. This might
be the reason for a positive correlation between the arm length and lower arm length and the batting skill.
The circumferences of body parts (forearm, upper arm and chest) of the softball players showed a
positive significant relationship with hitting skill. The high arm circumferences (forearm and upper arm) and
chest circumference are an advantageous factor in hitting skill in softball as the circumference of a body
segment is used as an indication of muscle mass cross sectional area (Wilmore and Costill, 1999). Thus it
can be considered that the higher arm circumference of the softball players is an indicator of higher muscle
mass cross-sectional area and consequently of higher power and force output for these segments. The
diameters of body parts (biacromial and bicondylar humerus) of the softball players had positive significant
association with the batting skill. The higher diameters of body parts may indicate the better growth and
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development of the softball players. The higher growth and development of arm and shoulder region is
indispensable for greater strength in the upper limbs which is important factor for higher performance in
hitting among softball players.
The skinfold thicknesses and percent body fat did not demonstrate a significant association with
hitting skill among softball players. The excess of fat mass and lack of lean body mass among the players
may have a negative effect on the performance. These findings are in line with those reported on minor and
major baseball league players by Hoffman et al (2009) and under-15 softball players studied by Rao and
Kumar (2015). The lean body mass demonstrated a significant correlation with hitting skill among softball
players. Many studies showed that the lean body mass has in a better correlation to success in sport
(maximum aerobic performance, running time, strength etc) than the percentage body fat (Bale, 1991;
Wilmore and Haskell, 1972; Mathur and Salokun, 1985). It has been earlier reported that the magnitude and
proportion of the active mass is closely linked to various functional variables like e.g. oxygen consumption
while at rest and at work, cardiac output, circulating blood volume etc (Parizkova, 1977). The more muscular
make-up of the players would be advantageous in hitting the ball (Singh et al, 2013). These findings are in
conformity with those reported by Hoffman et al (2009) on the minor and major baseball league players. In
conclusion, as a whole many anthropometric characteristics demonstrated positive significant association
with batting skill of softball among softball players. Hence the anthropometric characteristics play a vital
role in performance among softball players.
CONCLUSION
The aim of the present study was to examine the relation between anthropometric variables and batting skill
in male softball players. Anthropometric characteristics such as weight, total arm length, lower arm length,
and upper arm, forearm and chest circumferences, biacromion and bicondylar humerus diameters and lean
body mass were the main factor correlating with batting skill in male softball players. These characteristics
should therefore be taken into account by the coaches/trainers during softball talent selection, as they tend to
be a requirement for future high level performance in the game.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to UGC for granting Maulana Azad National Fellowship to carry out this research
work. The cooperation of the study participants is highly acknowledged.
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