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4
Knarik Manukyan
YSLU, FFL, Bachelor
Supervisor: M. Bejanyan, PhD
E-mail: [email protected]
GRAMMATICAL MEANS OF EMPHASIS IN ENGLISH
This article investigates emphatic use of different grammatical constructions and the
changes they rise up in the whole meaning of the sentence underlining the implication.
Throughout the analysis of grammatical means of emphasis we touch upon its expression and
semantic peculiarities. Hence we discuss not only structural changes but also stylistic reference
of these changes.
Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflection of reality and exchanging
them1. The exchange of information is greatly realized in the process of human intercourse and
in this very process the interlocutors apply to various means to outline the most prominent part
of information or its communicative centre. Emphasis has its part and parcel in giving a special
prominence to any part of the sentence. It is the stress on any element or a separate part of the
sentence which is considered more important to be outlined. Hence due to emphasis
interlocutors understand the message and its implications properly. As a matter of fact each
sentence comprises not only informative factor but also a kind of implication which is to be
revealed. What is put into a sentence as an implication is subjective, that is, it is individual
depending to a great extend on extralinguistic context, i. e. situation, circumstances, the
relation between interlocutors. As the same implication or intended meaning may be
understood differently, the role of grammar is to organize and develop a certain system or set
of rules concerning grammatical means of emphasis so as to make it clear for the speakers or
writers what kind of structure to use to express a certain kind of implication. This certain
implication is achieved through a developed system of grammatical means which should not be
viewed as a deviation from the accepted rules. Each part of the sentence has its own
peculiarities of emphasis. For instance when we emphasize the predicate group we make use of
a particular kind of structures and especially auxiliaries (the so-called emphatic mood or
emphatic tense)2. Corresponding means are used when emphasizing subject group or secondary
parts of the sentence. This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of theme and
rheme, inversion and passive voice constructions as grammatical means to express emphasis.
Numerous studies have attempted to explain emphatic use of thematic and rhematic units.
Some linguists discuss such concepts as lexical predicate and subject, semantic predicate and
subject3 in the scope of the notion of theme and rheme. Other linguists among them the German
scholar H. Paul even proposed the term “psychological subject and predicate”4 for expressing
the essence of theme and rheme. The latter leads us to believe that the understanding of theme
and rheme greatly depends on subjective perception, that is, how the speakers feel the already
established part of information and the new one. All kinds of ambiguities descend from this
point. It is interesting to see that the subjective perception of theme and rheme results in the use
of emphasis. The latter is established based on thematic and rhematic opposition. The theme is
basically placed in front position while the rheme is found at the end of the sentence. If the
1
Blokh M. Y., A Course in Theoretical English Grammar, Москва, “Высшая школа”, 1983. p. 6.
htpp: //www.michellehenry. fr/emphasize. htm
3
Ilysh B., The Structure of Modern English, Ленинград, 1971, p. 191.
4
Ibid.
2
258
sentence has the above mentioned position of theme and rheme the flow of thoughts is in its
natural sequence without any presence of emphasis. When the structure of theme and rheme
changes it means either the sentence is emphatic (often introduced by it is…that construction)
or it has been inverted. Care should be taken to pick up the proper grammatical means for this
case. Let us start by considering the points proposed by B. Ilysh on this matter. He states that
all these types of structural changes to a great extent depend on the grammatical structure of
the given language, whether it is analytical or synthetic. In synthetic languages the emphasis of
any part of a sentence is freely achieved through the changes in syntactical position. But in
analytical languages like English we are not allowed to change the syntactical position of
words freely. One should note here that in major cases the best solution to illustrate changes in
the position of theme and rheme is the use of it is…that (who, which) construction.
Furthermore, B. Ilysh eluminates some other means as well including particles, articles. By the
way he points out that the use of definite article refers to theme and the use of indefinite article
correspondingly to rheme. However we also agree with the above mentioned points. It is here
to add that the same view is supported by R. Quirk. But the latter goes deeper in the expression
of theme and focus connected with inversion. He defines the theme as the communicative point
of departure for the rest of the clause1. He puts the stress on theme rather than on rheme. It is
worth mentioning that R. Quirk uses the term focus instead of rheme. So it may be explained in
the following way, what is new in a sentence should be focused on, hence the focus as a variant
to rheme is quite acceptable. We can suppose that changing the focus in a sentence we will
change the communicative center, in other words we will have the emphasized pattern of one
and the same sentence. It is clear from observations that thematic and rhematic relations form
one of the principle features of an effective sentence or a context, as in fact the existence of this
relation and the emphasis of rheme are what keep communication on.
This study has shown that a number of grammarians differentiate between the so-called
emotive emphasis and emphasis given by information focus and theme. As the latter was
already analysed, we may state that it has certain reference to grammar and depends on it to a
great extent. Taking into consideration the processed materials we may suppose that this kind
of emphasis is not purely grammatical as it comprises emotive charge in it which can not be
shown merely by grammatical means. As for the emotive emphasis, it is beyond the scope of
grammar as its means are related with intonation, stress, voice and reversibility. According to
R. Quirk in case of emotive expression we are to face simile, hyperbole and irony. It is clear
that we are to deal with stylistics and the emotive coloring of words but not grammatical
constructions.
Touching upon inversion as a grammatical means of emphasis we should point out that
the presence of thematic and rhematic relation in an inverted sentence is obvious as inversion is
one of the means to show the opposition between these two components of the sentence. Many
scholars, among them R. Quirk as it was already mentioned, discussed the peculiarities of
inversion closely connected with theme. We think it is quite possible and natural as when we
use the inverted word order we change the communicative point of departure for the rest of the
clause2. In the English language the specific nature of word order and its peculiarities are
caused by the way the language has developed. Being an analytical language English is poor in
inflections, that is why it has a fixed word order. With the help of the fixed word order the
syntactical function of words is shown not by their place in the sentence but by their form.
Though it does not lack in syntactical patterns, they are also fixed. O. Jespersen states that the
English language “…has developed a tolerably fixed word order which in the great majority of
cases shows without fail what the Subject of the sentence is”1. As to the form of the sentence,
the most important parts are considered the beginning and the end. The beginning bears the
1
Quirk R., A University Grammar of English, Moscow, 1982, p. 358.
Ibid.
1
Jespersen O., Essential of English Grammar, London, 1943, p. 99.
2
259
greatest force of the stress, that is why in inverted word order more essential and prominent
parts are placed at the beginning. The end of the sentence is characterized by a pause after it.
So this pattern has developed a certain intonation design. Due to the intonation the more
significant elements are made stronger as compared with semantically insignificant elements.
But when we place semantically insignificant elements in structurally significant position the
attention is shifted to that insignificant element emphasizing it. In this case we deal with
grammatical inversion.
Care should be taken to differentiate between the grammatical inversion and the stylistic
inversion. In case of grammatical inversion the structural meaning changes. Unlike grammatical inversion stylistic inversion does not change the structural meaning of the sentence, that
is, the change in the juxtaposition of the members of the sentence does not indicate structural
meaning but has some superstructural function1. Our point of view is that by superstructural
function the author means the emotive charge given to the emphasized unit and the emotional
coloring. Moreover, stylistic inversion adds some logical stress to the emphasized utterance.
The category of voice alongside with its numerous functions, is of great use to forming the
opposition based on the change of logical and grammatical subjects hence forming an
emphasis. The changes which arise in the result of the replacement though being purely
grammatical, comprise stylistic effect to the clause or the whole context. According to M.
Blokh, what is changed with the transition from the active voice to the passive voice is the
subjective appraisal of the situation by the speaker, the plane of his presentation it2. As a result
of this transition the reference to the logical subject is somehow lost and it is pushed to the
second plane. The emphasis falls on the fact or the action itself rather than on its doer. That is,
we are not interested who or what carries the action. By using passive sentence we emphasize
what happens to something. Let us prove it in an example.
e. g. The fact is constantly mentioned in the more expensive monthly magazines. (O.
Wilde, p. 26)
We are free to change the emphasis of a sentence. In the example above the goal is moved
from the logical subject to the noun fact which is of great importance for understanding the
implication of the speaker. It is needless to say that the real doer of the action is not worth
mentioning here. In this example we even do not feel the existence of the logical subject. So
here the emphasis is viewed as natural.
Now let us compare two sentences both in active and passive voices for us to feel the
difference in meaning.
The importance of passive voice construction is obvious when we try to recast the already
emphasized passive construction as an active voice sentences.
e. g. The reputation of Strickland is now firmly established on the lines which he laid
down. (S. Maugham p. 22)
e. g. Nothing has been said at all about marriage. The subject has not even been touched
on. (O. Wilde, p. 28)
e. g. Strickland firmly established his reputation on the lines which he laid down.
e.. g They have not said anything about marriage. They have not even touched the subject
It is interesting to see that our intended meaning is not conveyed. From stylistic point of
view the whole implication mixed because of this transition. In the first example the passive
1
2
Galperin I. R., Stylistics, Moscow, “Higher School”, 1977, p. 204.
Blokh M. Y., A Course in Theoretical English Grammar, p. 179.
260
voice construction helps to convey that the subject does not have a direct influence on
establishing the reputation. The active sentence underlines the role of the subject which is not
necessary here. The second example intends to outline the negation. In the recast variant this
strong negation disappears. So with the help of such kind of transitions we easily underline the
needed part in the sentence containing the most relevant piece of the message.
Sentence is the smallest informative unit which makes communication possible. But the
act of communication does not comprise only informative factor. M. Blokh states that the
sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite
syntactical pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose1. On
the other hand it comprises implication. One must admit that there is an obvious difference
between purpose and implication: the former belongs to linguistic context, the latter belongs to
extralinguistic one. One and the same sentence may have the same purpose and a different
implication. This mainly occurs in emphatic sentences in which certain patterns of grammatical
constructions are used (including inversion) to emphasize this or that part of the sentence. To
illustrate this point we are to discuss it in an example.
e. g. It is only the sacred things that are worth touching. (O. Wilde, p. 140)
It is obvious from the example that the purpose of the sentence is to introduce one’s
opinion putting in it some personal experience. The implication is to be found in the first part
of the sentence. It presupposes the fulfillment of a certain action, that is, the speaker hints on
something sacred and mysterious prompting the listener to a future action. So if we change the
definite syntactical pattern of a sentence consequently we will change the communicative
implication of the sentence too. R. Quirk proposes the term ‘cleft sentence’ for emphatic
sentences and he defines it as “…a special construction which gives both thematic and focal
prominence to a particular element of the clause is the cleft sentence, so-called, because it
divides a single clause into two separate sections, each with its own verb”2. The emphasized
part may be any member of the sentence. And their emphatic role is proved by the fact that
these clauses can easily be transformed into simple ones. There is another point to mention
here. The same sentence may easily be transformed into different cleft sentences depending on
the aim of emphasis and the implication to be introduced. The syntactic function of emphasized
part may be different as well. As D. Crystal reminds us a language is what all its users make it,
it is a social, not just academic phenomenon3. This leads us to claim that syntactical patterns of
expressing emphasis are not confined to the rules fixed on manuals. Being used by speakers in
the act of speech they are inclined to be changed sometimes in such ways which are not
acceptable from grammatical point of view.
To sum up the above discussed points we are convinced that though English is an
analytical language, it is quite flexible. The grammatical system of English is rich in different
syntactical patterns and grammatical constructions which enable the speakers to express a wide
range of implications and to give emotional coloring to a needed unit. It is due of mentioning
that all these means provide interlocutors with an opportunity to reveal already operated and
yet new piece of information, to change the goal of communication and to propose an intended
meaning to an utterance. The use of grammatical constructions as means of expressing
emphasis can not be considered a kind of stylistic device. They do not belong to any type of
stylistic devices but they perhaps comprise some style forming features surely with some
restrictions.
1
Ibid, p. 236.
Quirk R., University Grammar of English, 1972, p. 361.
3
Crystal D., A language Must Change to keep Pace with Society, Liverpool Daily Post, Thursday May 16, 1963.
2
261
It is true that the concept of ‘style’ is generally discussed in a literary context and usually
restricted to those linguistic features which define a single author’s individuality1. The other
side of the coin is, however, that style or style forming features are not confined to the frame of
literary context. One argument in support of the fact is that emphasis as restricted style forming
feature is to be found in all types of linguistic contexts, nevertheless, it is not a stylistic device.
We personally believe that grammatical means of emphasis are found to cause some changes in
modality of the context as well. The most satisfactory conclusion that we can come to is that
the traditional concept of the sentence and its fixed syntactical structure are too restricted to
express stylistically marked intention. By means of emphasis we achieve this intention and
with the help of grammatical means of emphasis this very intention is felt not only through the
intonation but also through the structure of the sentence.
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Кнарик Манукян
ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЕ СРЕДСТВА ЭМФАЗЫ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ
В данной статье рассматриваются средства актуализации эмфазы при помощи грамматических средств. Основной целью статьи является изучение этих грамматических средств и их
особенностeй в некоторых грамматических конструкциях. Статья охватывает структурные и
семантические особенности эмфазы в данных грамматических средствах: тема и рема, инверсия,
конструкция страдательного залога и выразительное предложение. Уделяется особое внимание
роли эмфазы как способа влияния на импликацию данного предложения или контекста
1
http: //davidcrystal.com/DC_articles/Linguistics55.pdf.
262