THE SUBSTANCE
OF
GREAT BRITAIN'S
OBLIGATIONS
TO THE
INDIAN NATIONS
Presented at the
Fourth Russell Tribunal
Rotterdam, Netherlands
November 1980
INDEX
The S u b s t a n c e o f G r e a t
to the I n d i a n N a t i o n s
I.
The L e g a l S o u r c e G r e a t B r i t a i n ' s
O b l i g a t i o n s t o the I n d i a n N a t i o n s
A.
B.
II.
The
The
D o c t r i n e of Consent
Sacred T r u s t of C i v i l i z a t i o n
C o l o n i a l Law and P r a c t i c e :
Pre-Confederation
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
III.
Britain's Obligations
p. 1
p.
4
p.
p.
4
5
p.10
The R o y a l C h a r t e r s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a
1496 - 1670
The E a r l y V i r g i n i a T r e a t i e s
1646, 1677
The I r o q u o i s Deeds:
Mohegan I n d i a n s v. C o n n e c t i c u t
1703 - 1743
The A l b a n y C o n g r e s s , 1754
The M a r i t i m e P r o v i n c e s 1713 - 1763
The R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n o f 1763
The n e g o t i a t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e
T r e a t y o f Ghent
Implementation of the Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n
i n Canada
The M a r s h a l l D e c i s i o n s o f t h e Supreme
C o u r t o f t h e U.S. - 1810 - 1832
p.10
p.11
p.13
p.14
p.16
p.18
p.22
p.32
p.36
p.38
E n t r e n c h m e n t o f the D o c t r i n e o f C o n s e n t
and t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e R o l e I n C a n a d i a n
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Documents
p.52
IV.
The
Issue of D e v o l u t i o n o f the O b l i g a t i o n s
p.68
V.
The
Canadian A d m i n s t r i a l o f the O b l i g a t i o n s
p.74
A.
Canadian A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the T r e a t y
Making P r o c e s s
C a n a d i a n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e Unceded
I n d i a n Lands
p.74
B.
VI.
P r o t e s t s and
Obligations
Delegations
to uphold
KE
7721
.9
.S93
1980
the
p.101
p.110
The Substance o f
Great B r i t a i n ' s
o b l i g a t i o n s to
the Indian
n a t i o n s / [Union
The
Substance o f Great B r i t a i n ' s O b l i g a t i o n s
to the Indian
Nations
The
of
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l debate i n v o l v i n g
the r e l a t i o n s h i p
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y
as between t h e
F e d e r a l and P r o v i n c i a l Governments t h r o u g h t h e d i s c u s s i o n
B.N.A. A c t 1867 and amendments made t h e r e t o ,
o f the
h a s f o c u s e d on a
r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t h i s t o r y and t r u n c a t e d c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f Canada.
the
The commencement o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n
complete Canadian c o n s t i t u t i o n
encompasses
begins with the r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f G r e a t B r i t a i n , as t h e p r i m a r y c o l o n i z e r ,
and t h e I n d i a n
People, as the o r i g i n a l Nations i n h a b i t i n g
N o r t h America. It i s
the
in this
f u n d a m e n t a l l a w s and c o m p a c t s i n v o l v e d
relationship
w h i c h must i n f o r m t h e p r e s e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b a t e . T h a t t h e
a r t i c l e s o f c e s s i o n remain
as a m a t t e r o f f u n d a m e n t a l l a w ,
s a c r e d and i n v i o l a b l e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r t r u e
is
and meaning
a v e r y o l d p r i n c i p l e , e n u n c i a t e d by L o r d M a n s f i e l d
c e l e b r a t e d c a s e o f C a m p b e l l v. H a l l
on
intent
the basis
o f these i n i t i a l
i n the
[ ( 1 7 7 4 ) , 1 Cowp. 204.]
compacts t h a t
I t was
the P r o v i n c i a l
Governments and l a t e r t h e F e d e r a l Government were f o u n d e d and
were a b l e t o e v e n t u a l l y
consolidate
power and a u t h o r i t y
under the
B.N.A. A c t .
G r e a t B r i t a i n p l a y e d an e s s e n t i a l
ment o f t h e C a n a d i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n .
duty to a s s i s t i n strengthening
full
statehood.
role
i n the develop-
B r i t a i n assumed a p o s i t i v e
i t s colonies
to a p o s i t i o n of
The d u t y a r o s e w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i v e
a s s e m b l i e s i n Canada and emanated f r o m d e v e l o p i n g
law
and B r i t i s h common l a w .
international
T h i s d u t y was e s s e n t i a l l y
discharged
w i t h t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e S t a t u t e o f W e s t m i n s t e r , 1931. A
obligation
to r e t u r n
remains t o ensure the l e g a l i t y o f a Canadian
t o Canada t h e l e g i s l a t i v e a u t h o r i t y
residual
request
t o amend t h e
B.N.A. A c t .
G r e a t B r i t a i n a c q u i r e d l e g a l and e q u i t a b l e
to the I n d i a n N a t i o n s c r e a t e d
t h r o u g h compacts w i t h
obligations
various
- 2 -
Indian Nations
whereby I n d i a n l a n d s were s u r r e n d e r e d
I m p e r i a l Crown and whereby some I n d i a n N a t i o n s
p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e Crown.
to the
accepted the
In a d d i t i o n t o these o b l i g a t i o n s ,
G r e a t B r i t a i n , a s c o l o n i z e r , became s u b j e c t t o f u r t h e r l e g a l
obligations, fiduciary
as e x p r e s s e d
i n nature,
i n the sacred
involving a protectorate
trust of civilization.
protectorate role requires B r i t a i n
the
Indian Nations
i s obtained
The
to ensure that the consent o f
prior
to the a l i e n a t i o n o f
t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n t e r r i t o r y o r any change i n t h e i r
institutions.
Britain
political
The a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e
to assist
role
the Indian Nations
requires
i n achieving
self-determination.
B r i t a i n r e t a i n s these
o b l i g a t i o n s despite the develop-
ment o f Canada as an i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n .
The o b l i g a t i o n s a r e an
e s s e n t i a l and o v e r r i d i n g f e a t u r e o f C a n a d i a n f e d e r a l i s m and f o r m
p a r t o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f Canada.
ment's j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r I n d i a n s
F u r t h e r , the Federal
and l a n d s
reserved
f o r Indians
i n S e c t i o n 9 1 ( 2 4 ) o f t h e B.N.A. A c t i s n o t a p l e n a r y power
would a l l o w Canada t o r e q u e s t
over Indians
legislative
and r e c e i v e u l t i m a t e
through p a t r i a t i o n .
Indian
that
jurisdiction
B r i t a i n has a r e s i d u a l
a u t h o r i t y , e x e r c i s e d through i t s c o n t r o l over the
amendment o f t h e B.N.A. A c t , 1867 t o d i s c h a r g e
the
Govern-
i t s obligations to
Nations.
In c o n t r a s t t o B r i t a i n ' s s u c c e s s f u l d i s c h a r g e
of o b l i -
g a t i o n s t o t h e l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t , B r i t a i n has n o t d i s c h a r g e d t h e
o b l i g a t i o n s to the Indian Nations.
discharged
or delegated
Indian Nations
tion.
t o Canada o n l y w i t h t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e
o r when t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
achieve
self-determina-
As n e i t h e r o f t h e p r e - c o n d i t i o n s h a s o c c u r r e d ,
tions exist notwithstanding
over Indian Nations
Act.
These o b l i g a t i o n s w i l l be
the o b l i g a -
Canada's a s s e r t i o n o f p l e n a r y
and n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g
power
p a t r i a t i o n o f t h e B.N.A.
- 3 -
The
Indian Nations
assert that Great B r i t a i n
r e f u s e t o e n a c t t h e Canada A c t u n t i l
Indian Nations
are discharged.
that the j u r i s d i c t i o n
the o b l i g a t i o n s to the
First,
to discharge
must
the Indian Nations
the p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e
assert
i s con-
t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e r e s i d u a l j u r i s d i c t i o n t o amend t h e B.N.A. A c t ,
1867.
Second i t i s o n l y t h r o u g h t h e l e g i s l a t i v e
authority to
amend t h e B.N.A. A c t t h a t j u r i s d i c t i o n r e s t s w i t h B r i t i a n ,
as a
matter o f p u r e l y Canadian c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
having
f o r c e and e f f e c t i n Canada.
Canada A c t w i t h o u t
Therefore,
l a w , to pass laws
should
B r i t a i n enact the
f i r s t d i s c h a r g i n g l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n s to the
Indian Nations, B r i t a i n w i l l
the j u r i s d i c t i o n n e c e s s a r y
In e f f e c t , B r i t a i n w i l l
have k n o w i n g l y d i v e s t e d h e r s e l f o f
to f u l f i l l
these
legal obligations.
have c o m p l e t e d t h e p r o c e s s
o f the c o n s t i -
t u t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f Canada a t t h e e x p e n s e o f h e r o b l i g a t i o n s
to
the Indian N a t i o n s .
The r e s u l t w i l l
be t o a s s i s t a s C a n a d i a n
government i n i t s p e r s i s t e n t p o l i c y o f a s s i m i l a t i o n o f I n d i a n
p e o p l e and e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f I n d i a n l a n d , w i t h o u t
In r e c e n t y e a r s ,
Indian
consent.
I n d i a n l e a d e r s have used t h e word g e n o c i d e .
I.
The legal Source of Great Britain's
Obligations to the Indian Nations
- 4 I.
The L e g a l S o u r c e G r e a t B r i t a i n ' s O b l i g a t i o n s t o t h e
Nations
Nations
the
A.
The
The
b a s i s of the
and
the
Crown and
centuries.
was
of C o n s e n t
Doctrine
r e l a t i o n s h i p between the
I m p e r i a l Crown was
the
The
Indian
Nations
contacts
Indian
formed i n the
contacts
i n the s i x t e e n t h and
that occurred
e s t a b l i s h e d must be v i e w e d
Indian
and
the
between
seventeenth
r e l a t i o n s h i p which
i n the l i g h t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y
con-
c e p t i o n s o f t h e l e g a l r e l a t i o n s between the E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s
the
indigenous
P a l m a s Case
846],
law
"A
peoples.
As
(Netherlands,
juridical
U.S.A.) [ ( 1 9 2 5 ) ,
f a c t must be
contemporary w i t h
the continued
Judge Huber s a i d i n t h e
it,"
existence of a r i g h t ,
r e q u i r e d by t h e e v o l u t i o n o f
The
the
was
o f the New
p r i v a t e matters".
i n 1532
W o r l d had
This
f o l l o w e d him,
E.R.
(see
t e r r a e n u l l i u s and
377,
(1733) 24
the
as he went on
to p o i n t
out
the
i n De
f o l l o w the
L i n d l e y , The
Blankard
E.R.
v.
e n d o r s e d by o t h e r
the
indigenous
acquired
356,
writers
entailed
p e o p l e s were
o n l y by
( C a l v i n ' s Case
(1693) 92 E.R.
and
Government of
(1926) 12 - 20)
be
and
cleric
I n d i s argued t h a t
i n h a b i t e d by
hence c o u l d
Galdy
Spanish
A q u i s i t i o n and
n o t by mere o c c u p a t i o n .
cession
(1608)
and
or
77
Anonymous
646.)
D u r i n g the
l a t t e r p a r t o f the n i n e t e e n t h
w r i t e r s i n E n g l a n d , s u c h as W e s t l a k e , H a l l and
the
conditions
" t r u e Dominion i n both p u b l i c
v i e w , w h i c h was
the c o r o l l a r y t h a t the l a n d s
c o n q u e s t and
l i g h t of
law."
Backward T e r r i t o r y i n I n t e r n a t i o n Law
not
at
i n the
"shall
d e l i n e a t e d by
F r a n c i s c o de V i t o r i a , who
who
of
l e g a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between the E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s
Indian nations
Aborigines
2 R.I.A.A. 830
appreciated
although,
Island
and
century
some
Oppenheim, under
i n f l u e n c e o f l e g a l p o s i t i v i s m , took the p o s i t i o n t h a t
sovereignty
t r i b e s could
c o u l d o n l y r e s i d e i n s t a t e s and
not
constitute a state
that organizations
(see L i n d l e y op.
c i t . , 18)
of
- 5 -
Nevertheless,
indigenous
the o r i g i n a l
peoples
Court o f J u s t i c e
approach t o the t e r r i t o r i e s o f
was r e c e n t l y a f f i r m e d by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
i n t h e W e s t e r n S a h a r a Case
1 ] , where t h e m a j o r i t y s a i d
[(1975) I . C . J . Rep.
(at p.4):
"Whatever d i f f e r e n c e o f o p i n i o n t h e r e may
have been among j u r i s t s t h e S t a t e p r a c t i c e o f
the r e l e v a n t p e r i o d
indicates that
territ o r i e s i n h a b i t e d by t r i b e s o r p e o p l e h a v i n g a
s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n were n o t
r e g a r d e d as t e r r a e n u l l i u s . "
Therefore,
notwithstanding
some d o u b t e x p r e s s e d
s u b j e c t d u r i n g t h e l a t e r p a r t o f t h e 19th Century,
peoples
have been r e c o g n i z e d
degree o f s o v e r e i g n t y .
i n international
Thus "a n e c e s s a r y
on t h e
indigenous
l a w as h a v i n g
a
condition f o r valid
a c q u i s i t i o n o f n e a r l y a l l i n h a b i t e d t e r r i t o r y was t h e c o n s e n t o f
the n a t i v e c h i e f s o r p e o p l e s
involved."
(James C r a w f o r d
C r e a t i o n o f S t a t e s i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law, 1979, 182.
The
For the
a p p l i c a t i o n o f a s i m i l a r argument t o t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e
I m p e r i a l Crown and t h e M a o i p e o p l e
"The
Treaty of Waitangi
Today,"
o f New Z e a l a n d ,
see S u t t o n ,
(1981) I I V.U.W.L.R. 17.)
It follows that the l e g a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e
I m p e r i a l Crown and t h e I n d i a n n a t i o n s was, a t t h e o u t s e t ,
sual.
consen-
R i g h t s a c q u i r e d by t h e I m p e r i a l Crown and o b l i g a t i o n s
u n d e r t a k e n by t h e Crown were a c q u i r e d o r u n d e r t a k e n w i t h t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e I n d i a n n a t i o n s ; hence any a l t e r a t i o n o r v a r i a t i o n o f
those
the
r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s w o u l d have t o be w i t h t h e c o n s e n t o f
Indian
Nations.
B.
The S a c r e d
Trust of C i v i l i z a t i o n
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s a c q u i r e d by
the I m p e r i a l Crown t h r o u g h
Great
the consent o f the I n d i a n
Nations,
B r i t a i n , as t h e p r e - e m i n e n t c o l o n i a l power i n N o r t h
A m e r i c a , became s u b j e c t t o f u r t h e r o b l i g a t i o n s i n r e s p e c t o f t h e
Indigenous peoples.
Subsequent t e r m i n o l o g y
has come t o use t h e
- 6 -
r u b i c "the sacred
est
trust of c i v i l i z a t i o n " ,
modern e x p r e s s i o n
League o f N a t i o n s
i s found
and a l t h o u g h
i t s clear-
i n t h e mandate s y s t e m o f t h e
and t h e T r u s t e e s h i p s y s t e m o f t h e U n i t e d
N a t i o n s , t h e c o n c e p t has i t s r o o t s i n much e a r l i e r
times.
The
n o t i o n may be f o u n d i n V i t o r i a , who, t h o u g h u n s u r e o f any r i g h t
i n the Spanish
over
authorities
t o assume a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y
t h e I n d i a n s , s t a t e d t h a t i f s u c h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o be
assumed i t s h o u l d b e :
" f o r t h e w e l f a r e and i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e
I n d i a n s and n o t m e r e l y f o r t h e p r o f i t o f t h e
Spaniards"
(De I n d i s , S e c t i o n I I I ) .
The o b l i g a t i o n
the
Indians
t o p r o t e c t t h e p r o p e r t y and s t a t u s o f
i s a theme w h i c h t r a c k s t h r o u g h
a c o l o n i a l power.
B r i t a i n ' s h i s t o r y as
I t was f o r m a l l y e x p r e s s e d
i n the Royal
P r o c l a m a t i o n , 1763.
Edmond B u r k e , i n s p e a k i n g
the B r i t i s h
being
House o f Commons, s t a t e d t h a t p o l i t i c a l
o f 1783 i n
power was
e x e r c i s e d u l t i m a t e l y f o r the b e n e f i t o f the indigenous
people
est
to the Indian B i l l
and t h a t t h e U n i t e d
sense, a t r u s t .
Kingdom's p o s i t i o n was i n t h e s t r i c t -
( L i n d l e y , o p . c i t . , 330)
T r u s t l a n g u a g e was
a l s o used i n t h e 1837 S e l e c t Committee R e p o r t o f t h e House o f
Commons.
to
I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e measures t o be a d o p t e d w i t h
the o r i g i n a l
stated
i n h a b i t a n t s o f North
t h a t Great
regard
A m e r i c a , t h e Committee
B r i t a i n held a trust:
" p a r t i c u l a r l y belonging
and a p p r o p r i a t e t o
the
executive
government
as
administered
e i t h e r i n t h i s c o u n t r y ( G r e a t B r i t a i n ) o r by
the G o v e r n o r s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o l o n i e s .
This i s not a t r u s t which could c o n v e n i e n t l y
be c o n f i d e d t o t h e l o c a l l e g i s l a t u r e s . "
S t a t e m e n t s were a l s o made i n t h e B r i t i s h
House o f
Commons i n 1865, t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f B r i t a i n s d e a l i n g s
( A f r i c a n ) N a t i v e s was t o r e n d e r
fer
i t possible to eventually trans-
t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e government t o them
The E u r o p e a n - A f r i c a n
British
colonial
C o n f r o n t a t i o n , p. 112).
responsibility
with
in Fiji,
(Alexandrowicz,
In regard
the United
to the
- 7 -
Kingdom t o o k
native
held
the p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e i r f i r s t
i n s t i t u t i o n and
welfare.
i n 1884-85 i s t e s t i m o n y
p o w e r s , i n c l u d i n g the U n i t e d
U n i t e d Kingdom was
d u t y was
F u r t h e r , the B e r l i n
Kingdom, to the s a c r e d
t r u s t of Nations
the B e r l i n A c t , 1885,
Conference
t o the agreement o f t h e
p l a c e d under a l e g a l duty
c i p l e o f the sacred
to p r o t e c t
which provided
European
trust.
The
to r e s p e c t the
prin-
i n A f r i c a as a s i g n a t o r y t o
t h a t the c o l o n i a l powers i n
A f r i c a bound t h e m s e l v e s t o :
"watch o v e r the p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e n a t i v e
t r i b e s and t o c a r e f o r the improvement o f the
c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r m o r a l and m a t e r i a l w e l l being."
( A r t i c l e 6)
In
1931
t h e U n i t e d Kingdom s t a t e d t h a t i t was
holder of a non-delegatable
t r u s t t o e n s u r e the p r o t e c t i o n and
advancement o f the n a t i v e s o f Kenya ( L i n d l e y , op.
T h a t the U n i t e d Kingdom r e c o g n i z e d
duty
u n d e r c u s t o m a r y i n t e r n a t i o n a l law
common law)
eous
(and
o f the c o l o n i e s i s c l e a r .
i t had
a
335).
positive
t h e r e f o r e under
The
s y s t e m c r e a t e d under t h e League o f N a t i o n s
f o r m a l i z e d the customary r u l e s .
said
cit. ,
i n v o l v i n g l e g a l l y b i n d i n g o b l i g a t i o n s t o the
peoples
Article
the
The
mandate and
and
indigin¬
trustee
the U n i t e d
clearest expression
22 o f t h e C o v e n a n t o f t h e League o f N a t i o n s
t h a t i n b r i n g i n g the n o n - s e l f governing
the
Nations
is in
where i t was
c o l o n i e s and
terri-
t o r i e s under the Mandates S y s t e m t h e r e would be a p p l i e d :
" t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t the w e l l - b e i n g and d e v e l opment o f s u c h p e o p l e s f o r m the s a c r e d t r u s t
of c i v i l i z a t i o n . "
T h a t t h i s was
n o t the a n e w l y c r e a t e d c o n c e p t b u t
the
t i o n o f a p r i n c i p l e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e r e l a t i o n s o f the
power t o i n d i g e n o u s
peoples
i s accepted
by e m i n e n t
continuacolonial
writers.
( L i n d l e y , Op. c i t , Ch. 36, Snow, The Q u e s t i o n o f A b o r i g i n e s i n
the Law and P r a c t i c e o f N a t i o n s , (1919) Ch. V I I I , A l e x a n d r o w i c z ,
The E u r o p e a n - A f r i c a n C o n f r o n t a t i o n (1973) Ch. V I I . )
- 8
In
i t s controversial
Cases [(1966] I . C . J . Rep.
held that,
juridical
i n the
"the
-
decision
4 ] , the
p r i n c i p l e of
e x p r e s s i o n the
the
i n the
S o u t h West A f r i c a
International
sacred
Court of
t r u s t has
mandates s y s t e m "
as
Justice
its
sole
(pages 3 4 - 3 5 ) .
However
c o n t e x t o f a judgment c o n c e r n e d w i t h w h e t h e r the
t i o n s of
the
"sacred
t h i s s t a t e m e n t has
t r u s t " c o u l d be
e n f o r c e d by
third
come i n f o r s t r o n g c r i t i c i s m .
i n g judgment Judge Tomaka s a i d
that
the
idea of
obligastates,
In h i s
the
dissent-
sacred
trust
which:
"belongs to
the
noble o b l i g a t i o n
of
conq u e r i n g powers t o t r e a t i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s o f
c o n q u e r e d t e r r i t o r i e s and
t o promote t h e i r
well-being
has
existed
for
many
hundred
y e a r s , at l e a s t since V i t o r i a . "
(page 265)
From the
the
context i t is clear
p r i n c i p l e to areas of
The
t h a t J u d g e Tomaka was
conquest i n a t e c h i c a l
p o s i t i o n was
also
dealt
i n h i s d i g g e n t i n g judgement where he
was
the
p o i n t e d out
He
t o the
went
limiting
sense.
w i t h c l e a r l y by
l e g a l mechanism t o g i v e e f f e c t
sacred t r u s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n .
not
that
Judge J e s u p
the
p r i n c i p l e of
mandate
the
on:
"The
s a c r e d t r u s t i s not o n l y a moral i d e a ;
i t a l s o has l e g a l c h a r a c t e r and s i g n i f i c a n c e ;
i t i s in fact a legal principle.
T h i s conc e p t was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the c o v e n a n t a f t e r
l o n g and d i f f i c u l t n e g o t i a t i o n s
between the
p a r t i e s o v e r the s e t t l e m e n t o f the c o l o n i a l
issue."
The
criticism.
s t a t e m e n t by
the
A l e x a n d r o w i c z has
C o u r t has
described
i f not
untenable, in i n t e r n a t i o n a l
of
Sacred T r u s t of
the
( 1 9 7 1 ) ] , and
International
i n view of
Civilization,"
the
C a s e s must e i t h e r be
the
the
sacred
trust
i t as
"highly
("The
Juridical
65 Am.
t o the
J. I n t ' l
concept of
s t a t e m e n t i n the
t a k e n t o be
narrow p r o c e d u r a l q u e s t i o n o f
of
further
doubtful,
Expresion
L.149,
a p p r o a c h s u b s e q u e n t l y t a k e n by
Courts of J u s t i c e
t r u s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n "
law"
come i n f o r
the
obligations.
incorrect
the
159
the
"sacred
S o u t h West A f r i c a
or c o n f i n e d
enforceability
by
to
third
the
parties
- 9 -
The
the sacred
c u l m i n a t i o n o f the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the
t r u s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n
o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u r t
for
i s f o u n d i n the A d v i s o r y
o f J u s t i c e on
S t a t e s of the C o n t i n u e d
(1970).
(1971) I . C . J .
more r e c e n t t r e a t i e s and
the U n i t e d N a t i o n s ,
the L e g a l
Rep
1.
of
Opinion
Consequences
Presence of South A f r i c a
( S o u t h West A f r i c a ) N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g
276
concept
i n Namibia
Security Council Resolution
The
Court, a f t e r
r e s o l u t i o n s of the G e n e r a l
reviewing
Assembly of
concluded:
"These d e v e l o p m e n t s l e a v e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t
trust
the u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e o f the s a c r e d
was the s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and
independence
of the peoples concerned."
Thus, the o b l i g a t i o n s a c q u i r e d
through
the c o n s e n t o f t h e
t a l o b l i g a t i o n , the s a c r e d
preserve
the p r o p e r t y and
by t h e I m p e r i a l Crown
Indian Nations
i n c l u d e d the
t r u s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n ,
s t a t u s o f the
fundamen-
to p r o t e c t
Indian people.
Subse-
q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h a t d o c t r i n e show t h a t t h i s o b l i g a t i o n
to
adhere u n t i l
otherwise
the
Indian peoples
had
exercised self-determination.
and
was
a t t a i n e d independence o r
ii.
Colonial Law and Practice: PreConfederation
-10-
II.
C o l o n i a l Law and P r a c t i c e :
Pre-Confederation
I m p e r i a l law and p r a c t i c e c o n f i r m s
t h a t the r e l a t i o n -
s h i p w i t h t h e I n d i a n n a t i o n s was b a s e d on c o n s e n t ,
rated
the p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e .
w i t h example.
Although
a v a i l a b l e , the evidence
and
incorpo-
Pre-confederation history
i s rich
by no means e x h a u s t i v e o f t h e m a t e r i a l
below demonstrates the c o n t i n u o u s
and
u n i n t e r r u p t e d a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n s by t h e I m p e r i a l
Government.
A.
The R o y a l C h a r t e r s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a
The f i r s t
themselves
granted
pursuant
settlers
1496-1670
i n the American c o l o n i e s e s t a b l i s h e d
t o the terms o f v a r i o u s r o y a l
by t h e E n g l i s h Crown.
charters
These i n s t r u m e n t s do n o t , i n
g e n e r a l , d e a l w i t h the q u e s t i o n o f the p o s i t i o n o f the I n d i a n
N a t i o n s ; t h e y a r e d r a f t e d w i t h t h e aim o f d e l i n e a t i n g
the r e l a -
t i v e r i g h t s o f t h e Crown and g r a n t e e , v i s - a - v i s b o t h e a c h
and
o t h e r European
states.
At the time o f the g r a n t i n g of these C h a r t e r s ,
a l l y a l l o f N o r t h A m e r i c a was
and s e t t l e m e n t .
virtu-
i n the possession of the I n d i a n s .
Those a r e a s w h i c h were u n i n h a b i t e d m i g h t be g a i n e d
occupation
other
s i m p l y by
B u t f o r l a n d s h e l d by t h e I n d i a n s , a
c e s s i o n o r c o n q u e s t f r o m t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s was p r e - r e q u i s i t e t o
b r i n g i n g the Charter p r o v i s i o n s i n t o f u l l
ferred
is
e f f e c t ; the t i t l e
t h e r e b y was c o n t i n g e n t upon a c t u a l a c q u i s i t i o n .
supported
by t h e t e r m s o f i n s t r u m e n t s
Restoration to r e g u l a r i z e
con-
This
view
issued a f t e r the
t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o l o n i e s o f Rhode
I s l a n d and C o n n e c t i c u t w h i c h d i d n o t have R o y a l
Charters.
Thus
t h e Rhode I s l a n d C h a r t e r o f 1663 r e c i t e s t h a t t h e p e t i t i o n e r s ,
upon a r r i v i n g
i n America,
settled
amidst
certain
Indians:
"who, a r e t h e most p o t e n t p r i n c e s and p e o p l e
of t h a t country."
The p e t i t i o n e r s a r e now
s e i z e d and p o s s e s s e d , by p u r c h a s e and c o n s e n t
of
the
said
natives,
to
their
full
- 1 1 content."
[Thorpe, C h a r t e r s , I ,
That t h i s s p e c i f i c
reflected
legal reality
529-36].
r e c o g n i t i o n of Indian r i g h t s
i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y was
c o n f i r m e d by
r e p o r t o f the S p e c i a l R o y a l Commissioners a p p o i n t e d
visit
to
t h e New
England
colonies.
1664).
York,
I I I , 64-5;
In the course of t h e i r d u t i e s the
C o m m i s s i o n e r s c o n s i d e r e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f c e r t a i n laws o f
colony of Massachusetts.
had
a j u s t r i g h t t o any
possessed
and a l s o had
i m p l i c a t i o n was
which,
of
One
lands within
improved
t h i s and
concluded
Indians]
'till
Massachusetts
the c o l o n y which
"by s u b d u i n g
no t i t l e
Indians
they
t h e same".
t o "unsubdued"
The
The
lands
Commissioners took e x c e p t i o n to
t h a t "no d o u b t t h e c o u n t r y i s t h e i r s
they g i v e i t or s e l l
( S h u r t l e f f , Records
Bay,
the
t o mean " u n c u l t i v a t e d " , would d e p r i v e them
t h e i r hunting grounds.
improoued."
s u c h law p r o v i d e d t h a t the
t h a t I n d i a n s had
i f interpreted
to
( O ' C a l l a g h a n , Documents R e l a t i v e
t h e C o l o n i a l H i s t o r y o f t h e S t a t e o f New
d a t e d 25 A p r i l
i n 1664
the
i t t h o u g h i t be
of the Governor
IV, P a r t I I ( 1 6 6 1 - 7 4 ) ,
[the
not
and Company o f
211 @ 213; d a t e d 24
May
1 665)
E a r l y V i r g i n i a T r e a t i e s 1646,
B.
The
Two
seventeenth
English authorities
1677
century t r e a t i e s concluded
i n V i r g i n i a and
between
the I n d i a n s r e f l e c t
t i o n s h i p between t h e p a r t i e s as b e i n g c o n s e n s u a l
and
the
rela-
involving
a
formal p r o t e c t o r a t e .
The
first
A s s e m b l y o f 1646
was
treaty set forth
concluded
a s " K i n g o f t h e I n d i a n s " , and
i n an A c t o f the
between one
Virginia
Necotowance, d e s c r i b e d
the people of the c o l o n y .
The
t r e a t y p r o v i d e d t h a t Necotowance and h i s p e o p l e would be f r e e
i n h a b i t and h u n t on t h e n o r t h s i d e o f Y o r k R i v e r w i t h o u t
i n t e r r u p t i o n from t h e E n g l i s h , l e a v i n g a c e r t a i n
for
the E n g l i s h t o i n h a b i t .
t r a c t of land
Necotowance a c k n o w l e d g e s " t o h o l d
to
-
h i s kingdome from the K i n g ' s
u n d e r t a k e s t o pay
12
-
am'tie
(amnity) of England"
an a n n u a l t r i b u t e .
p r o m i s e s t o p r o t e c t him
a g a i n s t any
I n r e t u r n , the
and
Assembly
r e b e l s or enemies."
(Hening,
V i r g i n i a S t a t u t e s , I , 323-6)
The
second t r e a t y was
concluded
i n 1677.
I t was
be-
tween the Queen o f Pamunkey, the K i n g o f the N o t t o w a y s , and
ous
other
I n d i a n r u l e r s and
the
Lieutenant-Governor
i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f s p e c i a l c o m m i s s i o n e r s s e n t by
Virginia
Indian
Council of State.
The
t h e i r wrongs and
Queens " h e n c e f o r t h
upon, and
the
t r e a t y e s t a b l i s h e s peace w i t h
the
injuries.
"their
The
just rights"
Indian Kings
a c k n o w l e d g e t o have t h e i r
t h a t "each I n d i a n K i n g
t o g o v e r n t h e i r own
C o u n c i l of England.
On
and
and
immediate dependency
people."
(Grant
and
Queen have e q u a l
& Munro, A c t s
C o l o n i a l S e r i e s I , #1169, pp.
t o the L o r d s o f T r a d e f o r t h e i r o p i n i o n .
t h a t the
t r e a t y a p p e a r e d t o be
s e c u r i t y of his s u b j e c t s .
issued directing
t h a t the
It
power
of the P r i v y
733-9)
the C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' r e t u r n t o E n g l a n d , t h e
referred
ly
the King
owned a l l s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e g r e a t K i n g o f E n g l a n d . "
also provided
the
Virginia
and
s i g n a t o r i e s , undertakes to c o n f i r m
to r e d r e s s
of
vari-
treaty
They
was
reported
f o r the s e r v i c e o f H i s M a j e s t y
An O r d e r - i n - C o u n c i l
t e x t be
sent
was
and
according-
for p r i n t i n g , which
was
done.
(Great B r i t a i n , P u b l i c Record O f f i c e .
C a l e n d e r of S t a t e P a p e r s ,
C o l o n i a l S e r i e s , 1677 - 80, #272, I . p.97; 23 September 1677;
1677-80, #445, p.169. G r a n t & Munro, A c t s of the P r i v y C o u n c i l
o f E n g l a n d . C o l o n i a l S e r i e s I , #1169, p.733; 19 O c t o b e r
1677)
The
Treaty
c o n s t i t u t e s an a u t h o r i t a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n
t h e Crown's v i e w s as t o t h e
s t a t u s o f I n d i a n p e o p l e s and
l a n d s w i t h i n the A m e r i c a n t e r r i t o r i e s .
the
As
and
traditional
lands, accepted
English
Crown.
r i g h t s to s e l l
their
seen f r o m i t s t e x t ,
Indian Nations, while r e t a i n i n g important
sovereignty
of
powers o f
or r e t a i n a l l or p a r t of
tribal
their
a protectorate r e l a t i o n s h i p with
the
-
C.
-
13
The
I r o q u o i s Deeds:
The
a s s o c i a t i o n between I n d i a n N a t i o n s and
t h e Crown
whereby t h e U n i t e d Kingdom assumed p r o t e c t o r a t e o b l i g a t i o n s
characterized
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the I r o q u o i s N a t i o n s
the E n g l i s h Crown i n t h e 18th C e n t u r y .
occupied extensive t e r r i t o r y
Canada.
The
including
r e l a t i o n s h i p was
first
The
and
Iroquois Nations
l a n d i n what i s
f o r m a l i z e d i n 1701
Sachems o f t h e F i v e N a t i o n s o f t h e I r o q u o i s met
now
when t h e
i n conference
A l b a n y w i t h t h e L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r o f t h e C o l o n y o f New
York.
( O ' C a l l a g h a n , Documents R e l a t i v e t o t h e C o l o n i a l H i s t o r y o f
S t a t e o f New
at
the
Y o r k , I V , 896-911)
In h i s o p e n i n g
address, the L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r
t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e K i n g ' s k i n d n e s s and
assured
p r o t e c t i o n , reminding
them
o f t h e i r d u t y t o a d h e r e t o t h e E n g l i s h Crown as a g a i n s t t h e
French.
He
i n q u i r e d as t o w h e t h e r the I r o g u o i s were aware t h a t
the F r e n c h had
constructed a f o r t at D e t r o i t .
I r o q u o i s promised
t o be f a i t h f u l
t o the Crown and
F r e n c h e n c r o a c h m e n t on t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s .
the B r i t i s h King prevent t h i s .
render c e r t a i n lands which
In response
the
complained
They r e q u e s t e d
In r e t u r n they o f f e r e d
the
that
to sur-
t h e y had p r e v i o u s l y a c q u i r e d by
con-
q u e s t f r o m o t h e r I n d i a n s , on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e y r e t a i n
their
h u n t i n g r i g h t s i n p e r p e t u i t y u n d e r t h e Crown's p r o t e c t i o n .
A
deed was
cit;
drawn up t o r e f l e c t
I V , 908-11, d a t e d
confirmed
t h i s agreement.
19 J u l y
(O'Callaghan,
1701)
In 1726,
the F i v e N a t i o n s o f the I r o q u o i s
t h e 1701
a r r a n g e m e n t and
s i g n e d , a new
Confederacy
deed whereby
t h e y g r a n t e d t o t h e Crown a l l t h e i r l a n d s around
the lower
L a k e s , " t o be p r o t e c t e d and
late
f o r t h e use o f t h e s a i d
op.
defended
by H i s s a i d
Great
Majesty...
Nations."
T h i s f o r m a l p r o t e c t o r a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p , based
as
i t was
on c o n s e n t , d i d n o t d i v e s t I n d i a n N a t i o n s e i t h e r o f t h e i r
rights
-
to
the l a n d o r t o t h e i r
of the
Affairs
t r a n s a c t i o n on
i n 1756
-
14
inherent sovereignty.
land r i g h t s ,
As
t o the
the S e c r e t a r y o f
effect
Indian
reported:
"That memorable and i m p o r t a n t a c t by w h i c h
the
Indians
put
their
Patrimonial
and
Conquered l a n d s under the P r o t e c t i o n o f t h e
King of Great B r i t a i n , t h e i r Father, a g a i n s t
the encroachments or I n v a s i o n s of the French
i s not understood
by them as a c e s s i o n o r
S u r r e n d e r as i t seems t o have been i g n o r a n t l y
o r w i l l f u l l y s u p p o s e d by some. They i n t e n d e d
t o l o o k upon i t as r e s e r v i n g t h e P r o p e r t y and
soil
to themselves
and
Possession
o f the
their Heirs.
T h i s P r o p e r t y the S i x N a t i o n s
a r e by no means w i l l i n g t o p a r t w i t h and a r e
e q u a l l y a d v e r s e and j e a l o u s t h a t any f o r t s o r
S e t t l e m e n t s s h o u l d be made t h e r e o n e i t h e r by
us o r t h e F r e n c h . "
Secretary Worall
to S i r W i l l i a m Johnson,
January
9,
1756
Documents R e l a t i v e t o the
C o l o n i a l H i s t o r y o f the S t a t e o f New
York,
V o l . 7, ( O ' C a l l a g h a n , op. c i t ;
p.18)
Nations
D.
Mohegan I n d i a n s v. C o n n e c t i c u t
The
i s s u e of the c o n t i n u i n g s o v e r e i g n t y of the
after colonial
s e t t l e m e n t was
1703
-
1743
Indian
expressly considered
c e l e b r a t e d P r i v y C o u n c i l d e c i s i o n o f t h e Mohegan I n d i a n s
i n the
v.
Connecticut.
(The G o v e r n o r and Company o f C o n n e c t i c u t and Moheagan I n d i a n s .
(London:
1769; 5 A c t s o f t h e P r i v y C o u n c i l of E n g l a n d , C o l o n i a l
S e r i e s 218; (London:
1 9 1 2 ) ; S m i t h , A p p e a l s t o the P r i v y C o u n c i l
f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n P l a n t a t i o n s 418 (New Y o r k :
1950)
The
tioned
c a s e began i n 1703
the Queen i n C o u n c i l a l l e g i n g
deprived of c e r t a i n
of a f i r s t Royal
t h a t the t r i b e had
t r a c t s o f l a n d w h i c h had
them by t r e a t y w i t h the R o y a l
appealed
when the Moheagan t r i b e
petibeen
been r e s e r v e d
Colony of Connecticut.
C o m m i s s i o n r e s t o r i n g the l a n d t o the
The
to
report
Indians
was
t o the P r i v y C o u n c i l w h i c h h e l d t h a t the s t a t u s o f
Mohegan t r i b e was
the Colony.
a s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n and was
not
subservient
I t a l s o r e j e c t e d the t h e o r y o f c o n q u e s t as a
to
source
-15-
Commission
o f Review t h a t i t s h o u l d
second Royal
The
C o m m i s s i o n o f 1738 was e s t a b l i s h e d , b u t f a i l e d t o
r e s o l v e the matter.
A third
Royal
Court o f Commissioners, convened
numerous t e n a n t s
their t i t l e
re-examine the i s s u e .
i n possession
against the t r i b a l
appear before
Commission, d e s i g n a t e d the
i n 1743; t h a t C o u r t summoned t h e
o f the controverted
land
title.
refused to
The t e n a n t s
to defend
t h i s Commission c h a l l e n g i n g the j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the
Court to determine i n d i v i d u a l
l a n d t i t l e s on t h e b a s i s t h a t
such
a c o u r t was c o n t r a r y t o t h e l a w s o f E n g l a n d , o f C o n n e c t i c u t , and
of the Royal
Charter of the Colonies.
This
issue tested the
a u t h o r i t y o f t h e Crown o v e r i n d i v i d u a l
land t i t l e s
and
and h i s P r i v y C o u n c i l .
was a d i r e c t c h a l l e n g e
t o the King
More i m p o r t a n t l y , i t a l s o p r e s e n t e d
i n the Colony
the J u d i c i a l Commission and,
u l t i m a t e l y , the P r i v y Council with the f i r s t opportunity to
determine the l e g a l s t a t u s o f Indian
t r i b e s w i t h i n the B r i t i s h
Empire.
The
argument a d v a n c e d by t h e c o l o n i s t s was t h a t t h e
I n d i a n s were s u b j e c t s o f G r e a t B r i t a i n ,
Indians'
title
and, as s u b j e c t s , t h e
must t h e r e f o r e be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e l a w s o f e i t h e r
G r e a t B r i t a i n o r t h e C o l o n y . The C o u r t o f C o m m i s s i o n e r s r e j e c t e d
t h i s argument.
Commissioner Horfmanden, w r i t i n g f o r t h e m a j o r i t y
o f t h e C o u r t o f C o m m i s s i o n e r s on t h i s
i s s u e i n 1743 h e l d
"The
Indians,
though
living
amongst t h e
King's
s u b j e c t s i n these
c o u n t r i e s , are a
s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t p e o p l e from them, t h e y
a r e t r e a t e d as s u c h , t h e y have a p o l i c y o f
t h e i r own, t h e y make p e a c e and war w i t h any
n a t i o n o f I n d i a n s , when t h e y t h i n k f i t , w i t h o u t c o n t r o l from t h e E n g l i s h . I t i s a p p a r e n t
the Crown l o o k s upon them n o t as s u b j e c t s ,
b u t as a d i s t i n c t p e o p l e , f o r t h e y a r e ment i o n e d as s u c h t h r o u g h o u t Queen Anne's and
H i s p r e s e n t M a j e s t y ' s C o m m i s s i o n s by w h i c h we
now s i t . And i t i s as p l a i n , i n my c o n c e p t i o n , t h a t t h e Crown l o o k s upon t h e I n d i a n s
as h a v i n g t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e s o i l o f t h e s e
c o u n t r i e s ; and t h a t t h e i r l a n d s a r e n o t , by
his
Majesty's grant o f p a r t i c u l a r l i m i t s o f
them f o r a c o l o n y , t h e r e b y
impropriated i n
his
subject
t i l they
have made f a i r and
h o n e s t p u r c h a s e o f t h e n a t i v e . . . s o t h a t from
hence
I adjure
this
consequence,
that a
matter
of property
i n lands
i n dispute
between t h e I n d i a n s as a d i s t i n c t p e o p l e ( f o r
that:
-
16
-
no A c t has been shown s u b j e c t s , c a n n o t be
d e t e r m i n e d by t h e l a w o f o u r l a n d , b u t by a
law e q u a l t o b o t h p a r t i e s , w h i c h i s t h e l a w
o f n a t u r e and n a t i o n s ; and upon t h i s f o u n d a t i o n , as I t a k e , t h e s e C o m m i s s i o n s have most
properly issued".
1743, 1 2 6 - 1 2 7 . ) "
T h i s d e c i s i o n was c o n f i r m e d by t h e P r i v y
Embodied i n t h i s d e c i s i o n and i t s s u b s e q u e n t
explicit
recognition of t r i b a l
Council.
confirmation
i s the
sovereignty notwithstanding a
t r e a t y agreement t h a t b r o u g h t t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s by c o n s e n t
under
t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e Crown.
E.
The A l b a n y C o n g r e s s , 1754
The
i s s u e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e I n d i a n
N a t i o n s and t h e Crown was t h e s u b j e c t o f e x t e n s i v e
e l e v e n years a f t e r t h e Court o f Commissioners
Mohegan c a s e a t t h e C o l o n i a l c o n g r e s s h e l d
discussion
decision
i n the
a t A l b a n y i n 1754.
T h i s C o n g r e s s was c a l l e d by t h e C o l o n y o f New Y o r k a t t h e
i n s t a n c e o f t h e B r i t i s h Government.
In attendance a t the
C o n g r e s s were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r o m 7 c o l o n i e s .
( L o r d o f Trade t o S i r D a n v e r s O s b o r n e , G o v e r n o r o f New Y o r k , 18
September 1753, O ' C a l l a g h a n , o p . c i t . , V I , 800-802; c i r c u l a r
l e t t e r from t h e L o r d s o f Trade t o t h e G o v e r n o r s i n A m e r i c a , 18
S e p t e m b e r 1753)
In t h e i r l e t t e r
of Trade mentioned
to the Governor
o f New Y o r k , t h e L o r d s
how s i g n i f i c a n t t h e f r i e n d s h i p o f t h e I r o q u o i s
N a t i o n s was t o a l l t h e c o l o n i e s , and r e f e r r e d
quences
to the f a t a l
w h i c h must i n e v i t a b l y f o l l o w from t h e i r n e g l e c t .
conseThe
B o a r d p a r t i c u l a r l y recommended t h a t t h e G o v e r n o r s s h o u l d n o t make
l a n d g r a n t s on t h e b a s i s o f p r i v a t e p u r c h a s e s f r o m t h e I n d i a n s .
R a t h e r , "when t h e I n d i a n s a r e d i s p o s e d t o s e l l
the purchase ought
p u b l i c charge."
any o f t h e i r
land
t o be made i n H i s M a j e s t y ' s name and a t t h e
( O ' C a l l a g h a n , op. c i t . ,
V I , 800-01)
The o p e n i n g s p e e c h t o t h e I r o q u o i s d e p u t i e s was d e l i v e r e d by t h e L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r o f New Y o r k s p e a k i n g f o r a l l t h e
-
Commissioners.
The
c e n t u r y t h e y had
17
-
I n d i a n s were r e m i n d e d t h a t i n the
c o n q u e r e d an e x t e n s i v e c o u n t r y , w h i c h t h e y
l a t e r p u t under t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f the B r i t i s h
were e n d e a v o u r i n g
French
this,
Crown.
to s e i z e t h e i r country.
i n q u i r e d the Governor, w i t h the I n d i a n s '
Hendrick,
the
Now
denied
r e m a r k e d t h a t b o t h E n g l i s h and
French
lands which belong
t o u s , and
our d e s t r u c t i o n . "
(O'Callaghan,
to b u i l d
are
sold
had
forts.
c i t . , VI;
upon by t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s .
The
lands
He
"quarrelling
about
end
in
870.)
A w r i t t e n r e p l y t o t h e I r o q u o i s ' s p e e c h was
agreed
for a l l
s u c h a q u a r r e l as t h i s may
op.
doing
consent?
that h i s people
o r g i v e n them p e r m i s s i o n
had
the
Were t h e y
C h i e f o f t h e Upper Mohawks, r e p l i e d
I r o q u o i s N a t i o n s , and
to the French
previous
then
document c l e a r l y
describes
the p o s i t i o n o f the I r o g u o i s l a n d s i n q u e s t i o n .
"You d i d p u t t h i s l a n d u n d e r t h e K i n g o u r
f a t h e r , he i s now t a k i n g c a r e to p r e s e r v e i t
f o r y o u ; t o t h i s end, among o t h e r s , he
has
d i r e c t e d us t o meet you h e r e , f o r we know,
t h e l a n d i s u n d e r t h e K i n g ' s government y e t
t h e p r o p e r t y o r power o f s e l l i n g i t t o any o f
His M a j e s t y ' s s u b j e c t s under a u t h o r i t y from
him we a l w a y s c o n s i d e r as v e s t e d i n you."
( O ' C a l l a g h a n , op. c i t . , V I ; 872.)
Chief Hendrick,
i n response,
t h e p r o m i s e t o p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s and
expressed
the l a n d s w i t h
acknowledgement t h a t the r i g h t o f s e l l i n g
(O'Callaghan,
op.
c i t . , VI;
gratitude for
"the
i t i s i n us."
876.)
A t the c l o s e o f t h e C o n g r e s s , a j o i n t R e p r e s e n t a t i o n
the B r i t i s h
Government was
colonial delegates.
firstly
drawn up and
I t made two
ial
principle
t h a t the p r a c t i c e o f p u r c h a s i n g
i n d i v i d u a l s without a l i c e n s e
be p r o h i b i t e d and
a p p r o v e d by
assembled
recommendations:
l a n d s f r o m the
from H i s M a j e s t y
t h a t a l l such purchases
Government from t h e I n d i a n s
the
to
Indians
or a Royal
be made by
in public Council; secondly,
by
officthe
that
- 1 8 -
I n d i a n c o m p l a i n t s r e g a r d i n g any g r a n t s o r p o s s e s s i o n o f
l a n d s f r a u d u l e n t l y o b t a i n e d be
redressed.
inquired
( O ' C a l l a g h a n , op. c i t . ,
i n t o and
V I ; 888.)
their
a l l injuries
Subsequent
i n s t r u c t i o n s embodying t h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s were s e n t t o t h e
Governors
colonies.
of the
( S u l l i v a n , F l i c k e t a l . , P a p e r s o f S i r W i l l i a m J o h n s o n , I , 528-30
d a t e d 20 May 1755; L a b a r e e , R o y a l I n s t r u c t i o n s t o B r i t i s h
C o l o n i a l G o v e n o r s , I I #667, 669, 671, 672 pp 465-9.
For t h e
b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e s e I n s t r u c t i o n s see L o r d s o f Trade t o L o r d s
J u s t i c e s , 22 A p r i l 1755, O ' C a l l a g h a n , V I , 949.)
Thus, i n r e v i e w i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f the I r o q u o i s g r a n t s
t o the C o n g r e s s
i n Albany, a period
e x t e n d i n g o v e r more t h a n a
h a l f a c e n t u r y , i t i s a r e c o g n i z e d p r i n c i p l e between b o t h
the
I n d i a n N a t i o n s and
rights
t h e I m p e r i a l Crown t h a t the I n d i a n had
to t h e i r land w i t h i n the l i m i t s
The
c l a i m e d as B r i t i s h
source o f those r i g h t s d i d not a r i s e
Imperial
instrument or grant.
Congress
from the terms o f
Particularly
t h a t the r e c o g n i t i o n o f I n d i a n t i t l e
dominions.
striking
acknowledged
emanated not. only f r o m l o c a l o f f i c i a l s
any
i s the
i n the
in a
fact
Albany
single
c o l o n y , b u t from d e l e g a t e s from a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e group
of
c o l o n i e s and, what i s more i m p o r t a n t , from t h e B r i t i s h
government
and
u l t i m a t e l y f r o m t h e Crown
itself.
F.
The
M a r i t i m e P r o v i n c e s 1713
The
relationship established
t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s i n what a r e now
S c o t i a , New
Brunswick
B r i t a i n assuming
Although the B r i t i s h
1763
between G r e a t B r i t a i n
the Canadian
and P . E . I , was
protectorate
-
P r o v i n c e s o f Nova
consensual, with Great
obligations.
Crown had
asserted claims over
most o f the M a r i t i m e R e g i o n o f Canada as e a r l y as 1620
England
Charter, u n t i l
1730
t h e r e g i o n had, w i t h some
r u p t i o n s , been under F r e n c h hegemony.
in
1713
and
New
inter-
By t h e T r e a t y o f U t r e c h t
t h e F r e n c h C l a i m s i n t h e R e g i o n were r e n o u n c e d ,
F r e n c h A c a d i a came under B r i t i s h
i n the
control.
The
Royal
and
-
-
19
I n s t r u c t i o n s s e n t t o t h e G o v e r n o r o f Nova S c o t i a a f t e r
o f U t r e c h t i n 1719 c o n t a i n e d
Indians.
the Treaty
several a r t i c l e s dealing with
One i n p a r t i c u l a r , w h i c h r e m a i n e d
i n force u n t i l at
l e a s t t h e 1770's, p r o v i d e s :
"...and w h e r e a s we have j u d g e d i t h i g h l y n e c e s s a r y f o r o u r s e r v i c e t h a t you should c u l t i v a t e and m a i n t a i n a f r i e n d s h i p and good c o r respondence w i t h the Indians i n h a b i t i n g w i t h i n o u r s a i d P r o v i n c e o f Nova S c o t i a , t h a t
t h e y may be i n d u c e d by d e g r e e s n o t o n l y t o be
good n e i g h b o u r s t o o u r s u b j e c t s b u t l i k e w a s e
t h e m s e l v e s t o become good s u b j e c t s t o u s ; we
do t h e r e f o r e d i r e c t y o u upon y o u r a r r i v a l i n
Nova S c o t i a t o send f o r t h e s e v e r a l heads o f
t h e s a i d I n d i a n N a t i o n s o r c l a n s and p r o m i s e
them
friendship
and
protection
i n His
M a j e s t y ' s p a r t ; y o u w i l l l i k e w i s e bestow upon
them i n o u r name as y o u r d i s c r e t i o n
shall
d i r e c t s u c h p r e s e n t s as y o u s h a l l c a r r y f r o m
hence f o r t h e i r u s e . "
(Lobaree, Royal
#673, p.469.)
I n s t r u c t i o n s to B r i t i s h C o l o n i a l Governors I I
These i n s t r u c t i o n s a c c o r d w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
Maritime
of the
I n d i a n N a t i o n s , namely t h a t t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s were n o t
t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d u n d e r t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e Crown o r l o s e
t h e i r land except w i t h t h e i r express
consent.
c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e Micmac N a t i o n
h o s t i l i t i e s between t h e B r i t i s h
i n their role
and t h e F r e n c h .
MicMac's were a l l i e s o f t h e K i n g o f F r a n c e ,
nized h i ssovereignty.
When t h e F r e n c h
N a t i o n t h a t t h e y were n o t m e n t i o n e d
they s t a t e d t h a t they
and
considered
and
1725
informed
recog-
t h e Micmac
(Rogers,
an i n d e p e n d e n t
people
"The Abbe Le L o u t r e "
Rev. 105.)
to regard
themselves
as
and h o s t i l i t i e s ensued between t h e B r i t i s h
the Indian Nations.
a t r e a t y was s i g n e d
I t was t o end t h o s e
i n Boston
Agreement o f t h e D e l e g a t e s
ument t h e I n d i a n
Although the
i n the Treaty of U t r e c h t ,
I n f a c t t h e Micmacs c o n t i n u e d
a l l i e s o f the French
i n the
t h e y had n e v e r
themselves
not the s u b j e c t s o f B r i t a i n .
(1936) X I C a n a d i a n H i s t .
T h i s p o s i t i o n was
Delegates:
hostilities
headed "The S u b m i s s i o n
o f the Eastern Indians".
that i n
and
By t h i s
doc-
-
20
-
"...acknowledge
His
said
Majesty
King
G e o r g e ' s j u r i s d i c t i o n and d o m i n i o n o v e r t h e
territories
of the said Province
o f Nova
S c o t i a o f A c a d i a , and make o u r s u b m i s s i o n t o
H i s s a i d M a j e s t y i n as ample a manner as we
have f o r m e r l y done t o t h e most C h r i s t i a n
K i n g , ( i . e . t h e F r e n c h Crown)."
The
last recital
i d e a , which continued
were a l l i e s
t o be p r e s s e d
by F r a n c e ,
and n o t s u b j e c t s o f t h e c o l o n i a l
The
should
was i n s e r t e d p r i m a r i l y t o r e f u t e t h e
Indian delegates
or outrage,
longed
w o u l d make s a t i s f a c t i o n
peoples
subjects " i n their
ments a l r e a d y made o r l a w f u l l y t o be made".
robbery
powers.
a l s o promised t h a t t h e i r
n o t m o l e s t any o f H i s M a j e s t y ' s
mitted
that the Indians
settle-
I f any I n d i a n s
com-
the t r i b e o r t r i b e s to which they beto the i n j u r e d p a r t i e s .
o f any d i s p u t e o r i n j u r y between B r i t i s h
In case
s u b j e c t s and I n d i a n s ,
a p p l i c a t i o n w o u l d be made f o r r e d r e s s a c c o r d i n g
to H i s Majesty's
laws.
Apart
nature
from p r o v i d i n g e v i d e n c e as t o t h e
o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
Crown, t h e M a r i t i m e
ficant
consensual
Treaty
o f 1725 and i t s s u c c e s s o r s
i n s o f a r as t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e d
and t h e
were
that the Indians
signi-
were t o be
d e a l t w i t h as an o r g a n i z e d
body o f p e o p l e ,
and
i n t e r n a l systems o f government.
This
i n the a r t i c l e p r o v i d i n g t h a t each
tribe
with their d i s t i n c t i v e
i s f u r t h e r demonstrated
was
t o be c o l l e c t i v e l y
British
w i t h t h e i r own
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r damages.
By c o n t r a s t , t h e
Government i n i t s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e A c a d i a n s
(the o r i g i n a l
French i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e c o u n t r y ) , sought submissions
Crown on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s .
Majesty's
Indians
The c l a u s e s t i p u l a t i n g
to the
that His
l a w s s h a l l g o v e r n d i s p u t e s between t h e s e t t l e r s and t h e
c l e a r l y recognized
the existence of c o n f l i c t
the p r e s e n c e o f s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t i v e
territory.
leaders
By n e c e s s a r y
Indian Nations
legal
arising
from
systems w i t h i n the
i m p l i c a t i o n , d i s p u t e s between and w i t h i n
were t o be d e a l t w i t h by I n d i a n l a w .
-
The
in p a r t i c u l a r
1725 T r e a t y was renewed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s and
i n 1752, f o l l o w i n g a p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h t h e
I n d i a n s had f o u g h t on t h e F r e n c h
w i t h England.
-
21
side i n continuing
A f o r m a l t r e a t y was c o n c l u d e d
hostilities
between t h e G o v e r n o r
i n C o u n c i l , on b e h a l f o f t h e Crown, and t h e C h i e f sachem and
d e l e g a t e s o f t h e t r i b e o f Micmac I n d i a n s
C o a s t o f Nova S c o t i a .
the Eastern
The T r e a t y o f 1752 renewed t h e terms o f
t h e T r e a t y o f 1725, and p r o v i d e d
transgressions, stating
inhabiting
f o r a mutual f o r g i v i n g o f past
t h a t t h e I n d i a n s s h a l l have " a l l f a v o u r ,
f r i e n d s h i p and p r o t e c t i o n shown them f r o m H i s M a j e s t y ' s
Government".
( T e x t i n I n d i a n T r e a t i e s and S u r r e n d e r s , I I ,
p.682-5.)
In t o t a l ,
twelve
with various Indian Nations
t r e a t i e s and a d h e s i o n s
i n the Maritime
All
t r e a t i e s were c o n s e n s u a l ,
of the Indian Nations.
t h e terms o f t h e
the p a r t i c u l a r
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
concluded
R e g i o n and t h e
I m p e r i a l Crown between 1693 and 1794. A l t h o u g h
t r e a t i e s v a r y , e a c h one i l l u s t r a t e s
were
character of
and I m p e r i a l Crown.
and a l l r e c o g n i z e d
the sovereignty
Thus, t h e 1794 t r e a t y , was an a g r e e m e n t ,
"Between t h e 2 K i n g s , George
Indian King John J u l i a n . . . "
Further, although
I I I and t h e
some t r e a t i e s were e n t e r e d
a g e n t s o f t h e Crown, o t h e r s e x p l i c i t l y
agreement was w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l Crown.
recognized
i n t o by
that the
I n t h e 1752 T r e a t y , men-
t i o n e d above, c l a u s e 6 p r o v i d e s :
"This
Government... h e r e b y p r o m i s e s on t h e
p a r t o f H i s Majesty that the s a i d
Indians
s h a l l upon t h e f i r s t d a y o f O c t o b e r Y e a r l y ,
so l o n g a s t h e y s h a l l c o n t i n u e i n F r i e n d s h i p ,
R e c e i v e P r e s e n t s o f B l a n k e t s , T o b a c c o , Some
Power and S h o t . . . "
F i n a l l y , most o f t h e t r e a t i e s had l a n g u a g e o f p r o t e c t i o n , above n o t e d .
Some had c l e a r t r u s t s e s t a b l i s h e d t o p r o t e c t
-
certain
lands.
-
22
F o r e x a m p l e , i n the
treaty
o f 1779,
the
a n t G o v e r n o r o f Nova S c o t i a gave t o the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t
A f f a i r s f o r the P r o v i n c e
o f Nova S c o t i a and
l e a d e r s , " i n t r u s t f o r and
t r a c t of land
East
of
a group of
on b e h a l f o f t h e M a l i c a t e
Coast p a r a l l e l e d
the c o n t a c t w i t h
Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n
G.
Indian
Indians,
a
the
Indian Nations
Iroguois
r e f l e c t e d p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n s e n t w h i c h were l a t e r t o be
i n the
Indian
defined..."
T h u s , the p a t t e r n o f c o n t a c t w i t h the
the
Lieuten-
The
I t was
Royal
of
and
embodied
1763.
Proclamation
of
t h e d i s c o n t e n t o f the
1763
Indian Nations
caused
by
t h e westward e x p a n s i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t
among the New
Colonies during
t h a t l e d to the c a l l i n g of
the mid-18th c e n t u r y
the Albany Congress.
As
instructions
were s e n t
G o v e r n o r s o f the v a r i o u s c o l o n i e s r e g a r d i n g
Nations
o f the N o r t h e r n
p o r t , to e i t h e r
the
proper r e c o g n i t i o n of
century,
the
Six
v i e w e d as the l y n c h p i n
B r i t i s h Colonies.
the s t a b i l i t y ,
c o l o n i a l empire.
F r a n c e i n 1754
By mid
to
that
i n the
T h e i r m i l i t a r y sup-
the F r e n c h i n Canada o r to t h e B r i t i s h C o l o n i e s ,
would t h r e a t e n e d
other
Indian Nations.
I r o q u o i s C o n f e d e r a c y was
security
England
a r e s u l t o f the d e l i b e r a t i o n s o f
C o n g r e s s , more e x p l i c i t R o y a l
t h e r i g h t s o f the
on
The
heightened
i f not
the e x i s t e n c e , o f
the
o n s e t o f the Seven Y e a r s War
I m p e r i a l a w a r e n e s s o f the
r o l e w h i c h the I n d i a n N a t i o n s
played
with
strategic
between the two
European
combatants.
The
Nations
of the
most r e c e n t
during
research
the Seven Y e a r s War
i n t o the r o l e o f the
Indian
provides
not
ample p r o o f
only
B r i t i s h p e r c e p t i o n o f the s t r a t e g i c m i l i t a r y i m p o r t a n c e o f
the S i x N a t i o n s
and
t h e i r a l l i e s , but
a l s o the e x t e n s i v e
macy used i n by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the B r i t i s h Crown t o
the c o n t i n u e d
a l l i a n c e o f those
d o c u m e n t s the c r u c i a l r o l e
Indian Nations.
t h a t the
The
Indian Nations
diploassure
research
played
i n the
- 23
m a j o r c a m p a i g n s o f the war,
and
-
a l s o shows t h a t n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h
the I n d i a n s p r o c e e d e d upon t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y were
dent n a t i o n s capable
of pursuing
(Stagg, Anglo-Indian
R e l a t i o n s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a t o 1763,
ment o f I n d i a n and N o r t h e r n
t h e i r own
Affairs
ity
foreign policies.
1981).
the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e Crown c h a r g e d
became c o n v i n c e d
assured
t h a t the
with primary
responsibilIndian
Indian a l l i a n c e could only
incorporating Indian policy
by
Depart-
S i r W i l l i a m Johnson,
f o r engaging i n d i p l o m a t i c n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h the
Nations,
indepen-
be
into:
"a s o l e m n p u b l i c t r e a t y t o a g r e e upon c l e a r
and f i x e d b o u n d a r i e s between o u r S e t t l e m e n t s
and t h e i r h u n t i n g g r o u n d s so t h a t e a c h p a r t y
may know t h e i r own and be a m u t u a l P r o t e c t i o n
t o each o t h e r o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o s s e s sions."
( S u l l i v a n , p a p e r s o f J o h n s o n I I 879)
I n 1758,
to c o n s o l i d a t e the a l l i a n c e o f the
Nations, a conference
a t t r a c t e d one
was
held at Easton.
o f t h e l a r g e s t and
This
conference
most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c r o s s
t i o n of Indian delegates ever
t o a s s e m b l e i n one
500
including
i n d i v i d u a l s were p r e s e n t ,
council.
and W e s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a .
Some
British
t h e Crown was
a g r e e i n g w i t h , the p r i n c i p l e
t h e A l l e g e n i c s were t o be r e g a r d e d
At t h i s
conditional
important
i n the Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n o f
While
and
authorities.
and
incorpor-
t h e d e t a i l e d p r o v i s i o n s o f the T r e a t y o f
a l l i a n c e of the S i x N a t i o n s
the
1763.
the c o l o n i e s of P e n n s y l v a n i a
other colonial
upon
as I n d i a n h u n t i n g g r o u n d s
r e s o l v e d most o f t h e o u t s t a n d i n g p r o b l e m s between the
Nations
alli-
t h a t l a n d s to the west of
were n o t open f o r s e t t l e m e n t - a p r i n c i p l e l a t e r t o be
ated
the
several other
a s s e m b l y i t became c l e a r t h a t t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a f o r m a l
ance between t h e I n d i a n s and
sec-
spokesman f o r e a c h o f
S i x N a t i o n s , t h e D e l a w a r e s o f t h e Susquehanna and
T r i b e s of Northern
Indian
remained
and
New
threatened
Easton
Indian
Jersey,
the
by a c t i o n s o f
-
T h e r e f o r e , when t h e C o l o n y
areas uncomfortably
o f New Y o r k p r o p o s e d t o g r a n t l a n d i n
the Board
the o p p o r t u n i t y t o w r i t e a comprehensive
report to the King, s e t t i n g
colonies.
-
c l o s e to the Iroquois t e r r i t o r i e s ,
o f T r a d e i n 1761 t o o k
t o be p u r s u e d
24
f o r t h the b a s i c p o l i c i e s which ought
n o t o n l y i n New Y o r k b u t a l l t h e o t h e r
American
The r e p o r t s t a t e d t h a t t h e main r e a s o n w h i c h p r o m p t e d
the I n d i a n s t o make war on t h e E n g l i s h was:
" t h e C r u e l t y and I n j u s t i c e w i t h w h i c h t h e y
been
treated, with
Respect
to t h e i r
had
H u n t i n g G r o u n d s , i n open V i o l a t i o n o f t h o s e
Solemn Compacts by w h i c h t h e y had Y i e l d e d t o
Us t h e D o m i n i o n b u t n o t t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e i r
Lands."
This r e p o r t l e d t o the i s s u i n g o f Royal
to the King's d e t e r m i n a t i o n to support
"in
I n s t r u c t i o n s which
refer
and p r o t e c t t h e I n d i a n s
t h e i r j u s t r i g h t s and p o s s e s s i o n s , "
f o r b i d d i n g the Governors
o f t h e v a r i o u s c o l o n i e s f r o m p a s s i n g any g r a n t s o f l a n d s
possessed
by t h e I n d i a n s .
to issue proclamations
F u r t h e r , t h e G o v e r n o r s were
i n the King's
name r e q u i r i n g
who had s e t t l e d on I n d i a n l a n d s w i t h o u t
remove t h e m s e l v e s ,
perusal.
a l l persons
lawful authority to
and r e q u i r i n g a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s t o p u r c h a s e
I n d i a n l a n d s t o be f i r s t
and
instructed
The R o y a l
t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e Crown f o r s c r u t i n y
I n s t r u c t i o n s o f 1761 c l e a r l y
r e v e a l the
I m p e r i a l Crown's d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o c o n s o l i d a t e I n d i a n p o l i c y i n
accordance with p r i n c i p l e s
a l l i a n c e o f the Indian
t h a t would e n s u r e t h e c o n t i n u e d
Nations.
I n 1 7 6 3 , a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e Seven Y e a r s
B r i t a i n and F r a n c e
terms,
signed
the Treaty o f P a r i s .
B r i t a i n a c q u i r e d the French
o f Cape B r e t o n and S t . J o h n s ,
east of the M i s s i s s i p p i
to i t s
c o l o n y o f Canada, t h e i s l a n d s
and a s e c t o r o f o l d L o u i s i a n a
River.
According
T r e a t y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e Crown's t i t l e
as F r e n c h
to B r i t i s h
lying
law, t h i s
to t h a t p a r t o f p r e s e n t day
Canada w h i c h s t r e t c h e s f r o m t h e M a r i t i m e
f a r west and n o r t h w e s t
Pursuant
War,
P r o v i n c e s i n t h e E a s t as
Canada e x t e n d e d i n 1763.
- 25
With
the s i g n i n g o f t h e T r e a t y o f P a r i s t h e
Government s o u g h t t o a d d r e s s
in particular
territories
-
the p o l i t i c a l
and
the i s s u e s a r i s i n g
British
from the
peace,
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the newly a c q u i r e d
the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c o n s o l i d a t e d I m p e r i a l
p o l i c y w i t h the I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
Both
o f t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s were to
be embodied i n t h e R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n o f 1763.
The
Proclamation
is unilateral
i n form; h o w e v e r , i n i t s p r o v i s i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h
Indian p o l i c y
i t i s a restatement
o f p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h had
f o r t h e most p a r t , p r e v i o u s l y emodied i n compacts w i t h
various Indian
the
Nations.
L o r d Egemont, S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e
Department, i n correspondence
indicated
been,
Southern
to the C o l o n i a l G o v e r n o r s i n
the r a t i o n a l e behind
the Royal
1763
Proclamation:
The
Second Q u e s t i o n
which r e l a t e s
to
the
S e c u r i t y o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , seems t o i n c l u d e
Two O b j e c t s t o be p r o v i d e d f o r ; The f i r s t i s ,
t h e S e c u r i t y o f t h e w h o l e a g a i n s t any E u r o pean Power; The n e x t i s t h e P r e s e r v a t i o n o f
the
t h e i n t e r n a l P e a c e and T r a n q u i l i t y o f
C o u n t r y a g a i n s t any I n d i a n D i s t u r b a n c e s .
Of
t h e s e Two O b j e c t s , t h e l a t t e r a p p e a r s t o c a l l
more i m m e d i a t e l y
f o r such
Regulations
and
think
P r e c a u t i o n s as Your L o r d s h i p s s h a l l
proper to suggest, e t c .
Tho i n o r d e r t o s u c c e e d e f f e c t u a l l y i n t h i s
P o i n t , i t may become n e c e s s a r y t o e r e c t some
F o r t s i n t h e I n d i a n C o u n t r y , w i t h t h e i r Cons e n t , y e t H i s M a j e s t y ' s J u s t i c e and M o d e r a t i o n i n c l i n e s Him t o a d o p t t h e more e l i g i b l e
Method o f
conciliating
the
Minds o f
the
I n d i a n s by t h e M i l d n e s s o f H i s Government, by
protecting
t h e i r Persons
and P r o p e r t y
and
s e c u r i n g t o them a l l t h e P o s s e s s i o n s , R i g h t s
enjoyed,
and P r i v i l e g e s t h e y have h i t h e r t o
and a r e e n t i t l e d t o , most c a u t i o u s l y g u a r d i n g
a g a i n s t any I n v a s i o n o r O c c u p a t i o n o f t h e i r
Hunting Lands, the P o s s e s s i o n of which i s to
be a c q u i r e d by f a i r P u r c h a s e o n l y . "
( L e t t e r s f r o m L o r d Egemont t o L o r d s o f T r a d e , May 5, 1763.
R e p r i n t e d i n C a n a d i a n A r c h i e v e s Documents R e l a t i n g t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y o f Canada:
1759-1791)
The
p r o t e c t o r a t e o b l i g a t i o n o f the Crown i s s p e c i f i c -
a l l y d e l i n e a t e d i n P a r t IV o f the P r o c l a m a t i o n , which
t h a t lands possessed
recognizes
by I n d i a n s anywhere i n B r i t i s h N o r t h
a r e r e s e r v e d t o them u n l e s s and
until
ceded t o t h e Crown.
America
This
-
territorial
integrity
s e t t l e m e n t s and
26
-
i s p r o t e c t e d by r e s t r i c t i o n s on
purchases.
grants,
Part IV a l s o c l o s e s l a r g e p a r t s of
N o r t h A m e r i c a t o s e t t l e m e n t , r e s e r v i n g i t f o r use o f t h e
N a t i o n s as t h e i r h u n t i n g
t e r r i t o r i e s , s u b j e c t to the
right
o f the Crown t o a c q u i r e t h e l a n d w i t h I n d i a n c o n s e n t .
t r a c t s are d e s i g n a t e d
o f the P r o c l a m a t i o n
a f r e e t r a d e zone.
The
recital
Indian
Those
of P a r t
IV
states,
"Whereas i t i s j u s t and r e a s o n a b l e and e s s e n t i a l t o Our I n t e r e s t and t h e S e c u r i t y o f Our
C o l o n i e s t h a t the s e v e r a l N a t i o n s o r T r i b e s
and
o f I n d i a n s , w i t h whom We a r e c o n n e c t e d
who l i v e under Our P r o t e c t i o n s h o u l d n o t be
molested o r d i s t u r b e d i n the P o s s e s s i o n o f
Territories
t h e P a r t s o f Our D o m i n i o n s and
a s , n o t h a v i n g been ceded t o o r p u r c h a s e d
by
Hunting
Us, a r e r e s e r v e d t o them, as t h e i r
Grounds;"
It
i s important
this recital.
to understand
the comprehensiveness of
I t p r o v i d e s the c l e a r e s t r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t I n d i a n
N a t i o n s have r i g h t s
to t e r r i t o r i a l
integrity
i n a l l those
areas
of North America i n which they r e t a i n p o s s e s s i o n of t h e i r
t i o n a l l a n d s , and
where t h e y have n o t e n t e r e d
c e s s i o n w i t h t h e Crown f o r t h e c o n s e n s u a l
tradi-
into treaties
a c q u i s t i o n of
of
those
l a n d s by the Crown.
In
a d d i t i o n t o r e c o g n i z i n g and p r o t e c t i n g t h e
of t e r r i t o r i a l
i n t e g r i t y o f I n d i a n l a n d s , the P r o c l a m a t i o n
a m o r a t o r i u m on s e t t l e m e n t on t h e v a s t a r e a o u t s i d e t h e
a r i e s o f such e x i s t i n g
Hudson's Bay
which
principle
bound-
newly a c q u i r e d c o l o n i e s ( i n c l u d i n g
Territories.).
This i s achieved
through
places
the
paragraph
states:
"And We do f u r t h e r d e c l a r e i t t o be Our R o y a l
W i l l and P l e a s u r e f o r the p r e s e n t as a f o r e s a i d , t o r e s e r v e under Our S o v e r e i g n t y t h e
P r o t e c t i o n and D o m i n i o n , f o r t h e Use o f t h e
s a i d I n d i a n s a l l t h e Lands and
Territories
n o t i n c l u d e d w i t h i n the L i m i t s o f Our
said
T h r e e New G o v e r n m e n t s , o r w i t h i n t h e L i m i t s
o f t h e T e r r i t o r y g r a n t e d to t h e Hudson's Bay
Company, as a l s o a l l Lands and T e r r i t o r i e s s
l y i n g t o t h e Westward o f t h e S o u r c e s o f t h e
R i v e r s w h i c h f a l l i n t o the Sea f r o m t h e West
and N o r t h w e s t , as a f o r e s a i d ; and We do h e r e b y
2
-
-
27
s t r i c t l y f o r b i d , on P a i n o f Our D i s p l e a s u r e ,
a l l Our l o v i n g s u b j e c t s f r o m m a k i n g any P u r chases or
Settlements
whatever or
taking
Lands
above
Possession
of
any
of
the
reserved,
without
Our
e s p e c i a l Leave
and
License f o r t h a t Purpose f i r s t o b t a i n e d . "
This clause recognizes
t h e l a n d s o u t s i d e the b o u n d a r i e s
as e x c l u s i v e l y
o f the t h r e e new
Quebec, E a s t F l o r i d a , West F l o r i d a ,
t e r r i t o r y , and
a l l those
Indian
territory
c o l o n i e s of
the Hudsons' Bay
Company's
l a n d s w e s t o f the A p p a l a c h i a n
These p r o v i s i o n a r e r e i n f o r c e d by t h e
first
Mountains.
paragraph
of P a r t IV which p r o v i d e s :
"We
do t h e r e f o r e , w i t h the A d v i c e
of
Our
P r i v y C o u n c i l , d e c l a r e i t t o be Our
Royal
Will
and
Pleasure,
that
no
Governor
or
Commander i n C h i e f i n any o f Our C o l o n i e s o f
Quebec, E a s t F l o r i d a o r West F l o r i d a , do p r e sume upon any p r e t e n s e
whatever, to
grant
W a r r a n t s o f S u r v e y o r p a s s any P a t e n t s f o r
Lands beyond the Bounds o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
G o v e r n m e n t s , as d e s c r i b e d
in their
Conditions;
and
as a l s o ,
t h a t no G o v e r n o r
or
Commander i n C h i e f
i n any
of
Our
Other
C o l o n i e s o r P l a n t a t i o n s i n A m e r i c a , do p r e sume, f o r the p r e s e n t , and u n t i l Our F u r t h e r
known, t o g r a n t
Warrants
of
Pleasure
be
S u r v e y o r p a s s P a t e n t s f o r any Lands beyond
t h e Heads o r S o u r c e s o f any o f t h e R i v e r s
w h i c h f a l l i n t o the A t l a n t i c Ocean f r o m t h e
West and N o r t h w e s t , o r upon any Lands whate v e r w h i c h , n o t h a v i n g been ceded t o , o r p u r c h a s e d by Us as a f o r e s a i d , a r e r e s e r v e d t o
t h e s a i d I n d i a n s o r any o f them."
Paragraph 3 of the P r o c l a m a t i o n
o f r e c o g n i z i n g the t e r r i t o r i a l
p r o t e c t i o n of those
u n d e r l i n e s the
policy
i n t e g r i t y o f I n d i a n Land and
lands from non-consensual
intrusion.
states:
"And
We
do
further strictly
enjoin
and
required
a l l Persons
whatever,
who
have
either
willfully
or
inadvertently
seated
themselves
upon
any
Lands
within
the
Countries
above d e s c r i b e d , o r a p p o i n t
any
o t h e r Lands w h i c h , n o t h a v e i n g been ceded t o ,
o r p u r c h a s e d by Us, a r e s t i l l r e s e r v e d t o the
said
Indians
as
aforesaid, forthwith
to
remove t h e m s e l v e s f r o m s u c h s e t t l e m e n t s . " s l 5 3
It
the
-
In
boundaries
order
to provide
f o r f u r t h e r settlement w i t h i n the
and t o a v o i d t h e f r a u d u l e n t p r a c t i c e s o f t h e p a s t ,
the f o u r t h paragraph
prepared
-
o f t h e e x i s t i n g new c o l o n i e s and t h e Hudson's Bay
territories
procedure
28
o f the P r o c l a m a t i o n s
f o r the c e s s i o n o f those
to s e l l .
sets out the d e t a i l e d
lands which the Indians are
The c e n t r e p i e c e o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e
c e s s i o n must be t o t h e Crown.
The f o u r t h p a r a g r a p h
i s that the
provides:
w h e r e a s g r e a t F r a u d s and Abuses have
"And
been c o m m i t t e d i n t h e p u r c h a s i n g o f Lands o f
t h e I n d i a n s , t o t h e g r e a t P r e j u d i c e o f Our
I n t e r e s t , and t o t h e g r e a t D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o f
t h e s a i d I n d i a n s ... We ... s t r i c t l y e n j o i n
t h e s a i d I n d i a n s o f any Lands r e s e r v e d t o t h e
said
I n d i a n s , w i t h i n those
P a r t s o f Our
C o l o n i e s where We have t h o u g h t
proper to
a l l o w S e t t l e m e n t ; b u t t h a t i f , a t any T i m e ,
any o f t h e s a i d I n d i a n s s h o u l d be i n c l i n e d t o
d i s p o s e o f t h e s a i d L a n d s , t h e same s h a l l be
p u r c h a s e d o n l y f o r Us i n Our Name, a t some
Public
Meeting
o r Assembly
o f the s a i d
I n d i a n s t o be h e l d f o r t h a t P u r p o s e by t h e
Governor
o r Commander
i n Chief
o f Our
Colonies respectively."
It
i s important
t e c t e d by t h e P r o c l a m a t i o n
side the boundaries
to r e a l i z e
t h a t the Indian lands
are n o t c o n f i n e d to those
lying
proout-
o f t h e new and o l d p r o v i n c e s and t o t h e w e s t -
ward o f t h e A p p a l a c h i a n
Mountains.
I n d i a n r i g h t s t o unceded l a n d s
the c o l o n i a l governors
b u t a l s o t o unceded
o f the c o l o n i e s .
the g r a n t i n g o f patents
recognizes
i n t h e i r possession not o n l y
within t h i s larger Indian t e r r i t o r y ,
w i t h i n the boundaries
The P r o c l a m a t i o n
lands
Thus t h e p r o h i b i t i o n on
f o r l a n d i s d i r e c t e d b o t h t o g r a n t s by
o u t s i d e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e b o u n d a r i e s , and
to
unceded l a n d s w i t h i n t h e c o l o n i e s .
to
unceded I n d i a n l a n d s a p p l i e s b o t h
The p r o h i b i t i o n on g r a n t s
t o the newly a c q u i r e d
c o l o n i e s and t o t h e e x i s t i n g c o l o n i e s .
The
Royal
I n s t r u c t i o n s t o G o v e r n o r M u r r a y o f Quebec i n
December 7, 1763 make i t c l e a r
t h a t a l l unceded I n d i a n
was p r o t e c t e d by t h e P r o c l a m a t i o n .
territory
The I n s t r u c t i o n s r e a d :
"Article
60: And w h e r e a s o u r P r o v i n c e o f
Quebec i s i n p a r t i n h a b i t e d and p o s s e s s e d by
s e v e r a l N a t i o n s and T r i b e s o f I n d i a n s , w i t h
whom i t i s b o t h n e c e s s a r y and e x p e d i e n t t o
c u l t i v a t e and m a i n t a i n a s t r i c t F r i e n d s h i p
-
29
-
and good C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , so t h a t t h e y mayb e
i n d u c e d by D e g r e e s , not o n l y t o be good
Neighbours to our S u b j e c t s , but l i k e w i s e
t h e m s e l v e s t o become good S u b j e c t s t o Us; You
a r e t h e r e f o r e , as soon as you c o n v e n i e n t l y
can, to appoint a proper Person or Persons to
a s s e m b l e , and t r e a t w i t h t h e s a i d I n d i a n s ,
p r o m i s i n g and a s s u r i n g them t o P r o t e c t i o n and
F r i e n d s h i p on Our p a r t , and d e l i v e r i n g them
such P r e s e n t s as s h a l l be s e n t t o you f o r
that purpose.
A r t i c l e 61: And You a r e t o i n f o r m y o u r s e l f
w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t E x a c t n e s s o f t h e Number,
N a t u r e and D i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e v e r a l N a t i o n s
o r T r i b e s o f I n d i a n s , o f t h e manner o f t h e i r
L i v e s and t h e R u l e s and C o n s t i t u t i o n s ,
by
which they are governed or r e g u l a t e d .
And
you a r e upon no A c c o u n t t o m o l e s t o r d i s t u r b
them i n t h e P o s s e s s i o n o f such P a r t s o f t h e
s a i d P r o v i n c e as t h e y a t p r e s e n t o c c u p y o r
p o s s e s s ; b u t t o use the b e s t means you can
for
conciliating
their
Affections,
and
u n i t i n g them t o o u r G o v e r n m e n t , r e p o r t i n g t o
Commissioners
for trade
and
Us,
by
our
Plantations,
whatever
I n f o r m a t i o n you
can
c o l l e c t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e P e o p l e , and the
w h o l e o f y o u r P r o c e e d i n g s w i t h them.
A r t i c l e 62: Whereas We h a v e , by Our P r o c l a m a t i o n d i d a t t h e 7 t h day o f O c t o b e r i n the 3 r d
y e a r o f o u r R e i g n , s t r i c t l y f o r b i d , on p a i n
o f D i s p l e a s u r e a l l o u r S u b j e c t s from m a k i n g
any P u r c h a s e s
or Settlements whatever,
or
taking
Possession
of
any
of
the
Lands
r e s e r v e d f o r the s e v e r a l N a t i o n s of I n d i a n s ,
w i t h Whome we a r e c o n n e c t e d , and who
live
under o u r
Protection
without
Our
special
Leave f o r t h a t P u r p o s e f i r s t o b t a i n ; I t i s
o u r e x p r e s s W i l l and P l e a s u r e , t h a t you t a k e
t h e most e f f e c t u a l C a r e t h a t o u r r o y a l D i r e c t i o n s h e r e i n be p u n c t u a l l y c o m p l i e d w i t h and
t h a t t h e T r a d e w i t h such o f t h e s a i d I n d i a n s
as depend upon y o u r Government be c a r r i e d on
i n t h i s Manner, and under t h e R e g u l a t i o n s
p r e s c r i b e d i n Our s a i d P r o c l a m a t i o n . "
That the P r o c l a m a t i o n a p p l i e d
to the o l d P r o v i n c e of
Quebec i s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d
by r u l i n g s o f t h e E x e c u t i v e C o u n c i l
o f Quebec.
1766,
On December 22,
Marie Joseph
Phiebot
petitioned
t h e C o u n c i l f o r a g r a n t o f 20,000 a c r e s o f Land i n the c o l o n y o f
Quebec.
result,
T h i s l a n d had
t h e l a n d was
n o t been ceded by the I n d i a n s and,
not
granted.
"The
Committee h a v i n g t a k e n t h e same i n t o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n and a r e o f O p i n i o n t h e Lands so
p r a y e d t o be a s s i g n e d a r e , o r a r e c l a i m e d t o
be t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e I n d i a n s , and as s u c h
by H i s M a j e s t y ' s e x p r e s s command as s e t f o r t h
i n t h i s P r o c l a m a t i o n i n 1763, n o t w i t h i n
t h e i r power t o g r a n t ; The
Committee a r e
further
of
the
Opinion
that
they
are
as a
-
30
-
r e s t r a i n e d by H i s M a j e s t y ' s s a i d O r d e r f r o m
g r a n t i n g Lands but upon the C o n d i t i o n s
therein contained."
( e m p h a s i s added)
On
O c t o b e r 22,
1788,
the C o u n c i l c o n s i d e r e d
c a t i o n s o f M a j o r James G r e y , L i e u t e n a n t
Campbell.
The
appli-
Angus McDonald and
Bench c o n s i s t e d o f L o r d D o r c h e s t e r
J u s t i c e W i l l i a m s Smith.
the
A l l three p e t i t i o n s
and
the
George
Chief
involved applica-
t i o n s f o r l a n d w h i c h were p a r t o f unceded I n d i a n t e r r i t o r y .
Court
The
r u l e d as f o l l o w s :
1,000
"The P e t i t i o n o f Mayor James G r e y f o r
the
a c r e s o f the I n d i a n l a n d s which j o i n
t r a c t t h a t he has a l r e a d y drawn was
read.
Petitioner
states
that
the
land
he
The
applies for i s Indian property.
The Committ e e c a n n o t recommend a G r a n t o f l a n d s w h i c h
d i d n o t a p e r t a i n t o t h e Crown.
L i e u t e n a n t Angus McDonald l a t e o f t h e
71st
R e g i m e n t p r a y s f o r l a n d s i n a t r a c t between
C h a r l o t t e n b u r g and C o r n w a l l r e s e r v e d f o r the
I n d i a n s . The C o m m i t t e e c a n n o t recommend t h i s
p r a y e r as t h e P e t i t i o n s t a t e s t h a t t h e Land
he p r a y s f o r i s I n d i a n p r o p e r t y .
George Campbell
late
A Sergeant
in Col.
B u l t e r ' s Corpus of
Rangers p r a y s
for his
Quarter
of
Land
on
the
Indian
tract
at
Edwardsborough.
As the Lands p r a y e d f o r a r e
n o t v e s t e d i n the Crown, the M o r i a l i s t
may
have h i s p r o p o r t i o n i n any o f the new Towns h i p s l a t e l y s u r v e y e d between the Upper and
Lower S e t t l e m e n t s . "
The
Royal Proclamation
makes no p r o v i s i o n f o r the
c i s e o f j u r i s d i c t i o n w i t h i n the I n d i a n t e r r i t o r y o u t s i d e
boundaries
tains.
o f the c o l o n i e s and
The
Lords
west o f the A p p a l a c h i a n
o f T r a d e r e j e c t e d the s u g g e s t i o n
exer-
the
Moun-
t h a t the
areas
be b r o u g h t w i t h i n the j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the C o l o n y o f Canada.
This
i m p l i e s t h a t the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e
N a t i o n s , both
w i t h i n each N a t i o n , and
be g o v e r n e d by t h e i r own
laws.
Indian
between the N a t i o n s
( S h o r t t and
were to
D o u g h t y , Documents
R e l a t i n g t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y o f C a n a d a , 1759-1791 .
150,
I,
151.)
When the L o r d s
Proclamation
o f 1763,
o f T r a d e were asked
t h e y were a l s o r e q u e s t e d
to p r e p a r e
the
to prepare
a
Royal
-
"General
America.
I n d i a n A f f a i r s " was
plan
-
P l a n t o r e g u l a t e the c o n d u c t o f f r e e t r a d e w i t h
Indians of North
tendents
31
A " P l a n f o r the
consequently
of Indian A f f a i r s
Future
Management o f
t r a n s m i t t e d t o the
i n America.
The
the
two
Superin-
42nd c l a u s e o f
the
provides:
"42nd.
T h a t p r o p e r m e a s u r e s be t a k e n w i t h
the c o n s e n t and c o n c u r r e n c e o f the I n d i a n s t o
a s c e r t a i n and d e f i n e the p r e c i s e and
exact
b o u n d a r y and l i m i t s o f the l a n d s w h i c h i t may
be p r o p e r t o r e s e r v e t o them and where no
s e t t l e m e n t w h a t s o e v e r s h a l l be a l l o w e d "
Here i s t h e most e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e
c o n s e n t i n the e s t a b l i s h m e n t
t i o n of
the
1763
o f the l a n d s
t o the p r i n c i p l e
s u b j e c t t o the
protec-
Proclamation.
That p r i n c i p l e
was
immediately
i m p l e m e n t e d by
further
c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e L o r d s o f T r a d e i n a l e t t e r t o the K i n g
E n g l a n d on
t h e 7 t h o f M a r c h , 1768.
of
They r e p o r t :
In a p l a n " f o r the
management o f
Indian
A f f a i r s p r e p a r e d by t h i s B o a r d i n 1764,
the
f i x i n g a B o u n d a r y between t h e S e t t l e m e n t s o f
your
Majesty's
Subjects
and
the
Indian
C o u n t r y was
p r o p o s e d t o be e s t a b l i s h e d by
compact w i t h
the
Indians,
as
essentially
n e c e s s a r y t o the g a i n i n g t h e i r good w i l l and
a f f e c t i o n , and t o p r e s e r v i n g the t r a n q u i l i t y
of the C o l o n i e s .
This Plan having
been communicated t o
the
Superintendents
t h e y have i n the c o n s e q u e n c e
t h e r e o f , made t h e p r o p o s i t i o n o f s u c h a boundary
line
an
object
of
their
particular
a t t e n t i o n , and o f n e g o t i a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n
w i t h the s e v e r a l T r i b e s o f I n d i a n s i n t e r e s t e d
therein.
In t h e S o u t h e r n d i s t r i c t a Boundary l i n e has
n o t o n l y been e s t a b l i s h e d by a c t u a l T r e a t i e s
w i t h the C r e e k s , C h e r o k e e s and C h a c t a w s , b u t
as a l s o , as f a r as r e l a t e s t o the P r o v i n c e s
o f N o r t h and S o u t h C a r o l i n a , been marked o u t
by a c t u a l S u r v e y s , and
has had
t h e happy
e f f e c t t o r e s t o r e P e a c e and Q u i e t t o
those
Colonies.
In t h e
Northern
D i s t r i c t the
proposition
a p p e a r s t o have been r e c e i v e d by the I n d i a n s
and
w i t h the s t r o n g e s t marks o f a p p r o b a t i o n
s a t i s f a c t i o n , and a l i n e o f s e p a r a t i o n was i n
1765 s u g g e s t e d by them, i n w h i c h S i r W i l l i a m
Johnson a c q u i e s c e d ,
d e c l a r i n g a t the
same
t i m e , t h a t he c o u l d not f i n a l l y r a t i f y i t
without your Majesty's f u r t h e r d i r e c t i o n . "
T h i s l e t t e r and
the
of
t r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s to w h i c h i t
- 32
-
r e f e r s p r o v i d e the c l e a r e s t p o s s i b l e evidence
t i o n and
i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n was
t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s and
t o was
and
Proclama-
c o n c e i v e d as a compact between
t h e Crown.
n e g o t i a t e d w i t h the Creek
o f 1765
t h a t the
One
of the t r e a t i e s
Nation.
The
referred
T r e a t y of P i c o l a p a
e s t a b l i s h e d the East F l o r i d a A n g l o - I n d i a n boundary
the t e x t of t h i s t r e a t y r e f l e c t s the nature of the
s h i p between t h e I n d i a n s and
Proclamation of
line
relation-
t h e Crown i n the a f t e r m a t h o f
the
1763.
"To
prevent
a l l d i s p u t e s on
account
of
E n c r o a c h m e n t s o r s u p p o s e d E n c r o a c h m e n t s , made
by
the
English
I n h a b i t a n t s of
this
His
M a j e s t y ' s s a i d P r o v i n c e , on the Lands o r
H u n t i n g Grounds r e s e r v e d and c l a i m e d by t h e
u p p e r and l o w e r N a t i o n s o f C r e e k I n d i a n s , and
t h a t no d o u b t s , m i s t a k e s o r d i s p u t e s , may f o r
the f u t u r e a r i s e , i n C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the
great
marks
of
friendship,
benevolence,
c l e m e n c y g e n e r o s i t y and p r o t e c t i o n , e x t e n d e d
to us, the s a i d I n d i a n s o f the upper
and
l o w e r C r e e k N a t i o n s , by h i s M a j e s t y , K i n g
George
the
Third;
We
the
Chiefs,
Head
Warriors,
and
Leaders
of
our r e s p e c t i v e
N a t i o n s , by v i r t u e and i n p u r s u a n c e o f t h e
f u l l r i g h t and power w h i c h we now have and
do
a r e p o s s e s s e d o f , have a g r e e d , and we
hereby
agree,
that
for
the
future
the
Boundary l i n e o f H i s M a j e s t y ' s s a i d p r o v i n c e
o f E a s t F l o r i d a , s h a l l be..."
In the n o r t h e r n d i s t r i c t S i r W i l l i a m J o h n s o n h e l d a
Congress
i n 1768
resulted
i n deeds o f c e s s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n l a n d s e a s t o f a
boundary l i n e
blish
w i t h the S i x N a t i o n s at F o r t Stanwix.
"which
we
have now
agreed
as t h e Boundary between us and
This
upon and do h e r e b y
the B r i t i s h
esta-
Colonies in
America".
Between 1763
entered
1867
w e l l o v e r s e v e n t y T r e a t i e s were
i n t o between the s o v e r e i g n K i n g s & Queens o f
B r i t a i n , or t h e i r agent
Nations.
and
The
t h e Hudson's Bay
t r e a t i e s underscore
Company, and
the c o n s e n s u a l
Great
the I n d i a n
relationship
a f f i r m e d by the R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n .
H.
The N e g o t i a t i o n s S u r r o u n d i n g
t h e T r e a t y o f Ghent
I n l i g h t o f the t h e R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n o f 1763
express recognition of t r i b a l
sovereignty enunciated
and
i n the
the
Privy
- 33 -
C o u n c i l ' s d e c i s i o n i n t h e Mohegan c a s e ,
i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that
many o f t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
c h o s e t o f i g h t on t h e B r i t i s h
the A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n a r y
War.
Symbolic of the Indian
percep-
tion of their relationship with
t h e Crown, t h e C h e r o k e e
Nation,
which fought
separate
w i t h the B r i t i s h ,
refused
to surrender
t r e a t y o f peace w i t h t h e U n i t e d
n e i t h e r the B r i t i s h
surrender
States.
without
They
hostilities
until
a
recognized
a t Yorktown nor the Treaty
as b i n d i n g on them and c o n t i n u e d
side i n
of Paris
congressional
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s agreed to a mutual d e m o b i l i z a t i o n a t Hopewell i n
1785.
I t i s instructive
c a p i t u l a t i o n or surrender
Indian A f f a i r s :
that there
i s no r e f e r e n c e
i n t h a t document.
L o u i s and T r e a t i e s
to t h e i r
(C.J. Kappler,
2
( W a s h i n g t o n , D.C.: 1904)
In no l e s s an e x p l i c i t manner, t h o s e
Indian
Nations
s i d i n g w i t h t h e American R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s sought the r e c o g n i t i o n
of t h e i r
first
The
s t a t u s as n a t i o n s .
Indian Nation
to conclude a t r e a t y with the United
text of that Treaty,
Delawares " t e r r i t o r i a l
"to j o i n the present
the D e l a w a r e N a t i o n
in Congress."
The
I n 1778, t h e D e l a w a r e s became t h e
i n a d d i t i o n to guaranteeing
rights",
States.
to the
i n v i t e s them, w i t h o t h e r
tribes,
c o n f e d e r a t i o n , and t o form a s t a t e , w h e r e o f
shall
be t h e h e a d , and have a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
(C.J. Kappler,
op. c i t . , 3.)
p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t embodied i n t h e R o y a l
m a t i o n o f 1763 was a l s o r e f l e c t e d
Procla-
i n one o f t h e e a r l y c o n g r e s -
s i o n a l a c t s made a f t e r t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n .
The N o r t h w e s t
O r d i n a n c e o f 1787 s t a t e s :
"The
utmost
good
faith
shall
always
be
o b s e r v e d toward t h e I n d i a n s ; t h e i r l a n d and
p r o p e r t y s h a l l n e v e r be t a k e n from them w i t h out
their
consent;
and i n t h e p r o p e r t y ,
r i g h t s and l i b e r t y t h e y s h a l l n e v e r be i n v a d e d o r d i s t u r b e d u n l e s s i n j u s t and l a w f u l
wars a u t h o r i z e d by C o n g r e s s . "
The
A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n d i d n o t end B r i t i s h
over the f a t e o f the Indian Nations
torial
boundaries o f the United
concern
r e s i d e n t w i t h i n the t e r r i -
States.
The n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e
-34-
Treaty
o f Ghent i n 1814 i l l u s t r a t e s
British
in actual occupation
British
n e g o t i a t o r s made i t c l e a r
o f any s e t t l e m e n t
R e l a t i o n s 706, 711
nations.
(3 A m e r i c a n S t a t e P a p e r s ,
( W a s h i n g t o n , D.C.:
counterparts
Foreign
1832)
t h a t the f u t u r e o f
S t a t e s , s i n c e t h e t r i b e s were n o t r e p r e s e n t e d
The B r i t i s h
rather
amongst them;
" t h a t no
S t a t e s ; t h a t her o b j e c t
means, t o i n t r o d u c e
[and] t h a t t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n s
by w e l l - d e f i n e d b o u n d a r i e s . "
enlightened
and humane t o w a r d s t h e
t h a n t h a t p u r s u e d by t h e U n i t e d
b e e n , by a l l p r a c t i c a l
and
than
d e l e g a t i o n was t o l d
n a t i o n o b s e r v e d a p o l i c y more l i b e r a l
Indians
States
The A m e r i c a n s s o u g h t t o p a i n t a p i c t u r e o f
federal Indian p o l i c y .
civilization
were s e c u r e d
t o them
(3 A m e r i c a n S t a t e P a p e r s , op. c i t . ,
a l s o 712)
This f a i l e d
to s a t i s f y
They a c c u s e d t h e U n i t e d
illustrated
by t h e i r p r o g r e s s i v e o c c u p a t i o n
these
terri-
t o s e i z e Canada and
As t h e B r i t i s h p e r c e i v e d
S t a t e s had a d o p t e d a p o l i c y
Indian Nations
representatives.
o f the Indian
abortive efforts
t h e i r purchase o f L o u i s i a n a .
United
the B r i t i s h
States of a p o l i c y of "aggrandisement"
t o r i e s , as w e l l as by t h e i r
i t , the
" t h a t a l l the t e r r i t o r y
which
occupy i s a t the d i s p o s a l o f the U n i t e d
S t a t e s ; t h a t the United
it;
The
t r i b e s was no p r o p e r c o n c e r n i n a t r e a t y between B r i t a i n
the United
706;
The
was a t h r e s h o l d i s s u e and t h e " s i n e qua
were, moreover, s u b j e c t s o f the U n i t e d
has
territory.
to t h e i r American
The A m e r i c a n n e g o t i a t o r s i n s i s t e d
and
o f the
on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e 1812 war and were
o f much o f t h e d i s p u t e d
t h a t the Indian q u e s t i o n
Indian
stance
a u t h o r i t i e s on t h e q u e s t i o n o f I n d i a n s o v e r e i g n t y .
I n d i a n t r i b e s had f o u g h t
non"
the continued
S t a t e s have a r i g h t
to dispossess
them o f
t o e x e r c i s e t h a t r i g h t whenever t h e i r p o l i c y o r i n t e r e s t s
seem t o them t o r e q u i r e i t ; and t o c o n f i n e
may be s e l e c t e d , n o t by t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s ,
government."
the U n i t e d
In e f f e c t
them t o such s p o t s
as
b u t by t h e A m e r i c a n
"the B r i t i s h d e l e g a t i o n concluded
S t a t e s had d e c l a r e d
may
that a l l Indian Nations
that
within i t s
-
-
35
line of demarcation were its subjects, living there upon suffrance on lands which it also claims the exclusive right of
a c q u i r i n g , t h e r e b y menancing the f i n a l
Nations."
to
extinction
t h e y were e n t i t l e d t o be a c c o r d e d
the q u e s t i o n o f t r i b a l
d e l e g a t i o n reasoned,
fate".
territorial
S t a t e P a p e r s , op. c i t . , 713,
On
714,
t r i b e s remained
As B r i t i s h
integrity.
715,
the c o n t i n u i n g p r a c t i c e
sovereign.
unprepared
721,
allies
(3
722,
723)
s o v e r e i g n t y , the B r i t i s h
S t a t e s i n making t r e a t i e s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l
706;
these
Under t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , G r e a t B r i t a i n was
"abandon t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s t o t h e i r
American
of
(3 A m e r i c a n
of the U n i t e d
t r i b e s proved
t h a t the
S t a t e P a p e r s , op. c i t . ,
722)
The
U.S.
d e l e g a t i o n argued
the d o c t r i n e o f
preemption:
"Under t h a t s y s t e m t h e I n d i a n s r e s i d i n g w i t h i n t h e U.S. a r e so f a r i n d e p e n d e n t t h a t t h e y
l i v e u n d e r t h e i r own c u s t o m s , and n o t u n d e r
t h e l a w s o f the U.S.:; t h a t t h e i r r i g h t s upon
t h e l a n d where t h e y h u n t a r e s e c u r e d t o them
by b o u n d a r i e s d e f i n e d i n a m i c a b l e and v o l u n tary
treaties
between t h e U.S.
and
thems e l v e s ; and t h a t whenever t h o s e
boundaries
a r e v a r i e d i t i s a l s o by a m i c a b l e and v o l u n t a r y t r e a t i e s , by w h i c h t h e y r e c e i v e d f r o m
f o r every r i g h t
t h e U.S. ample c o m p e n s a t i o n
t h e y have t o t h e l a n d s ceded them.
They a r e
so f a r d e p e n d e n t as n o t t o have the r i g h t t o
d i s p o s e o f t h e i r l a n d s t o any p r i v a t e p e r U.S.,
s o n s , n o t t o any Power o t h e r than the
and t o be under t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n a l o n e , and
under
t h t o f any
o t h e r Power.
(3
not
A m e r i c a n S t a t e P a p e r s , op. c i t . , 716; a l s o 720)
The
B r i t i s h were f o r c e d t o concede on t h i s p o i n t , i f
o n l y because the American
position
reflected
law e n u n c i a t e d i n the Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n of
A l t h o u g h the B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n
i n t e g r i t y was
not i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o
i n f l u e n c e d American
the terms o f B r i t i s h
1763.
on t r i b a l
territory
the T r e a t y o f Ghent, i t
executive policy.
I n an 1821
o p i n i o n of
A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l of the U n i t e d S t a t e s , the o f f i c i a l
policy
was
put i n these
terms:
and
the
governmental
- 36 "So l o n g as a t r i b e e x i s t s and r e m a i n s i n
possession
of i t s lands,
i t s title
and
possession
are sovereign
and e x c l u s i v e . . .
the Indian
title
continues
only
Although
during their possession, y e t that possession
has been a l w a y s h e l d s a c r e d , and c a n n e v e r be
d i s t u r b e d b u t by t h e i r c o n s e n t .
They do n o t
h o l d under t h e S t a t e s , n o r u n d e r t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s ; t h e i r t i t l e i s o r i g i n a l s o v e r e i g n and
exclusive."
(1 Op. A t t y . Gen. 465 ("The S e n e c a L a n d s " )
I.
Implementation
The
terms o f the Royal P r o c l a i m a t i o n governed
between t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
Canada.
of the Royal Proclamation
i n Canada
relations
and t h e I m p e r i a l Crown i n t h e a r e a o f
The r e l a t i o n s h i p was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r o t e c t i o n and
consent.
Following the Proclamation
faced w i t h i t s enforcement.
t h e c o l o n y o f Canada was
I n an E x e c u t i v e C o u n c i l M i n u t e , 1766
C a r l e t o n , the Lieutenant-Governer
o f Quebec, r e p o r t e d t o G o v e n o r
M u r r a y t h a t v i o l e n c e was o c c u r r i n g i n l a n d "under H i s M a j e s t y ' s
p r o t e c t i o n " when s e t t l e m e n t s were made beyond t h e l i m i t s o f t h e
Proclamation
ordered
" i n grounds a l l o t t e d
t h a t "everyone i s t o t r e a t
brothers entitled
to His Majesty's
to the Indians".
He t h u s
t h e I n d i a n s as f r i e n d s and
R o y a l P r o t e c t i o n " and t o
f o r t h w i t h abandon s e t t l e m e n t s on I n d i a n g r o u n d s .
The
f a c t t h a t t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s were b e i n g
r e a s s u r e d o f t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e K i n g was r e f l e c t e d
from General
in a letter
Gage t o G o v e r n o r M u r r a y , 1771. Gage o b s e r v e s
w i t h repect to purchases
done i n t h e p r e s e n c e
Indian A f f a i r s
with
expressly
that
o f I n d i a n l a n d , t h e t r a n s a c t i o n must be
o f t h e G o v e r n o r and t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f
"because t h e power t o g r a n t l a n d r e m a i n s
t h e K i n g and t h e K i n g ' s
the Governor t o n u l l i f y
authority."
instructed
any g r a n t made by t h e Commander and any
deed f r o m t h e I n d i a n s made w i t h o u t
F i n a l l y , M u r r a y was t o l d
The l e t t e r
solely
the King's a u t h o r i t y .
t o "answer t h e I n d i a n s t h a t t h e K i n g i s
t h e t e n d e r o f t h i s p r o p e r t y and has made n e g o t i a t i o n s t o p r o t e c t
-
and
defrauded;
37
t h a t Her M a j e s t y
-
has been i n d u c e d
t o make r u l e s on
f r e q u e n t c o m p l a i n t s o f I n d i a n s about w h i t e p e o p l e . . . " .
These
i n s t r u c t i o n s were a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e o u t e r edges o f t h e P r o v i n c e
of
Quebec.
T h i r t y years a f t e r
N a t i o n s were s t i l l
1791
being
Lord Dorchester,
the Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n ,
assured
Indian
o f the King's P r o t e c t i o n . In
t h e G o v e r n e r o f Lower Canada, a d d r e s s e d t h e
C h i e f s and W a r r i o r s a t M o n t r e a l .
I n h i s s p e e c h he r e a s s u r e d t h e
I n d i a n s t h a t t h e i r l a n d w o u l d n o t be t a k e n
and t h a t t h e i r
consent
w o u l d be p r o t e c t e d by t h e K i n g .
"The
King's r i g h t s over your
territory i s
a g a i n s t o t h e r N a t i o n s o f Europe:
The K i n g
n e v e r had any r i g h t s a g a i n s t you e x c e p t t h o s e
parts
surrendered
by you w i t h
your
free
lands
consent...
C o u l d he g i v e away y o u r
w h i c h he had n o t r i g h t t o d o ? . . . .
The K i n g
o f f e r s f r i e n d s h i p c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the general
laws o f the European N a t i o n s . "
In t h e n e x t y e a r
with determining
quired
t h e c o u r t s o f t h e P r o v i n c e s were
t h e r i g h t s o f s e t t l e r s who had m i s t a k e n l y a c -
land w i t h i n Indian t e r r i t o r y thinking
been c e d e d .
t h a t t h e l a n d s had
A T r e a t y i n O n t a r i o had been c o n c l u d e d
Indians surrendering land i n a c e r t a i n area. Grants
within
t h e t e r r i t o r y w h i c h was s u p p o s e d l y
settlers
mistake
were made
surrendered.
When t h e
had been made as t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a c o v e r e d
I n d i a n s agreed
to a fresh treaty
This d e s c r i p t i o n reduced
Disputes
was
with the
wanted t o t a k e p o s s e s s i o n , i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a
t r e a t y . The Government a p p r o a c h e d
tion.
faced
by t h e
t h e I n d i a n s and i n 1792 t h e
i n c o r p o r a t i n g a proper d e s c r i p -
t h e amount o f t e r r i t o r y
ceded.
a r o s e as t o w h e t h e r t h e p r e v i o u s g r a n t s were v a l i d .
held that grants w i t h i n the area confirmed
surrendered
were v a l i d .
by t h e I n d i a n s as
However, t h e E x e c u t i v e C o u n c i l
t h a t g r a n t s made i n t h e a r e a n o t p r o p e r l y s u r r e n d e r e d
( D e c i s i o n o f E x e c u t i v e C o u n c i l , 1793).
It
ruled
were v o i d .
- 38
w i t h a d i f f e r e n t but
In connection
situation,
the Mohawk J o s e p h B r a n t
Surveyor General,
t h a t no
could
advised
take p l a c e
and
on
the
I n d i a n Department
ceding
and
of
Indian A f f a i r s
c u s t o m s o f the I n d i a n s , by p r i n c i p a l e s and
judicial
o f whom the l a n d
S t a t e s was
- 1832.
regarded
The
to a n c i e n t
the
usages
leading c h i e f s of
the s u b j e c t of
with
In r e a c h i n g
have been r e f e r r e d t o as the
St. Catherine's
i n Canada.
Milling
and
As
judgments
Further,
J u s t i c e Strong
Lumber Company v. The
Queen
stated:
they
the
in
after
t h e e a r l y a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s d e c i s i o n s o f the U n i t e d
Supreme C o u r t ,
on
Chief
s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n a l y s i s by
F o r e x a m p l e , Mr.
and
British
s u c h the
i n Canada.
the
have
Canada
his decisions
a n a l y s i s of
America.
a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o the I n d i a n N a t i o n s
courts
United
as the a u t h o r i t a t i v e d e c i s i o n s
i n North
the
extensive
courts of B r i t a i n ,
J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l engaged i n an e x t e n s i v e
Indian Imperial p o l i c y
the
Chief J u s t i c e Marshall during
by the h i g h e s t
Commonwealth C o u n t r i e s
and
belonged."
M a r s h a l l d e c i s i o n s of t h i s p e r i o d
t h e law o f A b o r i g i n a l R i g h t s .
citing
directed that
l e g a l r e l a t i o n s h i p of the I n d i a n Nations
1810
highest
restated,
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n a s e r i e s o f j u d g e m e n t s o f the
come t o be
other
forces in
The
the United
was
the
The M a r s h a l l D e c i s i o n s o f the Supreme C o u r t o f
U.S. - 1810 - 1832
S t a t e s Supreme C o u r t w r i t t e n by
period
under
J.
B r i t a i n and
of
Superinten-
Majesty's
o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s was
" p u r c h a s e s t o be made i n ceremony a c c o r d i n g
Nation or Nations
legally
land.
p o l i c y p r o t e c t i n g I n d i a n l a n d was
the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t
Govenor,
the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of I n d i a n A f f a i r s
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f o f Her
The
the
the
i n s t r u c t i o n s from the H e a d q u a r t e r s
to the Superintendent
America.
by
could
(Quebec) t o S i r J o h n J o h n s o n ,
dent of Indians A f f a i r s ,
North
i n 1792
no g r a n t s
a t r e a t y w i t h the I n d i a n s
In 1794,
designated
was
contemporary
upon the d i r e c t i o n o f the L i e u t e n a n t
settlement
be made w i t h o u t
the
-
States
-
-
39
"The
value
and
importance
of
these
a u t h o r i t i e s i s n o t m e r e l y t h a t t h e y show t h a t
the same d o c t r i n e as t h a t a l r e a d y p r o p o u n d e d
regarding
the t i t l e
of the Indians
to
unsurrendered lands p r e v a i l s i n the United
States,
b u t , what
i s of vastly
greater
importance, they without exception r e f e r i t s
o r i g i n to a date a n t e r i o r to the r e v o l u t i o n
i t as a c o n t i n u a n c e
o f the
and
recognize
p r i n c i p l e s o f l a w o r p o l i c y as t o I n d i a n
titles
then
established
by
the B r i t i s h
government,
and t h e r e f o r e
identical
with
which
have
also
continued
t o be
those
recognized
and a p p l i e d
in British
North
America."
( 1 8 8 7 ) , 13 S.C.R. a t p.610.
In t h e f i r s t
87
case,
F l e t c h e r v . P e c k 10 U.S. (6 C r a n c h )
(1810) t h e B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n t a k e n
T r e a t y o f Ghent was s u p p o r t e d
Johnson.
first
a t the n e g o t i a t i o n s o f the
by t h e judgement o f J u s t i c e
In t h i s case the i s s u e o f the nature
arose
for j u d i c i a l
v a l i d i t y of patents
of Georgia
consideration.
title
The i s s u e i n v o l v e d t h e
o f l a n d made by t h e L e g i s l a t u r e o f t h e S t a t e
over t e r r i t o r y
Indian tribeswas
of Indian
i n the e x c l u s i v e possession
t o be d e c i d e d .
Although
the l e g a l
o f the
argument o f
t h e p a r t i e s was r e p l e t e w i t h d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n a t u r e
o f the
I n d i a n t i t l e , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e c o u r t , i n a judgement w r i t t e n
by C h i e f J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l , a v o i d e d
stated only
d e a l i n g w i t h t h e i s s u e and
that:
"The n a t u r e o f I n d i a n t i t l e , w h i c h i s c e r t a i n l y t o be r e s p e c t e d by a l l C o u r t s , u n t i l
i t be l e g i t i m a t e e x t i n g u i s h e d , i s n o t s u c h a s
to be a b s o l u t e l y r e p u g n a n t t o s e i s i n i n f e e
of a part of t h i s State."
J u s t i c e J o h n s o n was n o t c o n t e n t
inferential
stated
treatment
o f the Indian
that the t r i b e s of Georgia
of t h e i r s o i l " ,
with this
interest.
somewhat
I n d i s s e n t he
were " t h e a b s o l u t e p r o p r i e t o r
a c o n d i t i o n i n c i d e n t t o t h e i r s t a t u s as
"independent people"
as expressed
w i t h them" ( i d . a t 1 4 6 - 7 ) .
i n "inumerable t r e a t i e s
In seeking
formed
t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n o f
what i n t e r e s t t h e S t a t e s had i n t h e I n d i a n
territories
within
t h e i r boundaries,
step, l a t e r
t o be
elaborated
he embarked on t h e f i r s t
by C h i e f J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l , i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f
I n d i a n n a t i o n a l r i g h t s and t h e h i s t o r i c a l
European governments t o t h e I n d i a n
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the
Nations.
-
-
40
"Unaffected
by p a r t i c u l a r
t r e a t i e s , [the
i n t e r e s t o f t h e S t a t e s ] i s n o t h i n g more t h a n
what was assumed a t t h e f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t o f
the c o u n t r y , t o w i t , a r i g h t o f conquest o r
of purchase, e x c l u s i v e l y of a l l competitors
within
c e r t a i n defined
limits.
A l l the
r e s t r i c t i o n s upon t h e r i g h t o f s o i l i n t h e
I n d i a n s , amount o n l y t o an e x c l u s i o n o f a l l
from
their
markets,
and t h e
competitors
l i m i t a t i o n upon t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y amounts t o
the r i g h t o f g o v e r n i n g
every person w i t h i n
t h e i r l i m i t s except themselves."
In Johnson v. M c i n t o s h
controversy
(20 U.S. 8 Wheat) 543 (1823) t h e
concerned the r e c o g n i t i o n o f t i t l e
of land o r i g i n a l l y w i t h i n the claimed
to the vast
l i m i t s of the V i r g i n i a
colony.
I n 1773 and 1775, a g r o u p o f s p e c u l a t o r s p u r c h a s e d
directly
from t h e I l l i n o i s
subsequent date the lands
Nations
and P i a n k e s h a w I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
land
At a
i n q u e s t i o n were ceded by t h e I n d i a n
through t r e a t y t o the United
contained
tracts
S t a t e s , which t r e a t y
no r e s e r v a t i o n o f r i g h t s p r e v i o u s l y g r a n t e d
l a n d s by t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
A member o f t h e l a n d
i n the
speculators
sought to establish title to the lands. As Chief Justice
Marshall stated:
"The
enquiry,
therefore,
i s , in a
great
measure, c o n f i n e d t o t h e power o f I n d i a n s t o
g i v e , and o f p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e c e i v e ,
a t i t l e w h i c h c a n be s u s t a i n e d i n t h e C o u r t s
(21 U.S. a t 5 7 2 ) .
of t h i s country."
On t h i s
nized
i s s u e t h e Supreme C o u r t u n e q u i v o c a l l y
the a u t h o r i t y o f the Indian Nations
land tenure
t h a t system.
recog-
t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r own
s y s t e m and t o make and r e v o k e r i g h t s
to land w i t h i n
As t h e C o u r t s t a t e d :
"The
t i t l e o f t h e Crown, w h a t e v e r i t m i g h t
be, c o u l d be a c q u i r e d o n l y by a c o n v e y a n c e
from t h e Crown.
I f an i n d i v i d u a l
might
e x t i n g u i s h t h e I n d i a n t i t l e f o r h i s own b e n e f i t , o r , i n o t h e r words, might purchase i t ,
still
he w o u l d
acquire
only
that
title.
A d m i t t i n g t h e i r power t o change t h e i r l a w s o r
u s a g e s , so f a r as t o a l l o w an i n d i v i d u a l t o
s e p a r a t e a p o r t i o n o f t h e i r l a n d from common
s t o c k , and h o l d i t i n s e v e r a l t y , s t i l l i t i s
p a r t o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r y , and i s h e l d u n d e r
them, by a t i t l e d e p e n d e n t on t h e i r
laws.
their
The
g r a n t d e r i v e s i t s e f f i c a c y from
w i l l ; a n d , i f t h e y c h o o s e t o resume i t , and
make a d i f f e r e n t d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e l a n d , t h e
Courts o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s cannot i n t e r p o s e
- 41
-
for the p r o t e c t i o n of the t i t l e .
The p e r s o n
who p u r c h a s e s l a n d s f r o m the I n d i a n s , w i t h i n
their territory,
incorporates himself
with
them, so f a r as r e s p e c t s t h e p r o p e r t y
purc h a s e d ; h o l d s t h e i r t i t l e under t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n , and s u b j e c t t o t h e i r l a w s .
I f they
a n n u l the g r a n t , we know o f no t r i b u n a l w h i c h
can
revise
and
set
aside
their
proc e e d i n g s . . . By the t r e a t i e s c o n c l u d e d between
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and
the I n d i a n
Nations,
whose t i t l e the p l a i n t i f f s c l a i m , the c o u n t r y
c o m p r e h e n d i n g the l a n d s i n c o n t r o v e r s y
has
been ceded t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h o u t
any
r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e i r t i t l e .
These N a t i o n s
have been a t war w i t h the U n i t e d S t a t e s , and
right
to a n u l l
any
had
an u n q u e s t i o n a b l e
citizens.
g r a n t t h e y had made t o A m e r i c a n
Their
cession of
the
country,
without
a
r e s e r v a t i o n of t h i s land, a f f o r d s a f a i r presumption t h a t they c o n s i d e r e d
i t as o f
no
validity."
( I d . a t p.590)
In o t h e r w o r d s , the I n d i a n s
p r e r o g a t i v e s had
and
granted
acting within their
r i g h t s to land w i t h i n t h e i r
a t a l a t e r d a t e made a c e s s i o n o f t h o s e
United
States, without
territory
same l a n d s
a r e s e r v a t i o n o f the p r i o r
own
to
the
rights;
t h e r e f o r e the p r i o r r i g h t s were a n n u l l e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e
S t a t e s had
r e c e i v e d an unencumbered t r a n s f e r o f the
J o h n s o n v. M c i n t o s h ,
in
w h i c h the C o u r t c o n s i d e r e d
of land tenure
and
to
American law.
British
and
a n l y s i s i s i n no
contains
the
s m a l l measure due
territory.
a more e l a b o r a t e
tribal
law as
to lands held
to the
i n the United
States.
the h i s t o r i c o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e
European n a t i o n s a r t i c u l a t e d
c o n t r o l w i t h i n North
compared
f a c t that through
t h i s a n a l y s i s l a y the d o c t r i n e of d i s c o v e r y .
provided
theory
r e a s o n s f o r e m b a r k i n g upon
d e c i s i o n C h i e f J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l s o u g h t to r a t i o n a l i z e
of t i t l e
analysis
r e l a t i o n s h i p between the
r i g h t s as a m a t t e r o f
The
United
t h e i r own
the
of
doctrine
through which
rival
this
basis
At the c e n t r e
This
this
the
claims to spheres
America.
"On t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h i s immense c o n t i n e n t ,
the g r e a t n a t i o n s o f E u r o p e were e a g e r to
a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e m s e l v e s so much o f i t as
they
could
r e s p e c t i v e l y a c q u i r e . . . But,
as
t h e y were a l l i n p u r s u i t o f n e a r l y the same
o b j e c t , i t was n e c e s s a r y , i n o r d e r t o a v o i d
c o n f l i c t i n s e t t l e m e n t s , and c o n s e q u e n t war
w i t h each o t h e r , to e s t a b l i s h a p r i n c i p l e
w h i c h a l l s h o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e as the law by
w h i c h the r i g h t o f a c q u i s i t i o n , w h i c h t h e y
of
- 42
-
a l l a s s e r t e d , s h o u l d be r e g u l a t e d as between
themselves.
T h i s p r i n c i p l e was
that d i s c o v e r y gave t i t l e t o the g o v e r n m e n t by whose
s u b j e c t s o r by whose a u t h o r i t y i t was made,
a g a i n s t a l l o t h e r European governments, which
t i t l e m i g h t be
consumated by
possession."
(21 U.S. a t 5 7 0 ) .
Here the d o c t r i n e o f d i s c o v e r y amounts t o no more t h a n
a d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e by w h i c h the
to
d i v i d e up t h e i r r i g h t s t o a c q u i r e
tribal
b u t o n l y as between E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s .
title
was
Indian
European n a t i o n s
The
lands.
I t gave
p e r f e c t i o n of
the
Nations.
p r i n c i p l e o f d i s c o v e r y was
adequate to e s t a b l i s h a
f r a m e w o r k f o r the o r d e r l y d e r i v a t i o n o f l a n d t i t l e s
The
exclusive right
b i n e d w i t h t h e now
lish
title
that
d e p e n d e n t upon the a c q u i s i t i o n o f the r i g h t s o f
The
States.
agreed
land t i t l e s
t o e x t i n g u i s h the
j u d i c a l l y recognized
c o t e r m i n o u s w i t h the
Indian
sovereign
Indian
i n the
title
power t o
title
United
comestab-
( F l e t c h e r v.
P e c k ) s e t f o r t h s u f f i c i e n t g r o u n d s t o d e t e r m i n e the v a l i d i t y
l a n d h o l d i n g s w i t h i n the U n i t e d
was
States.
Chief J u s t i c e Marshall
q u i t e e x p l i c i t t h a t the d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e
covery
was
not
f o u n d e d on
language chosen t o e x p r e s s
a d e n i a l of
this vital
of
Indian r i g h t s .
of
dis-
However
the
p o i n t i s somewhat e n i g -
matic.
" I n the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s , t h e
r i g h t s o f t h e o r i g i n a l h a b i t a n t s w e r e , i n no
instance,
entirely
disregarded;
but
were
necessarily
to a c o n s i d e r a b l e
extent,
impaired.
They were a d m i t t e d t o be t h e r i g h t f u l o c c u p a n t s o f t h e s o i l , w i t h a l e g a l as
w e l l as j u s t c l a i m t o r e t a i n p o s s e s s i o n
of
i t , and t o use i t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r own d i s cretion;
but
their
rights
to
complete
sovereignty,
as
independent n a t i o n s ,
were
n e c e s s a r i l y d i m i n i s h e d , and t h e i r power t o
w i l l , to
d i s p o s e o f t h e s o i l a t t h e i r own
whomsoever t h e y p l e a s e d , was d e n i e d by
the
o r i g i n a l fundamental p r i n c i p l e that d i s c o v e r y
gave e x c l u s i v e t i t l e t o t h o s e who made i t . "
(Id. a t 574).
In f a c t
the d o c t r i n e o f d i s c o v e r y o n l y a f f e c t e d the
s o v e r e i g n t y o f the
Indian Nations
of a l i e n a b i l i t y of land
i n s o f a r as
to Europeans.
original
i t limited
the
scope
- 43
No
less enigmatic,
a r e c e r t a i n s t a t e m e n t s by
sequent nature
-
c o n s i d e r a b l y more
but
problematic
C h i e f J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l on
the
sub-
o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the d i s c o v e r i n g
European s o v e r e i g n s
and
the
Indian sovereigns.
He
stated:
"...The B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t . . . a s s e r t e d a t i t l e
to a l l the l a n d s o c c u p i e d by I n d i a n s w i t h i n
limits
of
the
British
the
chartered
colonies.
It
asserted
also
a
limited
s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r them, an e x c l u s i v e r i g h t o f
e x t i n g u i s h i n g the t i t l e w h i c h o c c u p a n c y gave
to them. However e x t r a v a g a n t l y as p r e t e n t i o n
o f c o n v e r t i n g the d i s c o v e r y o f t h e i n h a b i t e d
i n t o c o n q u e s t may
appear, i f the
country
p r i n c i p l e has
been a s s e r t e d
i n the
first
instance,
and
afterwards
sustained;
if a
c o u n t r y has been a c q u i r e d and h e l d u n d e r i t ;
i f the p r o p e r t y o f the g r e a t mass o f
the
community o r i g i n a t e s i n i t , i t becomes the
questioned.
l a w o f t h e l a n d , and c a n n o t be
concomitant
So
too,
with
respect
to
the
p r i n c i p l e , t h a t the I n d i a n i n h a b i t a n t s are to
be c o n s i d e r e d m e r e l y as o c c u p a n t s , t o be p r o tected,
indeed,
while
i n peace,
in
the
p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e i r l a n d s , but t o be deemed
i n c a p a b l e o f t r a n s f e r r i n g the a b s o l u t e
title
be
to o t h e r s ; however t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n may
o p p o s e d t o n a t u r a l r i g h t , and t o the u s a g e s
o f c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n s , y e t , i f i t be
indispen¬
sible
to t h a t s y s t e m u n d e r w h i c h the c o u n t r y
has been s e t t l e d , and been a d a p t e d t o t h e
a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n o f the two p e o p l e s , i t may,
p e r h a p s , be s u p p o r t e d by r e a s o n , and c e r t a i n l y c a n n o t be r e j e c t e d by c o u r t s o f j u s t i c e . "
(At 588-591).
It
first
i s i n t h i s p a s s a g e t h a t the c o n c e p t o f
appeared.
indicate
There i s n o t h i n g
the s o u r c e
o f the
i n the
theory
and
t e x t o f the d e c i s i o n t o
Chief J u s t i c e Marshall
n o t r e l y upon the t h e o r y o f c o n q u e s t t o r e s o l v e any
before
the
litigated
sentation.
presented
the
were
i n the a b s e n c e o f any
repre-
In the
the
Indian p a r t i c i p a t i o n or
1830's, h o w e v e r , i n the C h e r o k e e
Supreme C o u r t o f the
sovereignty.
The
U.S.
c o n f l i c t arose
and
1791,
integrity
from r i v a l
the C h e r o k e e N a t i o n
the Cherokee N a t i o n
Nations
with a controversy
to both t e r r i t o r i a l
g u a r a n t e e d by a t r e a t y w i t h t h e U n i t e d
of
issues
B o t h F l e t c h e r v. P e c k and J o h n s o n v. M c i n t o s h
between the S t a t e o f G e o r g i a
Holston
o f the
does
court.
scope o f I n d i a n r i g h t s
national
conquest
States.
as
to
and
claims
over
lands
In the T r e a t y
ceded c e r t a i n l a n d s
to
of
the
-
United
-
S t a t e s which i n t u r n "solemnly
Cherokee N a t i o n
Georgia
a l l t h e i r lands
ceded t o t h e U n i t e d
the U n i t e d
guarantee(d) t o the
not hereby ceded."
peaceably.
condition that
title
to the lands
o f t h e S t a t e as soon as i t c o u l d be done
Decades p a s s e d w i t h l i t t l e
extinguished.
I n 1802,
S t a t e s , on t h e e x p r e s s
S t a t e s would e x t i n g u i s h t h e I n d i a n
w i t h i n the borders
being
44
o f t h e Cherokee
title
By t h e 1820's t h e C h e r o k e e s had a d o p t e d
E u r o p e a n f o r m s o f a g r i c u l t u r e and were r e l u c t a n t t o cede any o f
t h e i r remaining
lands.
I n 1827, t h e C h e r o k e e N a t i o n
w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n "which a s s e r t e d
of the sovereign
t h a t t h e C h e r o k e e were one
and i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s o f t h e e a r t h w i t h
p l e t e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e i r own t e r r i t o r y " .
by e n a c t i n g
a legislation
Georgia
the a c q u i s i t i o n .
com-
responded
i n 1828 and 1829 t h a t e x t e n d e d
of the s t a t e to the Indian lands
administer
adopted a
t h e laws
and e s t a b l i s h e d new c o u n t i e s t o
These l a w s were c l e a r l y
in conflict
w i t h t h e T r e a t y o f 1791.
In C h e r o k e e N a t i o n
(1831),
v. G e o r g i a
t h e Supreme C o u r t a v o i d e d
30 U.S.
(5 P e t . )
d e a l i n g with the m e r i t s o f the
c a s e by d i s p o s i n g o f t h e m a t t e r on j u r i s d i c t i o n a l
Article
I I I of the C o n s t i t u t i o n a l defined
grounds.
t h e scope o f j u d i c i a l
power t o i n c l u d e c o n t r o v e r s i e s "between a s t a t e . . . a n d
states."
did
1,
The m a j o r i t y o f t h e C o u r t h e l d
foreign
t h a t the Cherokee
n o t come w i t h i n t h e meaning o f a f o r e i g n s t a t e .
In t h e c o u r s e
o f d i s c u s s i o n o f the s t a t u s o f the
Cherokee N a t i o n , C h i e f J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l s t a t e d :
"Though t h e I n d i a n s a r e a c k n o w l e d g e d t o have
an
unquestionable,
and h e r e t o f o r e
unquest i o n e d r i g h t t o the lands they occupy, u n t i l
that r i g h t
shall
be e x t i n g u i s h e d
by t h e
v o l u n t a r y c e s s i o n t o o u r government; y e t i t
tribes
may w e l l be d o u b t e d w h e t h e r t h o s e
w h i c h r e s i d e w i t h i n t h e a c k n o w l e d g e d bounda r i e s o f the United States can, with s t r i c t
accuracy,
be d e n o m i n a t e d
foreign
nations.
They may, more c o r r e c t l y , p e r h a p s be denominated
domestic
dependent n a t i o n s .
They
o c c u p y a t e r r i t o r y t o w h i c h we a s s e r t a t i t l e
i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e i r w i l l , w h i c h must t a k e
effect
i n point of possession
when
their
Nation
- 45 r i g h t o f possession ceases.
Meanwhile they
Their r e l a t i o n
are i n a s t a t e o f p u p i l l a g e .
to t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e s e m b l e s t h a t o f a ward
to h i s g u a r d i a n . "
The
reference
to the t i t l e
independent o f t h e i r w i l l
covery
asserted a g a i n s t the Indians
i s a reference
to the p r i n c i p l e o f d i s -
and t h e r i g h t o f p r e e m p t i o n c l a i m e d
sovereign
against other
Marshall explained
by t h e d i s c o v e r i n g
European s o v e r e i g n s .
i n J o h n s o n v. M c i n t o s h ,
As C h i e f
Justice
i t was o n l y
in this
s e n s e t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t was m o d i f i e d
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between B r i t a i n
references
i n Cherokee N a t i o n
of p u p i l l a g e , l i k e
is enigmatic
justify
and t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
t o t h e I n d i a n s as b e i n g
i n a state
and has been s e i z e d upon by s u b s e q u e n t c o u r t s t o
a n o n - c o n s e n s u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e U n i t e d
M a r s h a l l one y e a r
unequivocable
later
However, C h i e f
i n W o r c e s t e r v. G e o r g i a
States
Justice
made i t c l e a r
terms t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t
c h a r a c t e r i z e d both
political
The
some o f t h e l a n g u a g e i n J o h n s o n v. M c i n t o s h ,
g o v e r n m e n t and t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
in
as t h e b a s i s o f
the i s s u e s o f t r i b a l
territorial
i n t e g r i t y and
sovereignty.
Worcester v. G e o r g i a
provides
t h e c l e a r e s t and most
c o m p r e h e n s i v e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f I n d i a n r i g h t s t o be
f o u n d i n t h e common l a w w o r l d .
the e a r l i e r cases
for
The e n i g m a t i c
are reformulated
misunderstanding.
statements
found i n
i n ways w h i c h l e a v e no room
The c a s e s t a n d s , t h e r e f o r e , as t h e
c u l m i n a t i o n o f an e v o l v i n g d o c t r i n e on I n d i a n r i g h t s and i s
p r o p e r l y t o be r e g a r d e d
as t h e c e n t r e p i e c e o f t h a t l a w .
i t does address the p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t ,
i n t e g r i t y and p o l i t i c a l
at
both
Because
as t o t e r r i t o r i a l
s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e judgement b e a r s
citing
some l e n g t h .
At t h e b e g i n n i n g
restated
o f h i s judgement t h e C h i e f
t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i s c o v e r y t o make c l e a r
Justice
that w i t h the
s i n g l e exception of that of preemption, the p r i n c i p l e d i d not
derogate
from t h e r i g h t s o f t h e I n d i a n s .
- 46
-
"America,
separated
f r o m Europe by a w i d e
o c e a n was
i n h a b i t e d by a d i s t i n c t
people,
d i v i d e d i n t o separate n a t i o n s , independent of
e a c h o t h e r and o f t h e r e s t o f the
world,
institutions
of
their
own,
and
having
It
o g v e r n i n g t h e m s e l v e s by t h e i r own l a w s .
i s d i f f i c u l t t o comprehend the p r o p o s i t i o n
t h a t the i n h a b i t a n t s o f e i t h e r q u a r t e r of the
g l o b e c o u l d have r i g h t f u l o r i g i n a l c l a i m s o f
d o m i n i o n o v e r t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f the o t h e r ,
o r o v e r the l a n d s t h e y o c c u p y ; o r t h a t t h e
d i s c o v e r y o f e i t h e r by t h e o t h e r s h o u l d g i v e
rights
in
the
country
the
discoverer
d i s c o v e r e d which a n n u l l e d the
pre-existing
r i g h t s of i t s ancient possessors...
powers
of
Europe
The
great
maritime
d i s c o v e r e d and
visited
d i f f e r e n t parts of
t h i s c o n t i n e n t a t n e a r l y t h e same t i m e .
The
o b j e c t was t o o immense f o r any one o f them t o
g r a s p t h e w h o l e , and t h e c l a i m a n t s were t o o
submit
to
the
exclusive
or
powerful
to
single
unreasonable
pretension
of
any
potentante.
To a v o i d b l o o d y c o n f l i c t s w h i c h
m i g h t t e r m i n a t e d i s a s t r o u s l y t o a l l , i t was
Europe
to
necessary
for
the
nations
of
establish
some p r i n c i p l e
which a l l would
a c k n o w l e d g e and
which
should decide
their
respective
rights
as
between
themselves.
T h i s p r i n c i p l e , s u g g e s t e d by t h e a c t u a l s t a t e
o f t h i n g s , was, ' t h a t d i s c o v e r y gave t i t l e to
t h e government by whose s u b j e c t s o r by whose
authority
i t was
made, a g a i n s t a l l o t h e r
European governments, w h i c h t i t l e might
be
consummated
by
possession'
(Johnson
v.
Mcintosh)
T h i s p r i n c i p l e . . . w a s an e x c l u s i v e p r i n c i p l e
w h i c h s h u t o u t t h e r i g h t o f c o m p e t i t i o n among
t h o s e who had a g r e e d
t o i t ; n o t one w h i c h
c o u l d annul the p r e v i o u s r i g h t s of those
who
I t r e g u l a t e d the r i g h t
had n o t a g r e e d t o i t .
given
by
discovery
among
the
European
d i s c o v e r e r s but c o u l d not a f f e c t the r i g h t s
of those a l r e a d y i n p o s s e s s i o n , e i t h e r
as
a b o r i g i n a l occupants
o r as o c c u p a n t s
of a
d i s c o v e r y made b e f o r e t h e memory o f man.
It
gave t h e e x c l u s i v e r i g h t t o p u r c h a s e , b u t d i d
n o t found t h a t r i g h t on a d e n i a l o f the r i g h t
o f the p o s s e s s o r to s e l l . "
Chief J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l , having
h e l d t h a t the
United
S t a t e s s u c c e e d e d t o a l l the c l a i m s o f G r e a t B r i t a i n b o t h
torial
British
and
political,
continued
claims i n North America.
e f f e c t o f the Royal
to review
He
the n a t u r e o f
territhose
d i s c u s s e d the n a t u r e
Charters:
"Soon
after
Great
Britain
determined
on
planting
colonies
in
America,
the
King
granted c h a r t e r s t o companies of h i s subj e c t s , who
a s s o c i a t e d f o r the p u r p o s e
of
c a r r y i n g t h e v i e w s o f t h e Crown i n t o e f f e c t
and o f e n r i c h i n g t h e m s e l v e s .
The f i r s t
of
t h e s e c h a r t e r s was made b e f o r e p o s s e s s i o n was
t a k e n o v e r any p a r t o f t h e c o u n t r y .
They
and
-
-
47
p u r p o r t , g e n e r a l l y , t o convey t h e s o i l , from
the A t l a n t i c t o t h e S o u t h S e a . T h i s s o i l was
occupied
by numerous and w a r l i k e n a t i o n s ,
equally w i l l i n g
and a b l e
t o defend
their
possessions.
The e x t r a v a g a n t and a b s u r d i d e a
t h a t t h e f e e b l e s e t t l e m e n t s made on t h e s e a
c o a s t , o r t h e c o m p a n i e s u n d e r whom t h e y were
made, a c q u i r e d l e g i t i m a t e power by them t o
govern t h e p e o p l e , o r occupy t h e l a n d s from
sea t o s e a , d i d n o t e n t e r t h e mind o f any
man.
They were w e l l u n d e r s t o o d t o c o n v e y t h e
t i t l e w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e common l a w o f
European s o v e r e i g n s r e s p e c t i n g A m e r i c a , they
m i g h t r i g h t f u l l y convey and no more.
This
was t h e e x c l u s i v e r i g h t o f p u r c h a s i n g
such
l a n d s as t h e n a t i v e s were w i l l i n g t o s e l l .
The Crown c o u l d n o t be u n d e r s t o o d
to grant
what t h e Crown d i d n o t a f f e c t t o c l a i m , n o t
was i t so u n d e r s t o o d . "
Based upon t h i s c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n
various early charters, Marshall
of the r e c i t a l s of
concluded:
"These m o t i v e s f o r p l a n t i n g t h e new c o l o n y
the l o f t y
idea o f
are
incompatible
with
g r a n t i n g t h e s o i l and a l l i t s i n h a b i t a n t s
f r o m s e a t o s e a . They d e m o n s t r a t e t h e t r u t h
that these grants a s s e r t e d a t i t l e
against
E u r o p e a n s o n l y , and were c o n s i d e r e d as b l a n k
paper so f a r as t h e r i g h t s o f t h e n a t i v e s
were c o n c e r n e d .
Power o f war i s g i v e n o n l y
f o r defence, not f o r conquest."
In t h e s e p a s s a g e s M a r s h a l l n o t o n l y r e p u d i a t e d
t h a t a theory of conquest replaced
the
foundation of B r i t i s h r i g h t s
historical
foundation
undercut the e n t i r e
Marshall, i n reviewing
r e l a t i o n s h i p with the Indian Nations,
affirmed
sovereignty
f o rthe theory.
Chief J u s t i c e
British
t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i s c o v e r y as
to land or p o l i t i c a l
as a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s , b u t
the idea
that the Indian Nations
t h e i r r i g h t s t o self-government
the h i s t o r y of the
unequivocally
were r e c o g n i z e d
as s u c h and
were n o t s u b j e c t t o B r i t i s h
dominion.
"The I n d i a n N a t i o n s
had a l w a y s been c o n s i d e r e d as d i s t i n c t ,
independent
political
communities, r e t a i n i n g t h e i r o r i g i n a l n a t u r a l
r i g h t s , as t h e u n d i s p u t e d p o s s e s s o r s o f t h e
s o i l , f r o m time i m m e m o r i a l ; w i t h t h e s i n g l e
e x c e p t i o n o f t h a t imposed by i r r e s i s t i b l e
power, w h i c h e x c l u d e d them f r o m i n t e r c o u r s e
-
48
-
w i t h any o t h e r E u r o p e a n p o t e n t a t e imposed on
t h e m s e l v e s as w e l l as on t h e I n d i a n s .
The
v e r y t e r m " N a t i o n " , so g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d t o
them,
means
"a
people
distinct
from
o t h e r s " . . . T h e words " t r e a t y " and " N a t i o n " a r e
words o f o u r own l a n g u a g e , s e l e c t e d i n o u r
d i p l o m a t i c and l e g i s l a t i v e p r o c e e d i n g s ,
by
ourselves,
having
a
definite
and
wellunderstood meaning.
We have a p p l i e d them t o
I n d i a n s , as we have a p p l i e d them t o t h e o t h e r
They a r e a p p l i e d i n
nations o f the e a r t h .
t h e same s e n s e . . .
C e r t a i n i t i s , t h a t o u r h i s t o r y f u r n i s h e s no
example, from t h e f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t o f o u r
c o u n t r y , o f any a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f t h e
Crown t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s
o f the I n d i a n s f a r t h e r than t o keep o u t the
a g e n t s o f f o r e i g n p o w e r s , who, as t r a d e r s o r
o t h e r w i s e , m i g h t s e d u c e them i n t o
foreign
alliances.
The K i n g p u r c h a s e d t h e i r
lands
when t h e y were w i l l i n g t o s e l l , a t t h e p r i c e
t h e y were w i l l i n g t o t a k e ; b u t n e v e r c o e r c e d
He a l s o p u r c h a s e d t h e i r
a s u r r e n d e r o f them.
a l l i a n c e and d e p e n d e n c e by s u b s i d i e s , b u t nev
er
intruded
into
the i n t e r i o r
of
their
affairs
or
interfered
with
their
self-government,
so
far
as
respected
themselves o n l y . "
Chief J u s t i c e Marshall
i n t h i s passage r e f e r r e d to
" d e p e n d e n c e " , t h e same p h r a s e used t o i n C h e r o k e e N a t i o n v.
Georgia.
However, he p r o c e e d e d
to c l a r i f y
the nature
r e l a t i o n s h i p between d e p e n d e n c y and n a t i o n a l
o f the
sovereignty.
"The
third
Article
[of the Treaty
of
H o p e w e l l ] a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e C h e r o k e e s t o be
under the p r o t e c t i o n o f the United S t a t e s o f
A m e r i c a , and o f no o t h e r power.
The s t i p u l a t i o n i s f o u n d i n I n d i a n T r e a t i e s
generally.
I t was i n t r o d u c e d
into
their
t r e a t i e s w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n ; . . . i t s o r i g i n may
be t r a c e d t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r
connection
w i t h t h o s e p o w e r s ; and i t s t r u e meaning i s
discerned i n t h e i r r e l a t i v e s i t u a t i o n .
The
general
l a w o f European
sovereigns,
respecting t h e i r claims i n America, l i m i t e d
the i n t e r s o u r c e o f I n d i a n s i n a g r e a t d e g r e e
to
t h e p a r t i c u l a r p o t e n t a t e whose u l t i m a t e
r i g h t o f d o m i n i o n was a c k n o w l e d g e d by t h e
others...The
consequence
was
that
their
suppliers
were d e r i v e d
chiefly
from
that
n a t i o n , and t h e i r t r a d e c o n f i n e d t o i t . . .
What was o f s t i l l more i m p o r t a n c e , t h e s t r o n g
hand o f g o v e r n m e n t was i n t e r p o s e d t o r e s t r a i n
t h e d i s o r d e r l y and l i c e n t i o u s from i n t r u s i o n s
into their country,
f r o m e n c r o a c h m e n t s on
t h e i r l a n d s , and f r o m t h o s e a c t s o f v i o l e n c e
which
were
often
attended
by r e c i p r o c a l
murder.
The
Indians
perceived
in this
protection
only
what
was
beneficial
to
t h e m s e l v e s - an engagement t o p u n i s h a g g r e s -
-
49
-
s i o n s upon them.
It involved, p r a c t i c a l l y ,
no c l a i m t o t h e i r l a n d s , no d o m i n i o n o v e r
t h e i r persons.
I t m e r e l y bound the n a t i o n t o
British
Crown
as
a
dependent
ally,
the
c l a i m i n g the p r o t e c t i o n o f a p o w e r f u l
friend
and n e i g h b o u r , and r e c e i v i n g the a d v a n t a g e s
of that p r o t e c t i o n , without i n v o l v i n g a surrender of t h e i r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .
T h i s i s the t r u e m e a n i n g o f the s t i p u l a t i o n ,
and i s u n d o u b t e d l y t h e s e n s e i n w h i c h i t was
made. N e i t h e r t h e B r i t i s h government nor t h e
Cherokees understood i t otherwise."
The
to
the l a w o f
C h i e f J u s t i c e s p e c i f i c a l l y e q u a t e d the p r o t e c t i o n
nations:
"The s e t t l e d d o c t r i n e o f t h e law o f n a t i o n s
i s t h a t a weaker power does n o t s u r r e n d e r i t s
independence - i t s r i g h t to self-government by a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h a s t r o n g e r and t a k i n g i t s
protection.
The weak s t a t e , i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e f o r i t s s a f e t y , may p l a c e i t s e l f u n d e r
the p r o t e c t i o n o f one more p o w e r f u l
without
s t r i p p i n g i t s e l f o f the r i g h t o f government
and c e a s i n g t o be a s t a t e .
Examples o f t h i s
k i n d a r e n o t w a n t i n g i n E u r o p e . . . At the p r e s e n t day more t h a n one s t a t e may be c o n s i d e r e d as h o l d i n g i t s r i g h t o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t
u n d e r the g u a r a n t e e d p r o t e c t i o n s o f one
or
more a l l i e s . "
The
C h i e f J u s t i c e t h e r e f o r e made i t q u i t e e x p l i c i t
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f d e p e n d e n c e o r p r o t e c t i o n , w h i c h , as we
s e e n , was
an a s p e c t
o f the t r e a t i e s between the B r i t i s h
I n d i a n N a t i o n s , d i d not
national
i m p l y o r c r e a t e any
sovereignty or t e r r i t o r i a l
have
Crown
l i m i t a t i o n on
i n t e g r i t y of those
that
and
the
Indian
Nations.
T h i s c o n c e p t o f d e p e n d e n c y was
a r y by Wheaton i n h i s 1836
t r e a t i e s on
the s u b j e c t o f
the Law
of
comment-
Nations.
"The s o v e r e i g n t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e i s n o t
i m p a i r e d by i t s o c c a s i o n a l o b e d i e n c e t o the
commands o f o t h e r s t a t e s , o r even the h a b i t ual
i n f l u e n c e e x e r c i s e d by
them upon i t s
councils.
I t i s o n l y when t h i s o b e d i e n c e , o r
t h i s i n f l u e n c e , assumes the f o r m o f
express
c o m p a c t , t h a t the s o v e r e i g n t y o f the s t a t e ,
i n t h e o r y and power, i s l e g a l l y e f f e c t e d by
i t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the o t h e r .
T r e a t i e s of
alliance,
freely
contracted
between
equal
dependent
states,
do
not
impair
their
sovereignty.
T r e a t i e s of unequal a l l i a n c e ,
- 50
-
g u a r a n t e e , m e d i a t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n , may have
the e f f e c t o f l i m i t i n g and q u a l i f y i n g t h e i r
s o v e r e i g n t y a c c o r d i n g t o the s t i p u l a t i o n s o f
treaties.
(Wheaton,
Elements
of
the
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law, p a r a s . 3 & 4, 1866) .
Thus d e f i n e d , d e p e n d e n c y i s l i m i t e d
t o the e x p r e s s
and
s p e c i f i c consent of the dependent n a t i o n .
The
basis
f o r B r i t i s h p o l i c y was
the U n i t e d
387,
a f f i r m a t i o n o f the p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t as
States
i n no way
e s t a b l i s h e d p r i n c i p l e s o f law
n a t i o n s , and
of
Zealand sought to i d e n t i f y " c e r t a i n
applicable to...the
intercourse
e s p e c i a l l y of Great B r i t a i n , with
a b o r i g i n a l n a t i v e s o f A m e r i c a and
two
to d e c i s i o n s
I n Queen v. Symonds (1847) N.Z.P.C.C.
courts.
the Supreme C o u r t o f New
civilized
confined
the
c e n t r u r i e s . " (at 388).
One
other
of
the
countries during
the
last
o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s embodied
c o n s e n t t o the a c q u i s i t i o n o f a b o r i g i n a l l a n d s .
As
Mr.
Justice
Chapman s t a t e d :
"The p r a c t i c e o f e x t i n g u i s h i n g n a t i v e t i t l e s
by f a i r p u r c h a s e s i s c e r t a i n l y more t h a n two
centuries old.
I t has l o n g been a d o p t e d by
t h e government i n o u r A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , and
by t h a t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
I t i s now p a r t
o f the law o f t h e l a n d . . . I n t h e c a s e o f the
Cherokee N a t i o n
v.
State
of
Georgia
the
Supreme C o u r t t h r e w i t s p r o t e c t i v e d e c i s i o n
o v e r the p l a i n t i f f - n a t i o n
against a
gross
attempt at s p o l i a t i o n ; c a l l i n g to i t s a i d ,
throughout e v e r y p o r t i o n of i t s judgement,
the p r i n c i p l e s o f the common law as a p p l i e d
and a d o p t e d f r o m the e a r l i e s t t i m e s by the
c o l o n i a l l a w s . . . W h a t e v e r may
be t h e o p i n i o n
o f j u r i s t s as t o the s t r e n g t h o r weakness f o
t h e i r n a t i v e t i t l e , w h a t s o e v e r may have been
the p a s t vague n o t i o n s o f the n a t i v e s o f t h i s
country,
whatever
may
be
their
present
c l e a r e r and s t i l l g r o w i n g c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e i r
own
d o m i n i o n o v e r l a n d , i t c a n n o t be
too
d o l e m l y a s s e r t e d t h a t i t i s e n t i t l e d t o be
r e s p e c t e d , t h a t i t c a n n o t be e x t i n g u i s h e d ( a t
l e a s t i n time o f peace) o t h e r w i s e
t h a n by
f r e e consent of the n a t i v e o c c u p i e r s . "
(at
p.390)
Mr.
only
the
J u s t i c e Chapman a l s o a f f i r m e d
Crown o r s o v e r e i g n
sought to j u s t i f y
the
can
of
1763,
that
e x t i n g u i s h the n a t i v e t i t l e .
this principle,
Royal Proclamation
the p r i n c i p l e
on
affirmed
i n North America
He
by
-
51
-
the b a s i s o f t h e p r o t e c t o r a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g
Crown and
the
Indian
between
the
Nations.
"The l e g a l d o c t r i n e as t o t h e e x c l u s i v e r i g h t
o f the Queen t o e x t i n g u i s h the n a t i v e t i t l e ,
a l t h o u g h i t o p e r a t e s o n l y as a r e s t r a i n t upon
t h e p u r c h a s i n g c a p a c i t y o f the Queen's E u r o pean s u b j e c t s , l e a v i n g t h e n a t i v e s t o d e a l
among t h e m s e l v e s , as f r e e l y as b e f o r e
the
commencement o f o u r i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e , i s
doubt i n c o m p a t i b l e
with
that f u l l
and
no
a b s o l u t e dominion o v e r the lands which they
o c c u p y , w h i c h we c a l l an e s t a t e i n f e e .
But
t h i s n e c e s s a r i l y a r i s e out o f our p e c u l i a r
r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e n a t i v e r a c e , and o u t o f
o u r o b v i o u s d u t y o f p r o t e c t i n g them, t o as
g r e a t an e x t e n t as p o s s i b l e , f r o m the e v i l
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e i n t e r c o u r s e t o w h i c h we
have i n t r o d u c e d them...To l e t i n a l l p u r c h a s e r s , and
t o p r o t e c t and
enforce
every
p r i v a t e p u r c h a s e , w o u l d be v i r t u a l l y t o c o n f i s c a t e the l a n d s o f t h e n a t i v e s i n a v e r y
s h o r t time.
The r u l e l a i d down i s , under the
a c t u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e o n l y one c a l c u l a t e d
to g i v e e q u a l s e c u r i t y t o b o t h r a c e s . . . F r o m
the p r o t e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f the r o l e , then,
i t i s e n t i t l e d t o r e s p e c t on m o r a l gounds no
l e s s t h a n j u d i c i a l s u p p o r t on s t r i c t l y l e g a l
grounds."
( a t p.391)
I n summary, the B r i t i s h
Indian Nations
from c o n t a c t
Marshall Courts.
United
S t a t e s , and
Nations
by
The
until
Colonial policy
1830
was
c o n c l u s i o n o f the Supreme C o u r t o f
of other
Britian
to assure
C o l o n i a l C o u r t s , was
t h a t c o n s e n t was
gave the Crown r i g h t s
inhabited their
t h a t the
to a c q u i r e Dominion
territory
the
Indian
recognized
institutions.
t e r r i t o r y , o n l y w i t h the v o l u n t a r y c o n s e n t o f t h e
had
the
r e q u i r e d f o r the a l i e n a t i o n
l a n d o r a change i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l
Discovery
the
f u l l y e x a m i n e d by
possessed a s u f f i c i e n t degree of s o v e r e i g n t y
of t h e i r
who
towards
from time
and
Indian
immemorial.
Nations
iii.
Entrenchment of the Doctrine of Consent
and the Protectorate Role in Canadian
Constitutional Documents
-
III.
52
-
E n t r e n c h m e n t o f t h e D o c t r i n e o f C o n s e n t and the
P r o t e c t o r a t e R o l e i n C a n a d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Documents
The
first
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l A c t a p p l i c a b l e t o Canada
t h e A r t i c l e s o f C a p i t u l a t i o n o f Quebec 1759
dominion over c e r t a i n
40 w h i c h
territories
when B r i t a i n
from F r a n c e ,
was
acquired
s u b j e c t to
Article
read:
S.40
The s a v a g e s o r I n d i a n A l l i e s o f H i s
Most C h r i s t i a n M a j e s t y s h a l l be m a i n t a i n e d i n
t h e l a n d s t h e y i n h a b i t , i f t h e y chose t o
remain t h e r e ; they
shall
n o t be
molested
under any
pretense
whatsoever, f o r having
c a r r i e d arms and s e r v e d H i s Most C h r i s t i a n
Majesty;...
The
tional
R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n o f 1763
Act enacted
the Act preserved
establishing
by
i s the f i r s t C o n s t i t u -
t h e U n i t e d Kingdom f o r Canada.
As
o b l i g a t i o n s owed o t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s ,
a legislative
assembly f o r the o l d P r o v i n c e
noted,
while
of
Quebec.
In every p r e - C o n f e d e r a t i o n
constitutional
act, a clause
s a v e s t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n , w h i l e a t t h e same
t i m e c o n s o l i d a t i n g the j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s
ceded l a n d s .
(1771) S.3;
The
s a v i n g c l a u s e s are c o n t a i n e d
i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A c t , 1791,
U n i o n A c t , 1840,
Section
i n t h e Quebec A c t ,
S.33
and
i n the
46.
Further, c o l o n i a l p o l i c y continued
p r o t e c t the d o c t r i n e o f c o n s e n t .
Indian A f f a i r s
over
The
1847
explicitly
to
Royal Commission
i n Canada, i n r e v i e w i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f the
i n r e l a t i o n to Indian lands
concluded:
"Although
t h e Crown c l a i m s t h e
territorial
s t a t e and e m i n e n t d o m i n i o n i n Canada, as i n
o t h e r o f t h e o l d e r c o l o n i e s , i t has
ever
s i n c e i t s p o s s e s s i o n o f the p r o v i n c e , c o n ceded t o t h e I n d i a n s the r i g h t t o o c c u p a n c y
upon t h e i r o l d h u n t i n g g r o u n d s , and
their
claim
to compensation
for i t s surrender,
r e s e r v i n g to i t s e l f t h e e x c l u s i v e p r i v i l e g e
o f t r e a t i n g w i t h them f o r the s u r r e n d e r o r
p u r c h a s e o f any p o r t i o n s o f t h e l a n d .
This
on
Crown
- 53 i s d i s t i n c t l y l a i d down i n t h e P r o c l a m a t i o n
o f 1 763, and t h e p r i n c i p l e has s i n c e been
g e n e r a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d and r a r e l y i n f r i n g e d
upon by t h e g o v e r n m e n t . "
Under t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h
t i o n o f t h e l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t was
lative
vincial
A m e r i c a A c t 1867 t h e j u r i s d i c finally
j u r i s d i c t i o n was d i s t r i b u t e d
governments.
Indian Nations
c o n s o l i d a t e d and
legis-
between t h e f e d e r a l and
The d o c t r i n e o f c o n s e n t i n r e l a t i o n
was p r e s e r v e d
pro-
to the
through a d e l i c a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
l e g i s l a t i v e a u t h o r i t y between t h e F e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t , t h e P r o v i n cial
g o v e r n m e n t , and t h e I m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t .
g o v e r n m e n t was d e l e g a t e d
and l a n d s r e s e r v e d
legislative
for Indians"
The
Federal
j u r i s d i c t i o n over
under S e c t i o n 9 1 ( 2 4 ) .
P r o v i n c i a l government under S e c t i o n 109 w o u l d r e t a i n
mines, minerals
and r o y a l t i e s o f t h e p r o v i n c e ,
interest existing
i n respect
than t h a t o f the p r o v i n c e s
would r e t a i n
the amending
Although
i n t h e same."
The I m p e r i a l
Proclamation
has l e g a l
government
limits
treaties.
(1774) 1 Cowp 204, 98 E.R.
.
other
o f 1763 and t h e
had t h e f o r c e o f S t a t u t e i n
Canada a t 1867 and has n e v e r been r e p e a l e d
68).
" s u b j e c t t o any
t h e p r e c i s e a m b i t o f S e c t i o n 9 1 ( 2 4 ) has n e v e r
The R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n
C.R.
the l a n d s ,
power.
by t h e R o y a l
pre-Confederation
The
t h e r e o f and t o any i n t e r e s t
been e x p l i c i t l y d e t e r m i n e d , t h e c a t e g o r y
circumscribed
"Indians
(Campbell v. H a l l
1045; Rex V. Lady M c M a s t e r
(1926) Ex.
As an I m p e r i a l s t a t u t e i t n o t o n l y bound Canada but
p o s s e s s e d o v e r r i d i n g f o r c e , so as t o n u l l i f y
any e x i s t i n g
future local
( C o l o n i a l Laws
laws which c o n f l i c t e d
with
V a l i d i t y A c t , 1865; C a m p b e l l v. H a l l ,
Blackstone,
i t .
(1774) 1 Cowp. 204;
Commentaries on t h e Laws o f E n g l a n d . )
both the r u l e i n the Royal
Proclamation
supra;
to t h e i r
Furthermore,
and t h e T r e a t i e s , as p a r t
of the a r t i c l e s of c e s s i o n , remain, sacred
according
or
t r u e i n t e n t and meaning.
and
inviolable,
( C a m p b e l l v.
C h i t t y , P r e r o g a t i v e s o f t h e Crown, 2 9 ) .
Thus, the
Hall,
-
-
54
j u r i s d i c t i o n under 9 1 ( 2 4 ) c o u l d n o t be e x e r c i s e d i n d e r o g a t i o n
of
the Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n or T r e a t i e s .
In g e n e r a l terms,
t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f 91(24)
t h e Crown t o e x t i n g u i s h I n d i a n t i t l e
Nations
to continue
t o use
and
v o l u n t a r i l y ceded by them.
therefrom.
f o r the
f o r O n t a r i o and
( R o b i n s o n A n n u i t i e s ) , (1897) A.C.
j u r i s d i c t i o n was
financial
considered
Attorney-General
f o r Quebec,
(P.C.).
a d e l e g a t i o n of a d m i n i s t r a -
v. L a d y McMaster
I n d i a n s had
an i n t e r e s t
t h e a u t h o r i t y under S . 9 1 ( 2 4 ) , q u o t i n g f r o m L o r d
73 t h e M a c l e a n J .
the
(1926) Ex.
on a r e s e r v e w h i c h c o u l d be a l i e n a t e d by l e a s e o r s a l e ,
in St. Catherines M i l l i n g
burdens
i n p a s s i n g by t h e E x c h e q u e r C o u r t
In d e c i d i n g whether c e r t a i n
reviewed
the
f o r t h e D o m i n i o n o f Canada
administrative characters of
Canada i n t h e c a s e o f R e g i n a
68.
including
199
Thus 91(24) i s e s s e n t i a l l y
t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . The
Indian
until
F e d e r a l Government
(Attorney General
V. A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l
the
j u r i s d i c t i o n , d e f i n e d to i n c l u d e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of those o b l i g a t i o n s ,
arising
and
occupy t h e i r l a n d ,
The
treaty o b l i g a t i o n s , reserved
by c o n s e n t
enabled
and
Lumber Company, ( s u p r a ) .
said:
"As
was
s a i d by
Lord
Watson i n t h e
St.
C a t h e r i n e s M i l l i n g and Lumber Company case
s i n c e the date of the p r o c l a m a t i o n , I n d i a n
A f f a i r s had been a d m i n i s t e r e d s u c c e s s i v e l y by
t h e Crown, by t h e P r o v i n c i a l Government, and
s i n c e the p a s s i n g o f the B r i t i s h N o r t h America A c t , 1867, by t h e Government o f the Dominion.
The p o l i c y o f t h e s e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s has
a l l a l o n g been t h e same i n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h a t
t h e I n d i a n i n h a b i t a n t s have been p r o c l u d e d
f r o m e n t e r i n g i n t o any t r a n s a c t i o n w i t h t h e
subject
f o r the s a l e o r t r a n s f e r o f
the
i n t e r e s t i n the l a n d , and have o n l y been p e r m i t t e d t o s u r r e n d e r t h e r i g h t s t o t h e Crown
by a f o r m a l c o n t r a c t d u l y r a t i f i e d
in a
m e e t i n g by t h e i r C h i e f s o r Headman convened
f o r that purpose.
W h i l s t t h e r e have been
changes
in
the
administrative authority,
t h e r e have been no change s i n c e t h e y e a r 1763
o f the c h a r a c t e r o f the i n t e r e s t which I n d i a n
i n h a b i t a n t s had i n t h e l a n d s s u r r e n d e r e d
by
t h e T r e a t y as d e t e r m i n e d
i n the S t . C a t h e r i n e s M i l l i n g and Lumber Company c a s e .
of
C.R.
i n land
the
Court
Watson
At
page
- 55 ...The power o f t h e Crown t o manage and
l e g i s l a t e i n respect of Indian lands, surely
implies the r i g h t to bring a c t i o n to recover
o r p r o t e c t any i n t e r e s t o f t h e I n d i a n s i n
s u c h l a n d s . " ( e m p h a s i s added)
T h u s , a t 1867 and a t t h e p r e s e n t
had
the o b l i g a t i o n s which
o v e r r i d i n g f o r c e upon t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f 91 (24) were
obliga-
t i o n s r e s t i n g w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l Crown and w h i c h were p r e s e r v e d by
I m p e r i a l l e g i s l a t i o n and I m p e r i a l c o m p a c t s a p p l i c a b l e t o Canada.
By v i r t u e o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e o v e r r i d i n g o b l i g a t i o n s ,
S . 9 1 ( 2 4 ) power i s n o t a p l e n a r y power o v e r I n d i a n s and l a n d s
reserved
for Indians.
Under S.109 t h e P r o v i n c e s would r e t a i n
the l a n d s ,
m i n e s , m i n e r a l s and r o y a l t i e s o f t h e p r o v i n c e , " s u b j e c t t o any
interest existing
i n r e s p e c t t h e r e o f and t o any i n t e r e s t
than t h a t o f the Provinces
In
i n t h e same."
t h e judgement b y t h e P r i v y C o u n c i l i n t h e S t .
Catherines M i l l i n g
A.C.
46 (P.C.)
and Lumber Company v . The Queen (1889) 14
and l a t e r
i n A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l f o r Quebec
v. A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l f o r Canada
A.C.
401),
(The S t a r Chrome Case
the Privy Council decided
Catherine M i l l i n g
(1921) 1
that the Indian i n t e r e s t i n
u n c e d e d l a n d s , i s a b u r d e n on t h e t i t l e
St.
other
o f the Provinces.
& Lumber Co. v . The Queen (1889
(4 App. C o s . 46; (1884) 13 S.C.R. 577) i n v o l v e d a d i s p u t e between
t h e P r o v i n c e o f O n t a r i o and t h e Government o f Canada as t o t h e
o w n e r s h i p o f c e r t a i n l a n d s ceded by t h e S a l t e a u x T r i b e o f O j i b w a y
I n d i a n s i n an 1873 t r e a t y w i t h t h e D o m i n i o n .
The P r o v i n c e
argued
t h a t by v i r t u e o f S e c t i o n 109 o f t h e B.N.A. A c t l a n d s h a v i n g
t h e s u b j e c t o f t r e a t y now v e s t e d w i t h t h e P r o v i n c e s .
Dominion claimed
The
t h a t by v i r t u e o f t h e P r o c l a m a t i o n o f 1763, t h e
content of a b o r i g i n a l
that o f fee simple.
received
been
title
to lands reserved
f o r I n d i a n s was
As s u c h , t h e D o m i n i o n a r g u e d t h a t i t
the complete t i t l e
as a r e s u l t o f t h e t r e a t y .
The P r i v y
Council ruled
t h a t the o w n e r s h i p o f I n d i a n l a n d s was
t h e Crown h o l d i n g t h e u n d e r l y i n g l e g a l
possessing
The
Court r u l e d
with
Indians
t h a t upon C o n f e d e r a t i o n
r i g h t o f t h e P r o v i n c e , became p o s s e s s e d
e s t a t e and
the
a r i g h t o f o c c u p a n c y , termed a " p e r s o n a l and
tuary r i g h t " .
in
f e e and
split,
usufructhe
Crown,
o f the p r o p r i e t a r y
t h i s became a plenum dominium upon the s u r r e n d e r
the I n d i a n
of
title.
It
i s important
t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t i n the S t .
M i l l i n g Case the I n d i a n i n t e r e s t
i n l a n d s was
Catherine
the s u b j e c t o f
t r e a t y o f c e s s i o n , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the p r i n c i p l e
and
o f the consent
Notwith-
standing
embodied
i n the Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n .
t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n of the p r i n c i p l e o f consent
a c q u i s i t i o n of I n d i a n lands i n the events
giving rise
process
to
the
to
the
c a s e , a r e f e r e n c e i n t h e judgement o f L o r d Watson i n t h e
C o u n c i l , t h a t the
Privy
I n d i a n i n t e r e s t e x i s t s "at the g o o d w i l l of
s o v e r e i g n " , has been r e l i e d
support
the p r i n c i p l e
without
consent
support
for this
t h a t a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s can be
o f the I n d i a n s .
T h e r e i s no h i s t o r i c a l
paragraph
P r o c l a m a t i o n , q u o t e d s u p r a p.
26 w h e r e i n
t o make g r a n t s
p r e f a c e d w i t h t h e words " u n t i l o u r
or
l e g a l s c h o l a r s and
legal
These
o f P a r t IV o f t h e
the p r o h i b i t i o n
Royal
imposed
i n t h e unceded l a n d s
f u r t h e r p l e a s u r e be
Recent r e s e a r c h i n t o the Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n
to
extinguished
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f L o r d Watson's w o r d s .
the c o l o n i a l g o v e r n o r s
the
upon by s u b s e q u e n t C a n a d i a n C o u r t s
words r e l a t e b a c k t o t h e f i r s t
on
a
conducted
was
known."
by
h i s t o r i a n s makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e s e
both
words d i d
not q u a l i f y the n a t u r e o r i n c i d e n t s o f the I n d i a n t i t l e .
They
reflected
cession
the f a c t t h a t i n t h e f u t u r e , as a r e s u l t o f t h e
of I n d i a n lands through
the p r o c e d u r e s
e s t a b l i s h e d i n paragraph
o f the P r o c l a m a t i o n , the westward l i m i t s of s e t t l e m e n t might
extended.
I n d e e d as e a r l y as
1768,
p e r m i t t e d these westward l i m i t s
Further support
intended
t r e a t i e s w i t h the
t o be
so
4
be
Indians
extended.
f o r t h e v i e w t h a t L o r d Watson n e v e r
to c o n t r a v e r t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t
i s t o be
found
in
- 57
the
-
f a c t t h a t the v i e w s o f the P r i v y C o u n c i l u p h e l d
d i s s e n t i n g judgement o f Mr.
o f Canada.
J u s t i c e Strong
i n the
the
Supreme C o u r t
T h a t judgement q u o t e d e x t e n s i v e l y f r o m the
o f C h i e f J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l and
Indian p o l i c y .
This review
reviewed
the h i s t o r y o f
decisions
British
demonstrated a c l e a r r e c o g n i t i o n of
the p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t to the c e s s i o n o f
Indian
lands.
"That t h e more l i b e r a l t r e a t m e n t a c c o r d e d t o
the I n d i a n s by t h i s s y s t e m o f p r o t e c t i n g them
i n t h e e n j o y m e n t o f t h e i r hun t i n g g r o u n d s
and
p r o h i b i t i n g settlement
on l a n d s
which
t h e y had
not s u r r e n d e r e d
which i t i s
now
contended the B r i t i s h North America A c t
has
p u t an end t o , was s u c c e s s f u l i n i t s r e s u l t s ,
i s a t t e s t e d by t h e h i s t o r i c a l f a c t t h a t f r o m
the memorable y e a r
1763,
when D e t r o i t
was
besieged
and a l l the I n d i a n t r i b e s were i n
r e v o l t , down t o t h e d a t e o f c o n f e d e r a t i o n ,
I n d i a n w a r s and m a s s a c r e s e n t i r e l y c e a s e d i n
i n North
America,
the B r i t i s h p o s s e s s i o n s
although
powerful
Indian
nations
still
c o n t i n u e d f o r some t i m e a f t e r the f o r m e r d a t e
to
i n h a b i t those
territories.
That
this
p e a c e f u l c o n d u c t o f the I n d i a n s i s i n a g r e a t
d e g r e e t o be a t t r i b u t e d t o the r e c o g n i t i o n o f
t h e i r r i g h t s t o l a n d s u n s u r r e n d e r e d by them,
and t o t h e g u a r a n t e e o f t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n i n
the p o s s e s s i o n and e n j o y m e n t o f s u c h l a n d s
of
g i v e n by the Crown i n the p r o c l a m a t i o n
O c t o b e r , 1763,
h e r e a f t e r t o be more
fully
n o t i c e d , i s a w e l l known f a c t o f C a n a d i a n
h i s t o r y w h i c h c a n n o t be c o n t r o v e r t e d . "
The
Federal
and
d i s t r i b u t i o n of l e g i s l a t i v e
Provincial
M i l l i n g provides
of Indian r i g h t s .
g o v e r n m e n t s , as c o n f i r m e d
the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
The
a u t h o r i t y between
by S t .
framework f o r the p r o t e c t i o n
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n s t o the
Indian
i n c l u d i n g the power t o e x t i n g u i s h I n d i a n t i t l e
The
by c o n s e n t
title,
unburdened f e e once I n d i a n c o n s e n t had
B r i t i s h North
power, and
America Act, thereby
making i t i m p o s s i b l e
rights.
would
been o b t a i n e d .
t o h o l d the power to amend
maintaining
f o r e i t h e r the
o r the P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t s , i n c o n c e r t
Indian
but
the b a l a n c e
Federal
or alone,
on
benefit
P r o v i n c i a l Government d i d
have t h e a u t h o r i t y t o e x t i n g u i s h I n d i a n
I m p e r i a l Government c o n t i n u e d
the
Nations,
b e h a l f o f the I m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s , would not d i r e c t l y
the
Catherine
F e d e r a l Government, charged w i t h
from the unburdened t i t l e .
the
not
acquire
The
the
of
Government
to e x t i n g u i s h
- 58
The
manner i n w h i c h t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f power i s
intended
to provide
i s best
illustrated
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l protection for Indian
by h i s t o r i a l
C o l u m b i a p a s s e d An A c t
i n B.C.
-
example.
to Consolidate
T h i s l e g i s l a t i o n was
In 1874
rights
British
Laws A f f e c t i n g Crown L a n d s
d i s a l l o w e d by O r d e r o f h i s
E x c e l l e n c y o f C o u n s e l on J a n u a r y 23,
1875.
The
disallowance
b a s e d upon a r e p o r t f r o m the M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e o f J a n u a r y
1875.
I n i t he
was
19,
stated:
"The
undersigned
deems i t p r o p e r to n o t i c e
t h a t t h e r e i s n o t i n t h i s a c t any r e s e r v a t i o n
o f lands i n f a v o u r o f the I n d i a n s or I n d i a n
British
C o l u m b i a ; nor
are
the
Tribes
of
l a t t e r t h e r e b y a c c o r d e d any r i g h t s o r p r i v i l e g e s i n r e s p e c t to l a n d s , or r e s e r v e s , or
settlements."
noted t h a t the
He
p r e e m p t any
nor
land without
in Council.
are e x p r e s s l y not
the p e r m i s s i o n
allowed
o f the L i e u t e n a n t
N o n - I n d i a n s were e n t i t l e d
u n d e r the r i g h t o f
The
Indians
to take
320
preemption.
o p i n i o n went
on:
"The u n d e r s i g n e d
b e l i e v e s t h a t he i s c o r r e c t
i n s t a t i n g , t h a t w i t h one s l i g h t e x c e p t i o n as
to land i n Vancouver I s l a n d surrendered
to
Hudson's Bay
Company w h i c h makes
the
the
a b s e n c e o f o t h e r s t h e more r e m a r k a b l e ,
no
s u r r e n d e r o f l a n d s i n t h a t p r o v i n c e has e v e r
been o b t a i n e d f r o m the I n d i a n T r i b e s i n h a b i t i n g i t , and t h a t any r e s e r v a t i o n s w h i c h
have been made, have been a r b i t r a r y on
the
p a r t o f the g o v e r n m e n t and w i t h o u t the c o n s e n t o f the I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s , and t h o u g h
the p o l i c y o f o b t a i n i n g s u r r e n d e r s at t h i s
l a p s e o f t i m e and u n d e r the a l t e r e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f the p r o v i n c e , may be q u e s t i o n a b l e ,
y e t the u n d e r s i g n e d f e e l s t h a t i t i s h i s d u t y
t o a s s e r t s u c h l e g a l and e q u i t a b l e c l a i m as
may
be found t o e x i s t on the p a r t o f the
Indians.
There i s no shadow o f a d o u b t , t h a t f r o m t h e
e a r l i e s t t i m e s E n g l a n d has a l w a y s f e l t i t
i m p e r a t i v e t o meet t h e I n d i a n s i n C o u n c i l ,
and t o o b t a i n s u r r e n d e r s o f t r a c t s o f Canada
as f r o m time t o t i m e s u c h were r e q u i r e d f o r
the purposes o f s e t t l e m e n t s .
The f o r t i e t h a r t i c l e o f the T r e a t y o f C a p i t u l a t i o n o f the c i t y o f M o n t r e a l
dated
8th
S e p t e m b e r , 1760 i s t o the e f f e c t t h a t , 'the
savages
or
Indian
allies
of
his
most
to
Gover-
acres
- 59 C h r i s t i a n M a j e s t y s h a l l be m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e
l a n d s they i n h a b i t i f they chose t o remain
there.'"
The
M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e went on t o r e c i t e t h e
p r o c l a m a t i o n o f K i n g George I I I t o 1763, and n o t e d
p r o c l a m a t i o n has n o t been r e p e a l e d e x c e p t
t h e mode o f c i v i l
that the
f o r a statute
changing
government o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f J u s t i c e i n
t h e P r o v i n c e o f Quebec.
The M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e added t h a t t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f England
as e x p r e s s e d
has
been c o n t i n u e d down t o t h e p r e s e n t
i n t h e P r o c l a m a t i o n o f 1763
t i m e e i t h e r as t h e s e t t l e d
p o l i c y o f Canada o r by l e g i s l a t i v e p r o v i s i o n o f Canada t o t h a t
effect.
He r e m a r k e d t h a t as l a t e as 1874 T r e a t i e s were made w i t h
I n d i a n s i n t h e N o r t h West
Territories.
In c o n c l u s i o n , t h e M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e s t a t e d :
" . . . t h e u n d e r s i g n e d f e e l s t h a t he c a n n o t do
o t h e r w i s e than a d v i s e t h a t the a c t i n quest i o n i s o b j e c t i o n a b l e , as t e n d i n g t o d e a l
w i t h l a n d s w h i c h a r e assumed t o t h e a b s o l u t e
p r o p e r t y o f t h e p r o v i n c e , an a s s u m p t i o n w h i c h
completely
i g n o r e s , as a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e
I n d i a n s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h e honour and
good f a i t h w i t h w h i c h t h e Crown h a s , i n a l l
other cases, since i t s sovereignty of the
territories
i n North
America,
dealt with
t h e i r various Indian Tribes.
He added t h a t even i f t h e I n d i a n s do n o t have a f r e e
hold o f the s o i l
t h e y have a r i g h t o f o c c u p a t i o n o r p o s s e s s i o n
w h i c h i s a t l e a s t an i n t e r e s t o t h e r
than
that of the p r o v i n c e ,
w i t h i n t h e terms o f s e c t i o n 109 o f t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h
America
Act."
I t appears t h a t convenience
q u e n t l y guided
r a t h e r than
the conduct o f Dominion o f f i c i a l s .
justice
subse-
On May 6, 1876
a new M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e w r o t e an o p i n i o n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e same
piece of l e g i s l a t i o n .
He s t a t e d :
"Though he ( t h e t h e n M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e ) i s
of the o p i n i o n t h a t , according to the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f C o u n c i l upon t h e p r e v i o u s crown
l a n d s a c t , t h e r e r e m a i n s s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n as
t o w h e t h e r t h e a c t now under c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s
within
t h e competence
o f the p r o v i n c i a l
-
60
-
l e g i s l a t u r e and a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
of the undersigned,
the s t a t u t e under cons i d e r a t i o n has been a c t e d upon, and i s b e i n g
a c t e d upon l a r g e l y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , g r e a t
i n c o n v e n i e n c e and c o n f u s i o n m i g h t r e s u l t from
i t s d i s a l l o w a n c e . . . the undersigned
i s of the
o p i n i o n t h a t i t would be t h e b e t t e r c o u r s e t o
leave to the a c t to i t s o p e r a t i o n . "
The F e d e r a l Government d e c i d e d
t u d e and a l l o w t h e a c t t o o p e r a t e ,
procedure neither expresses
to adopt a p a s s i v e
w i t h the p r o v i s o t h a t
"this
nor i m p l i e d l y waves any r i g h t o f t h e
Government o f Canada t o i n s i s t
t h a t any o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e
A c t a r e beyond t h e competence o f t h e l o c a l
consequently
atti-
legislature
and a r e
inoperative."
The F e d e r a l Government embarked upon a c o u r s e
d u c t w h i c h d i s a l l o w e d t h e B.C.
Land A c t b e c a u s e Canada
o f conwas
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y bound t o h o n o r t h e o b l i g a t i o n s owed t o t h e
Indian Nations,
prevented
and B r i t i s h
from l e g i s l a t i n g
C o l u m b i a was
i n derogation
Obligations to discharge
constitutionally
o f those
rights.
the p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e
accord-
ing t o the p r i n c i p l e s o f consent remained w i t h Great B r i t a i n
withstanding
Confederation.
not-
As p r e v i o u s l y o u t l i n e d , G r e a t
B r i t a i n p r o t e c t o r a t e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r r i d e s the j u r i s d i c t i o n of
91(24) o f t h e B.N.A. A c t and i s e n f o r c e a b l e
Britains'
legislative
through Great
a u t h o r i t y t o amend t h e A c t .
the C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A c t s
i n t o the c o n f e d e r a t i o n
In a d d i t i o n ,
admitting various provinces
o f Canada
e v i d e n c e a c l e a r i n t e n t i o n and
j u r i s d i c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f G r e a t B r i t a i n
explicit
to r e t a i n a supervisory
p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e over Indian A f f a i r s w i t h i n the context of
Canadian f e d e r a l i s m .
Confederation
Lastly,
f o l l o w e d the p r e - c o n f e d e r a t i o n
p a t t e r n and were n e g o t i a t e d
the
Royal
the t r e a t i e s concluded
Proclamation,
treaty-making
p u r s u a n t t o t h e p r e r o g a t i v e powers o f
1763.
retains a protectorate role
since
As s u c h , t h e I m p e r i a l
to ensure t h e i r proper
S.31 o f t h e M a n i t o b a A c t , 1870
Crown
discharge.
(UK) p r o v i d e s
that:
- 61 "31.
And w h e r e a s , i t i s e x p e d i e n t , t o w a r d s
the e x t i n g u i s h m e n t o f the I n d i a n T i t l e to the
l a n d s i n the P r o v i n c e , t o a p p r o p r i a t e a port i o n o f such ungranted l a n d s , t o the e x t e n t
o f one m i l l i o n f o u r h u n d r e d
thousand a c r e s
thereof, f o r the b e n e f i t o f the f a m i l i e s of
the
halfbreed
residents,
i t is
hereby
e n a c t e d , t h a t , u n d e r r e g u l a t i o n s t o be f r o m
t i m e t o t i m e made by t h e G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l i n
C o u n c i l , the Lieutenant-Governor s h a l l s e l e c t
such l o t s o r t r a c t s i n such p a r t s o f the P r o v i n c e a s he may deem e x p e d i e n t , t o t h e e x t e n t
aforesaid,
and d i v i d e
t h e same among t h e
c h i l d r e n o f t h e h a l f - b r e e d heads o f f a m i l i e s
r e s i d i n g i n t h e P r o v i n c e a t t h e time o f t h e
s a i d t r a n s f e r t o C a n a d a , and t h e same s h a l l
be g r a n t e d t o t h e s a i d c h i l d r e n r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
i n s u c h mode and on s u c h c o n d i t i o n s as t o
s e t t l e m e n t and o t h e r w i s e , as t h e G o v e r n o r
G e n e r a l i n C o u n c i l may f r o m t i m e t o t i m e
determine."
F u r t h e r , S.6 o f t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a A c t , 1871
provides that i t shall
n o t be c o m p e t e n t f o r t h e P a r l i a m e n t o f
Canada t o amend t h e s e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e M a n i t o b a A c t .
s e c t i o n was n o t i n c l u d e d
i n the o r i g i n a l request to the B r i t i s h
P a r l i a m e n t , b u t was a p r o v i s i o n r e q u i r e d
Government.
This
The e v i d e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s
by t h e I m p e r i a l
that, i n part, the
I m p e r i a l Government was m o t i v a t e d by a d e s i r e t o p r e v e n t S.31 o f
the Manitoba
A c t f r o m b e i n g r e v i s e d o r r e s c i n d e d by t h e F e d e r a l
Government, a v a l i d
exercise of the protectorate
obligation.
I n An O r d e r o f Her M a j e s t y and C o u n c i l a d m i t t i n g
R u p e r t ' s Land and t h e N o r t h W e s t e r n T e r r i t o r i e s
i n t o the Union,
(U.K.) 1870, c l a u s e 14 p r o v i d e s :
Any c l a i m s o f I n d i a n s t o c o m p e n s a t i o n
"14.
f o r lands required f o r purposes o f settlement
s h a l l be d i s p o s e d o f by t h e C a n a d i a n G o v e r n ment
i n communication
with
the Imperial
Government; and t h e Company (Hudson's Bay
Company) s h a l l be r e l i e v e d o f a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n r e s p e c t o f them."
(emphasis added)
S c h e d u l e A o f t h e R u p e r t ' s Land A c t i s c o m p r i s e d
a d d r e s s t o Her M a j e s t y t h e Queen f r o m t h e Senate
Commons o f t h e D o m i n i o n o f Canada.
Paragraph
o f an
and House o f
8 reads:
- 62 "And f u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t , upon t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e
the
territories
i n question
to
the
of
Canadian Government, the c l a i m s o f the I n d i a n
t r i b e s to compensation f o r lands required f o r
p u r p o s e s o f s e t t l e m e n t w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d and
s e t t l e d i n conformity with the e q u i t a b l e
p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h have u n i f o r m l y g o v e r n e d t h e
B r i t i s h Crown
i n i t s dealings with
the
aborigines."
( e m p h a s i s added)
Finally,
included
i n the r e s o l u t i o n s of the A c t i s the
following:
" r e s o l v e d - t h a t upon t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e o f t h e
Territories
i n question
to the Canadian
be t h e d u t y
of the
Government,
i t will
Government t o make a d e q u a t e p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e
protection
of
the
Indian
Tribes
whose
i n t e r e s t are being i n v o l v e d i n the t r a n s f e r .
The A c t a d m i t t i n g R u p e r t ' s Land c o n f o r m s w i t h t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
t r a d i t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l e n a c t m e n t s , c o n s o l i d a t i n g on one hand
the
a u t h o r i t y and t e r r i t o r y o f t h e s e t t l e r government w h i l e a t
t h e same t i m e r e c o g n i z i n g and p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e l e g a l
the I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
It i s significant
Government r e t a i n e d f o r i t s e l f
the
settlement
claims of
t h a t the I m p e r i a l
an e x p l i c i t
supervisory role i n
of the claims.
In f a c t , t r e a t i e s d e a l i n g w i t h most o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f
R u p e r t s Land were n e g o t i a t e d
immediately
The T r e a t i e s , known as t h e numbered
t r e a t i e s , were n e g o t i a t e d
the b a s i s o f the " e q u i t a b l e p r i n c i p l e s "
Proclamation
f o l l o w i n g the t r a n s f e r .
e s t a b l i s h e d i n the
Royal
o f 1763.
The 1930 T r a n s f e r A g r e e m e n t s (U.K.) p r e s e r v e d
treaty obligations notwithstanding
the
on
these
the t r a n s f e r o f resources
to
Province.
Although
t h e T r e a t i e s were n e g o t i a t e d
Government, upon e x a m i n a t i o n
by t h e C a n a d i a n
i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e y were
concluded
on b e h a l f o f t h e Crown and i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e p r o t e c t o r a t e
obligations
the
i n r i g h t o f t h e I m p e r i a l Government.
sole authority f o r concluding
t r e a t i e s was
Before
1867,
the p r e r o g a t i v e
- 63 -
power e x e r c i s e d , i n t h e R o y a l
Confederation,
and
Proclamation
S. 91 (24) gave l e g i s l a t i v e
lands reserved
f o rIndians"
o f 1763.
a u t h o r i t y f o r "Indians
t o t h e F e d e r a l Government.
However, no l e g i s l a t i o n h a s e v e r
been p a s s e d by t h e F e d e r a l o r
I m p e r i a l Government a u t h o r i z i n g t r e a t y - m a k i n g
Nations.
The o n l y r e f e r e n c e
After
to treaties
with the Indian
i n Canadian
legislation
i s S.92 & S.88 o f t h e I n d i a n A c t w h i c h r e s p e c t f u l l y p r o v i d e
t r e a t y a n n u i t i e s a r e t o be p a i d o u t o f t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d
f u n d s and t h a t p r o v i n c i a l
the o n l y
that
revenue
laws a r e s u b j e c t t o t r e a t i e s .
Thus,
t r e a t y making power w h i c h e x i s t s as a m a t t e r o f C a n a d i a n
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l law i s under the Royal
whereby t h e e x e c u t i v e
Indian Nations
i s supported
Proclamation
o f 1763
i s empowered t o c o n c l u d e t r e a t i e s w i t h t h e
on b e h a l f o f t h e I m p e r i a l Crown.
This
by t h e f a c t t h a t t r e a t i e s c o n c l u d e d
conclusion
by t h e e x e c u t i v e
l e v e l o f government i n Canada a r e n o t t h e s u b j e c t o f r a t i f i c a t i o n
by l e g i s l a t i o n and a r e n o t t h e r e f o r e i n c o r p o r a t e d
domestic law matters.
treaty
as m e r e l y
No C a n a d i a n l e g i s l a t i o n c o n f i r m e d t h e
terms.
F u r t h e r , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s made by t h e Crown
at the time o f treaty-making,
and
the understanding
agents
of the Indians,
t h e w r i t t e n terms o f t h e t r e a t i e s , a l l s u p p o r t
t h a t t h e t r e a t i e s were w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l Crown.
the conclusion
Alexander
M o r r i s ' r e p o r t i n t h e T r e a t i e s o f Canada w i t h t h e I n d i a n s
contains
t h e terms o f t h e numbered
of the negotations.
t r e a t i e s and v e r b a t i m
The t e x t i s r e p l e t e w i t h
accounts
representations
made by t h e Crown a g e n t s t h a t t h e t r e a t i e s were b e i n g
concluded
w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l Crown.
In n e g o t i a t i n g T r e a t i e s
Manitoba Post, Lieutenant-Governor
1 and 2 i n Stone F o r t and
Archibald, after
were a s s e m b l e d , s t a t e d t h a t i n t h e p r e v i o u s
the
I n d i a n s and:
year
the Indians
he had met w i t h
-
64
-
" I t o l d you I c o u l d n o t n e g o t i a t e a t r e a t y
c h a r g e d by
w i t h the I n d i a n s b u t t h a t I was
y o u r G r e a t M o t h e r , t h e Queen, t o t e l l
you
t h a t she had been v e r y g l a d t o see t h a t you
had a c t e d d u r i n g t h e t r o u b l e s l i k e good and
I told
t r u e c h i l d r e n of your G r e a t Mother.
you a l s o t h a t as soon as p o s s i b l e you w o u l d
a l l be c a l l e d t o g e t h e r t o c o n s i d e r t h e terms
o f the t r e a t y t o be e n t e r e d i n t o between you
and y o u r G r e a t M o t h e r . . . I p r o m i s e t h a t i n t h e
s p r i n g you would be s e n t f o r , and t h a t e i t h e r
I,
or
some p e r s o n
directly
appointed
to
r e p r e s e n t y o u r G r e a t M o t h e r , s h o u l d be h e r e
t o meet y o u , and n o t i c e w o u l d be g i v e n
you
when t o convene a t t h i s p l a c e to t a l k o v e r
what was
right
t o be
done."
(emphasis
added.)
I n d i a n C o m m i s s i o n e r Wemyss S i m p s o n i n 1871
the
treaty-making
to the S e c r e t a r y
of State
reported
f o r the c o l o n i e s
on
as
follows:
"The
Indians
o f b o t h p a r t i e s have a f i r m
b e l i e f i n the h o n o u r and
i n t e g r i t y of
Her
Majesty's
representatives
and
are
fully
i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t the a m e l i o r a t i o n
o f t h e i r p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n i s one o f o b j e c t s
o f Her M a j e s t y i n m a k i n g t h e s e t r e a t i e s . "
In n e g o t i a t i n g Treaty
3 t h e Queen's
representatives
said:
"The
Queen w i s h e s you
t o e n j o y the
same
b l e s s i n g s , and so I am h e r e to t e l l you a l l
the
the Queen's m i n d , b u t r e c o l l e c t t h i s ,
Queen's H i g h C o u n c i l l o r h e r e f r o m O t t a w a , and
I , h e r G o v e r n o r , a r e n o t t r a d e r s ; we do n o t
come h e r e i n the s p i r i t o f t r a d e r s ; we come
h e r e t o t e l l you o p e n l y , w i t h o u t h i d i n g anyt h i n g , j u s t what the Queen w i l l do f o r y o u ,
j u s t what she t h i n k s i s good f o r y o u , and I
want you t o l o o k me i n t h e f a c e , eye t o e y e ,
and open y o u r h e a r t s t o me, s p e a k t o me f a c e
to face.
I am r e a d y now w i t h my f r i e n d s h e r e
t o g i v e you the Queen's message.
Are y o u r
e a r s open t o h e a r ?
Have you
chosen your
speakers?"
As one
Treaty
3
o f the C h i e f s
said during
the n e g o t i a t i o n s
(1873):
"What we have h e a r d y e s t e r d a y , and you r e p r e s e n t e d y o u r s e l f you s a i d t h e Queen s e n t you
h e r e , the way we u n d e r s t o o d you as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the Queen.
We have u n d e r s t o o d
you y e s t e r d a y t h a t Her M a j e s t y has g i v e n you
t h e same power and a u t h o r i t y as she h a s , t o
a c t i n t h i s b u s i n e s s . . . " ( e m p h a s i s added)
for
-
The
Commissioner
65
-
reports:
"His
E x c e l l e n c y then s a i d —
'I t o l d you I
was t o make t h e t r e a t y on t h e p a r t o f o u r
G r e a t M o t h e r t h e Queen, and I f e e l i t w i l l be
f o r y o u r good and y o u r c h i l d r e n ' s . ' "
The
Qu'Appelle
the C h i e f s p e r s i s t e d
Governor
T r e a t y was e n t e r e d
i n ascertaining
into
i n 1874.
One o f
the a u t h o r i t y o f L i e u t e n a n t -
M o r r i s as f o l l o w s :
"Is
i t t r u e y o u a r e b r i n g i n g t h e Queen's
kindness?
I s i t t r u e you a r e b r i n g i n g the
Queen's m e s s e n g e r s k i n d n e s s ?
I s i t t r u e you
a r e g o i n g t o g i v e my c h i l d what he may use?
Is
i t t r u e you a r e going
to give the
d i f f e r e n t Bands t h e Queen's k i n d n e s s ?
Is i t
t r u e you b r i n g t h e Queen's hand?
Is i t true
you a r e b r i n g i n g t h e Queen's power?"
The
r e p o r t on t h e Q u ' A p p e l l e
T r e a t y was p r o v i d e d i n a
l e t t e r d a t e d September 12, 1874 t o B r i t a i n where t h e s t a t e m e n t s
of
i t s Lieutenant-Governor
are set out:
"In o u r hands t h e y f e e l t h e Queen's, and i f
t h e y t a k e them t h e hands o f t h e w h i t e and r e d
In other lands the
man w i l l n e v e r u n c l a s p .
w h i t e and r e d man a r e n o t such f r i e n d s as we
have a l w a y s b e e n , and why? Because t h e Queen
a l w a y s k e e p s h e r word, a l w a y s p r o t e c t s h e r
red man."
I t was and c o n t i n u e s t o be o f f u n d a m e n t a l
importance to
t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s t h a t t h e y t r e a t e d w i t h Her R o y a l M a j e s t y , t h e
head o f a f a m i l y , r a t h e r t h a n w i t h a government t h a t r e g u l a r l y
c h a n g e d , as d i d i t s l a w s .
ing
The e l d e r s u n d e r s t o o d
t h e y were e n t e r -
i n t o a sacred r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t r u s t with another
which
sovereign
would endure t h e p a s s a g e o f t i m e and g o v e r n m e n t s .
d u r a t i o n of the promises
and t h e i r
The
i n v i o l a b i l i t y was a l s o
i m p o r t a n t t o t h e R o y a l M a j e s t y ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s who
stated:
"The Queen has t o t h i n k o f what w i l l come
long a f t e r to-day.
Therefore, the promises
we have t o make t o you a r e n o t f o r t o - d a y
o n l y b u t f o r tomorrow, n o t o n l y f o r you b u t
f o r y o u r c h i l d r e n b o r n and u n b o r n , and t h e
p r o m i s e s we make w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t as l o n g
- 66
-
as the sun s h i n e s
i n the o c e a n . "
a b o v e and
The
never agreed to enter
Indian Nations
the
water
flows
into
w i t h t h e C a n a d i a n G o v e r n m e n t , o r w i t h the Crown i n r i g h t
Canada.
This view i s supported
(1978) 19 O.R.
i n the c a s e o f R.
v.
treaties
of
Batisse
145 where the C o u r t s t a t e d :
"As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , a c a r e f u l r e a d i n g o f
the
commission's
report
makes
it
fairly
o b v i o u s t h a t the I n d i a n s thought t h a t
they
were
dealing
with
the
King's
personal
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and were r e l y i n g on h i s word
r a t h e r t h a n o f f i c i a l s o f the g o v e r n m e n t . . . "
When B r i t i s h
Columbia entered
I m p e r i a l Government c o n t i n u e d
confederation
t o h o l d an e x p l i c i t
i n 1871
jurisdiction
the r e s o l u t i o n of I n d i a n t i t l e
as p a r t o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n o f
Canada.
i s evidenced
The
protectorate role
i n Clause
13
the
in
which
reads:
"13.
The c h a r g e o f t h e I n d i a n s , and
the
trusteeship
and
management
of
the
lands
r e s e r v e d f o r t h e i r use and b e n e f i t , s h a l l be
assumed by the D o m i n i o n Government, and
a
p o l i c y as l i b e r a l as t h a t h i t h e r t o p u r s u e d by
t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Government s h a l l be c o n t i n u e d by the D o m i n i o n Government a f t e r t h e
Union.
To c a r r y o u t s u c h p o l i c y , t r a c t s o f l a n d o f
s u c h e x t e n t as i t has h i t h e r t o been the p r a c t i c e o f t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Government t o
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h a t p u r p o s e , s h a l l from time
t o t i m e be c o n v e y e d by the L o c a l Government
t o the D o m i n i o n Government i n t r u s t f o r t h e
use and b e n e f i t o f the I n d i a n s on a p p l i c a t i o n
o f the D o m i n i o n G o v e r n m e n t ; and i n c a s e o f
disagreement
between
the
two
Governments
r e s p e c t i n g the q u a n t i t y o f s u c h t r a c t s
of
l a n d t o be so g r a n t e d , the m a t t e r s h a l l be
r e f e r r e d f o r t h e d e c i s i o n o f the S e c r e t a r y o f
S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s . " (emphasis added)
The
b a c k g r o u n d t o the
i n s e r t i o n of t h i s
Canada's c o n s t i t u t i o n f u r t h e r c o n f i r m s
supervisory jurisdiction.
intend
The
in
continuing
d r a f t e r s of t h i s clause did
t h a t B r i t i a n w o u l d m e r e l y be
between the two
Britain's
clause
the a r b i t e r o f
l e v e l s of government.
The
not
disputes
Secretary of State
for
-
67
the C o l o n i e s , E a r l G r a n v i l l e , was
local
-
aware o f c o m p l a i n t s
against
government.
When G o v e r n o r M u s g r a v e , S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r
C o l o n i e s , was
appointed
G r a n v i l l e , w r o t e t o him
on A u g u s t 14,
t h a t the C o n s t i t u t i o n o f B r i t i s h
1869
regarding
On
C o l u m b i a would o b l i g e
F e b r u a r y 20,
1870
He
s u c h as
terms of Union.
to E a r l G r a n v i l l e s c a u t i o n
t o him
I n d i a n s , G o v e r n o r M u s g r a v e s t a t e d t h a t he d i d
i n c l u d e any
reference
to Indians
those
Governor Musgrave
of Canada, sending
regarding
stated
the
w r o t e t o the G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l
In r e f e r r i n g
Earl
the
confederation.
G o v e r n o r t o e n t e r p e r s o n a l l y upon many q u e s t i o n s ,
Indian Tribes.
the
the G o v e r n o r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ,
i n t e n t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia to enter
o f the
the
draft
not
because:
"Any
a r r a n g e m e n t w h i c h may
be r e g a r d e d
as
p r o p e r by Her M a j e s t y ' s Government c a n . . . b e s t
be s e t t l e d by the S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e o r by me
u n d e r h i s d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e Government o f
Canada."
I n t h e end,
Clause
i n c l u d e d , r e q u i r i n g the
13 o f the
Terms o f the U n i o n
f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t to a c t as a g e n t o f
I m p e r i a l Crown, w i t h the u l t i m a t e s u p e r v i s o r y
remaining
in Britain.
was
jurisdiction
the
iv.
TheIssue of Devolution of the Obligations
- 68 -
IV.
The I s s u e o f D e v o l u t i o n
of the O b l i g a t i o n s
I t h a s been a r g u e d t h a t I m p e r i a l o b l i g a t i o n s t o t h e
Indian Nations
or,
terminated
w i t h t h e S t a t u t e of W e s t m i n s t e r , 1931,
a t t h e l a t e s t , w i t h t h e amendment t o t h e B.N.A. A c t , 1949.
The
Statute o f Westminster provided
Imperial Statute henceforth
exception
would a p p l y
t o Canada.
The c l e a r
to the r u l e o f the S t a t u t e o f Westminster i s contained
w i t h i n S.7.
This s e c t i o n maintains
l e g i s l a t i v e a u t h o r i t y i n the
I m p e r i a l Government t o amend t h e B.N.A. A c t .
Imperial j u r i s d i c t i o n
Indian Nations
to supervise
i s contained
responsibility
enforceable
As n o t e d
above,
t h e o b l i g a t i o n s owed t o t h e
i n t h e B.N.A. A c t ( e x p l i c i t i n t h e
R u p e r t ' s Land A c t and t h e Terms o f U n i o n ) ,
Act.
g e n e r a l l y t h a t no
and as a r e s i d u a l
t h r o u g h t h e power t o amend t h e B.N.A.
Thus, t h e p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e e i t h e r comes w i t h i n t h e S.7
exception
the
to the Statute of Westminster or e x i s t s
notwithstanding
S t a t u t e a s an o v e r r i d i n g I m p e r i a l o b l i g a t i o n .
I n f u r t h e r answer t o t h e d e v o l u t i o n argument, as a
matter o f law,
t h e o b l i g a t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom t o t h e
Indian Nations
c o u l d n o t be d e l e g a t e d
without
The
t o t h e C a n a d i a n Government
I n d i a n c o n s e n t , n o r have t h e y been l e g a l l y
discharged.
o b l i g a t i o n s u n d e r t a k e n by t h e I m p e r i a l Crown t o t h e I n d i a n
Nations
c o u l d come t o an end i n e i t h e r o f two ways.
be d e l e g a t e d ,
released or discharged
with
They
could
Indian consent, or i n
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e terms o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t under w h i c h
they
were e n t e r e d , o r i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e terms o f t h e " s a c r e d
trust of c i v i l i z a t i o n " .
Crown u n t i l t h e y
gated
The o b l i g a t i o n s r e m a i n w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l
are discharged
and t h e y have n o t been
o r r e l e a s e d ; they
c n n o t be d e l e -
discharged.
In 1949, Canada was g i v e n
t h e a u t h o r i t y t o amend t h e
c o n s t i t u t i o n o f Canada so f a r as i t a f f e c t e d m a t t e r s s o l e l y
i n t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e F e d e r a l Government.
The 1949
with-
-
amendment does n o t
eliminate
insofar
by
the
e n a b l e the
-
69
federal
g o v e r n m e n t to e n l a r g e
i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r I n d i a n embodied
as
that
jurisdiction
i s not
R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n and
a f t e r 1949.
the
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the
and
Imperial obligations
1949
p r o p e r l y r e g a r d e d as p a r t o f
of
prohibition
r e f e r e n c e t o the
i s f o r the
so
as
purpose of
the
u n d e r the
a g a i n s t d e l e g a t i o n can
consensual r e l a t i o n s h i p
I n d i a n N a t i o n s , o r by
r e f e r e n c e t o the
of
the
Constitution
proposition
p a r t y to a t r e a t y or
another state
i s an
the
B r o w n l i e , P r i n c i p l e s of P u b l i c
Crown w i t h
obligations
of
treaty
o r i g i n a l p a r t y t o the
The
Law,
Vol.
I I , (1967),
(3rd
consensual r e l a t i o n s h i p
clusion
that
N a t i o n s and
the
the
and
does not
consensual r e l a t i o n s h i p
rules
r e l a t i n g t o the
S o u t h West A f r i c a , the
law
Court of J u s t i c e
breach of
1979),
and
nature of
on
the
as
that
When s p e a k i n g
application
t r e a t i e s t o the
L e g a l C o u n s e l f o r the
con-
Indian
a "treaty"
today.
any
formal
between the
I m p e r i a l Crown c o n s t i t u t e d
International
accept
ed.
depend upon the
term i s understood under i n t e r n a t i o n a l
b e f o r e the
a
371.
i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o the
proposition
the
treaty:
O ' C o n n e l l , S t a t e S u c c e s s i o n i n M u n i c i p a l Law
International
the
law;
compelled to
I n t e r n a t i o n . Law
by
undertaken
In r e s p e c t o f
e l e m e n t a r y one
a g r e e m e n t c a n n o t be
i n p l a c e of
stat either
the
"sacred t r u s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n . "
f o r m e r , the
the
c o n t i n u e s t o be
Canada.
The
666;
i s circumscribed
R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n embodying
i t does o v e r r i d i n g
amendment n o t
i n S91(24)
p l e n a r y and
Treaties
or
mandate
United Nations
Whether the r e l a t i o n s h i p between S o u t h A f r i c a
community
is
conand
the
international
t r a c t e d , o r t h e r e s u l t o f the e s t a b l i s h m e n t
of
an
objective
situation,
or
both,
or
whether i t i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p
sui
generis
w h i c h has no p a r a l l e l i n o t h e r f i e l d s o f i n geographical
ternational
law
or
in other
locations
and
historical situations, i t is
n e v e r t h e l e s s g o v e r n e d by c e r t a i n f u n d a m e n t a l
p r i n c i p l e s which apply i n every l e g a l system,
i n c l u d i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l law."
(Legal consequences f o r S t a t e s o f the c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c e
of
for
said:
- 70
-
of South A f r i c a
i n Nawibia
(South
West
Africa)
Notwithstanding Security Council
R e s o l u t i o n 276 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p l e a d i n g s O r a l , A r g u ments, Documents V o l . I I , 54.
The
t i o n s h i p between t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
The
rela-
p r o p o s i t i o n i s e q u a l l y t r u e of the c o n s e n s u a l
and
same c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p l y
I m p e r i a l Crown under t h e " s a c r e d
the I m p e r i a l Crown.
to the o b l i g a t i o n s o f
t r u s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n " .
the
These
o b l i g a t i o n s a r o s e b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g t o the i n t e r n a t i o n a l
law
of
t h e t i m e , c o l o n i a l s t a t e s had
c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n s of a p r o t e c t i v e
nature
Peoples
towards the Indigenous
they extended t h e i r a u t h o r i t y .
a u t h o r i t y was
extended,
and
The
i n the t e r r i t o r i e s
mechanism by w h i c h
the r e l a t i o n s h i p
initially
e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e I m p e r i a l Crown w i t h the I n d i g e n o u s
t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s and
r e l a t i o n s h i p which determines
o f the o b l i g a t i o n s under the s a c r e d
i n c i d e n t s o f i t s c o n t i n u a t i o n and
A p a r a l l e l may
Africa.
The
zation."
It is this
the p r o c e d u r a l
t r u s t , and
determines
t h a t t h e w e l l - b e i n g and
s u b j e c t t o t h e mandate was
I n 1950
aspects
the
termination.
C o v e n a n t o f t h e League o f N a t i o n s , r e f e r r e d
a "sacred
to
development of
t r u s t of
civili-
the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Court of J u s t i c e r e f e r r e d
t h e mandate as a "new
international
S t a t e s o f S o u t h West A f r i c a ,
1971
the
be drawn w i t h t h e mandate f o r S o u t h West
above, p r o v i d e d e x p l i c i t l y
the people
Nations.
t h e I m p e r i a l Crown r e q u i r e d
r e l a t i o n s h i p between them t o be b a s e d on c o n s e n t .
consensual
that
by v i r t u e o f w h i c h t h e o b l i g a t i o n s
u n d e r t h e " s a c r e d t r u s t " a r o s e , was
Both
to w h i c h
institution",
(1950) I . C . J . Rep
128,
to
(International
132).
Yet i n
when t h e q u e s t i o n o f t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e mandate a r o s e ,
the
C o u n c i l r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e mechanism by w h i c h t h e o b l i g a t i o n s o f
the
" s a c r e d t r u s t " on S o u t h A f r i c a were c r e a t e d was
a t r e a t y and
than
a p p l i e d the g e n e r a l r u l e s r e g a r d i n g to breaches of
t r e a t y t h e mandate, t h e r e b y
Counsel
no more
a c c e p t i n g the r e m a r k s o f t h e
to the U n i t e d N a t i o n s , quoted
above.
Legal
-
In the p r e s e n t
o b l i g a t i o n s o f the
-
71
circumstances
"sacred
the mechanism by w h i c h
t r u s t " were u n d e r t a k e n by
Crown t o the I n d i a n N a t i o n s
e s t a b l i s h e d between them.
was
the
J u s t as
the s p e c i f i c o b l i g a t i o n s under
or assigned
Crown o n l y w i t h the c o n s e n t o f
Indian Nations
the
"sacred
o n l y w i t h the consent of the
Imperial
consensual r e l a t i o n s h i p
t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p can be d e l e g a t e d
the o b l i g a t i o n s under the
the
the
by the
Imperial
so t o o
t r u s t " be d e l e g a t e d
Indian
could
or
assigned
Nations.
I t f o l l o w s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t any
delegation
t o the
Crown
i n r i g h t o f Canada o f the o b l i g a t i o n s owed by the I m p e r i a l Crown
t o the
Indian Nations
the I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
recognized
by
c o u l d o n l y be
To
t h e Crown b u t
t h a t the l o c u s f o r
overlooks
p r a c t i c e on s t a t e s u c c e s s i o n .
by G r e a t B r i t a i n were p a s s e d on
S t a t e s u c c e s s i o n , n o t as an
the r i g h t s o f t h i r d
contracting State.
the B r i t i s h
Common-
parties.
(O'Connell
Crown t o Canada.
Although
c o u l d be
from a c q u i e s c e n c e ,
u a l o p p o s i t i o n t o any
of
In some i n s t a n c e s
D o m i n i o n was
op.
cit.,
the
denied
by
p.20).
Indian Nations
consented
t r a n s f e r o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n s owed t o them f r o m the
inferred
into
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e arrangement
T h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e
t o the
separate
Other T r e a t i e s entered
a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f a t r e a t y t o the s u c c e s s o r
the o t h e r
implementation
t o t h e D o m i n i o n s as a m a t t e r
internal
of
still
t o Canada i m p l i e s a l a c k o f a
i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t u s i n Canada and
not a f f e c t i n g
w i t h the consent
argue t h a t the o b l i g a t i o n s are
moves f r o m G r e a t B r i t a i n
wealth
achieved
c o n s e n t need n o t be e x p r e s s e d
Imperial
and
the r e c o r d d i s c l o s e s c o n t i n -
t r a n s f e r t o Canada and
frequent
attempts
to
have G r e a t B r i t a i n e x c e r c i s e i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
I f t h e o b l i g a t i o n s on
delegated
without
the I m p e r i a l Crown c a n n o t
the consent of the
consent, e i t h e r express
or
i m p l i e d , has
s a i d t h a t the o b l i g a t i o n s under the
charged?
Indian Nations,
T h i s e n t a i l s an e x a m i n a t i o n
not
sacred
and
be
that
been g i v e n , can
t r u s t have been
of the
substance of
i t be
disthese
-
obligations.
the
early enunciation
"guardianship",
i n t e r e s t s " of the
elaborated
and
i n the B e r l i n A c t
The
of
1885
culmination
i t s purpose i s the
and
C o v e n a n t o f the
self-determination
ultimate
undertaken i n i t i a l l y
genous P e o p l e s was
the
and
Nations.
the
been the
concept
of
recognition
independence of
content of t h i s
f o r the
"welfare
that
the
charge o f the o b l i g a t i o n .
Imperial
Crown u n d e r t h e
"sacred
(the e x c e p t i o n
t o be d i s c h a r g e d
by v i r t u e o f
t e r r i t o r i e s did exercise
would c o n s t i t u t e t h e
Indi-
trust"
being
the
The
dis-
the o b l i g a t i o n s o f
the
to i t s former Indian
S o u t h A f r i c a ) can
be
and
said
f a c t t h a t the p e o p l e s i n t h o s e
their self-determination
resulting in
i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s i n the hands o f t h o s e I n d i -
genous P e o p l e s t h e m s e l v e s .
The
form t h i s s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n
This w i l l
trust"
i n t e r e s t s " of the
In t h i s r e s p e c t
African colonies
s e t t i n g up o f
and
"sacred
t h e i r achievement of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
exercise of t h e i r self-determination
the
reiterated in
was
concerned.
Thus, the
the
by
"welfare
This
League o f
has
the
territories.
the d e v e l o p m e n t o f
of
t r u s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n " ,
"sacred
peoples
o f the d u t y t o p r o t e c t
i n h a b i t a n t s o f the
mandates A r t i c l e o f t h e
the
o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n s owed
c o l o n i a l powers t o I n d i g e n o u s N a t i o n s s p o k e i n terms o f
"trust",
and
The
-
72
be d i s c u s s e d
later
Indian
N a t i o n s have a r t i c u l a t e d
should
t a k e f o r them i n Canada.
in conjunction
with
the
Charter
of
Rights.
I t i s a r g u e d t h a t S.7
protects
only,
the
i n t e r e s t o f the
a r i s i n g as
Federal
Statute
and
of
and
ence which c u l m i n a t e d
i n the
Indian
Great B r i t a i n
Westminster
P r o v i n c i a l Governments
i t d i d t h r o u g h the a g r e e m e n t o f
C a n a d a , the P r o v i n c e s
no m e n t i o n o f t h e
o f the
i n the
p a s s a g e o f the
sovereign
Imperial
Statute.
Confer-
There
N a t i o n s o r the p o s s i b l e d e v o l u t i o n
Imperial
responsibilities
ferences.
Importantly,
t o t h e government o f Canada a t t h e
the
I n d i a n N a t i o n s were n o t
present
was
of
conor
-
represented
73
a t the Conferences.
amendment t o t h e I n d i a n
-
Nor, could
t h e y be.
A c t made i t i l l e g a l ,
In 1927 an
punishable
by i m p r i -
sonment, f o r anyone t o r a i s e money f r o m I n d i a n s
to press
r e c o g n i t i o n of Indian
a b s e n c e o f any
claims.
There i s a t o t a l
i n t e n t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e I m p e r i a l Crown
p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e , n o r has t h e r e
the
been any e x p l i c i t
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to the successor
Further
the d e v o l u t i o n
to delegate
f o r the
the
t r a n s f e r of
government.
argument
ignores
the nature
of
t h e o b l i g a t i o n s and t h e p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e i n c u r r e d by G r e a t
Britain.
The p r o p o s i t i o n w o u l d have i t , as a m a t t e r o f l a w , t h a t
a t t h e p o i n t when G r e a t B r i t a i n c o n f e r s
the
l o c a l government, o u t s t a n d i n g
the
Indian
Nations
full
self-government onto
I m p e r i a l o b l i g a t i o n s owed t o
devolve a u t o m a t i c a l l y .
Not o n l y does
that
proposition lack legal authority, i t i s inherently contradictory.
The o b l i g a t i o n owed t o t h e I n d i a n
Nations
i s in part
to p r o t e c t
t h e i r c o n s e n t t o t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f l a n d and t h e change
tical
ment.
i n s t i t u t i o n s against derogation
in poli-
by t h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n -
I t i s p r e c i s e l y a t t h e p o i n t when the C a n a d i a n government
becomes s t r o n g
t h a t t h e p r o t e c t i o n i s most n e e d e d .
v.
The Canadian Adminstrial of the Obligations
-
V.
-
74
The C a n a d i a n A d m i n s t r i a l o f t h e O b l i g a t i o n s
A. C a n a d i a n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e T r e a t y
It
Making
h a s a l r e a d y been d e m o n s t r a t e d
Process
that the post-Confed-
e r a t i o n T r e a t i e s were made on b e h a l f o f t h e I m p e r i a l Crown.
What
r e m a i n s t o be d e m o n s t r a t e d
i s t h e manner i n w h i c h t h e C a n a d i a n
Government h a s a d m i n s t e r e d
t h e o b l i g a t i o n s a f f i r m e d by t h e
Treaties.
It
Nations
to
i s c l e a r from t h e r e s e a r c h
c o n d u c t e d by t h e I n d i a n
o f Canada t h a t t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
e s t a b l i s h p e a c e between t h e I n d i a n s
entered
Indian
The l a n d s
t h a t were n o t s u r r e n d e r e d
jurisdiction.
treaties
and t h e Crown, and t o
o b t a i n g u a r a n t e e s i n exchange f o r t h e s u r r e n d e r
lands.
into
of c e r t a i n
were t o r e m a i n
The Crown a t a l l t i m e s
conducted
under
itself in
r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p o w e r s and s y m b o l s o f I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
Through
the process
the
of negotiating treaties,
t h e Crown r e c o g n i z e d
power o f I n d i a n Government l e a d e r s t o e n t e r
into binding
ments on s u c h n a t i o n a l m a t t e r s a s l a n d , r e s o u r c e s ,
agree-
and n a t i o n a l
defence.
The
background o f the treaty-making
Saskatchewan i s d e s c r i b e d
process i n
i n the F e d e r a t i o n o f Saskatchewan
Indians' h i s t o r y of Treaty
6.
In A p r i l ,
1871 a d e l e g a t i o n o f
Cree C h i e f s , i n c l u d i n g C h i e f s Sweetgrass, K i h e w i n ,
and
Kiskayo,
and r e p r e s e n t i n g
the d i s t r i c t
Edmonton, met w i t h W.J. C h r i s t i e ,
Little
Hunter,
between C a r l t o n and
t h e Hudson's Bay Company f a c t o r
i n c h a r g e o f t h e d i s t r i c t w h i c h now i n c l u d e s S a s k a t c h e w a n .
Indian Nations
wished to enter
into a treaty with
The
t h e Crown
b e c a u s e o f t h e i r o b j e c t i o n t o t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e Hudson Bay
lands
t o t h e D o m i n i o n o f Canada
(which
they
held
t o be
unenforce-
a b l e as n e i t h e r t h e Company n o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t had t r u e
and
the i n c r e a s i n g white
their
lands.
settlement
w h i c h was e n c r o a c h i n g
title),
on
T h e i r p o s i t i o n was t h a t n e g o t i a t i o n s l e a d i n g t o a
t r e a t y between t h e two n a t i o n s was t h e o n l y avenue open t o b o t h
-
parties.
petition
75
-
To t h a t e n d , C h i e f S w e e t g r a s s s e n t
the f o l l o w i n g
t o t h e C a n a d i a n Government:
G r e a t F a t h e r , - I s h a k e hands w i t h y o u , and
bid
y o u welcome. - We h e a r d o u r l a n d s were
s o l d and we d i d n o t l i k e i t : we d o n ' t want t o
s e l l o u r l a n d s ; i t i s o u r p r o p e r t y , and no one
has t h e r i g h t t o s e l l them.
Accordingly
the
i n 1871, t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e
recommended
immediate appointment o f a Commissioner t o undertake
tions with the Indians
negotia-
o f the North-West.
Through t h e 1870's, i n c r e a s e d
pressure
was b r o u g h t on
t h e g o v e r n m e n t b e c a u s e o f t h e d i s c o n t e n t and u n e a s i n e s s
among t h e
A s s i n i b o i n e s and C r e e s c a u s e d by w h i t e
i n t r u d e r s on t h e i r
Immigration
of land
r e s u l t e d i n the occupation
for agricultural
p u r p o s e s , d e p r i v i n g t h e I n d i a n s o f t h a t means o f l i v i n g
been t h e i r s f o r c e n t u r i e s .
the
Indians,
lands
I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g ,
intruders with d i s t r u s t
expressed
those
the white
would oppose t h e e x -
i n the North-West T e r r i t o r i e s ,
t a i n g u a r a n t e e s were g i v e n
Nations
of
and i l l - f e e l i n g s .
I t was a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s
tension of settlement
w h i c h had
therefore, that
i n t e r r u p t e d i n the p e a c e f u l p o s s e s s s i o n
t h a t were t h e i r own i n h e r i t a n c e , r e g a r d e d
lands.
by t h e g o v e r n m e n t .
unless
cer-
Some o f t h e I n d i a n
the f o l l o w i n g view:
We b e l i e v e what you t e l l us when y o u s a y t h a t ,
on y o u r l a n d , t h e I n d i a n s have a l w a y s been
t r e a t e d w i t h c l e m e n c y and j u s t i c e . . . b u t do n o t
b r i n g s e t t l e r s and s u r v e y o r s amongst u s , t o
m e a s u r e and o c c u p y o u r l a n d s , u n t i l a c l e a r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s been a r r i v e d a t , as t o what
o u r r e l a t i o n s a r e t o be i n t i m e t o come.
A g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t i n h i s memorandum
t h a t these
v i e w s p r e v a i l e d among t h e I n d i a n s
i n 1875 s t a t e d
who wanted a c l e a r
d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e p o l i c y w h i c h i s t o be a d o p t e d
toward
them.
- 76
The
grants
not
acted
t o come on
pany, posted
p a r t i e s not
and
Indians
t h e i r demands.
on
the grounds o u t s i d e
n o t i c e on
their
lands
back a g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y
In
1875
the
Indians
They warned
church
warning
u n t i l a t r e a t y was
signed
party.
i n t e r r u p t e d the p r o g r e s s
traditional
claims
to the
w i t h them t o d i s c u s s f u t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s .
o f f i f t y men
was
back t h e
turned
were h e a r d and
pointed
out
t a k e any
sent
into
surveyors
Colonel
the
who
area
were w o r k i n g
l a n d and
had
there.
met
expedition
t h a t the C r e e s
Their
had
demands
F r e n c h o f t h e N o r t h - W e s t Mounted P o l i c e
f o r c e u n d e r h i s command was
t h a t the
the
government
A military
to f i n d
of
They were admant
t h a t t h e t e l e g r a p h l i n e w o u l d n o t be b u i l t u n t i l t h e
acknowledged t h e i r
Com-
door
t e l e g r a p h west o f F o r t C a r l t o n , Saskatchewan.
had
immi-
the Hudson's Bay
a P o r t a g e La P r a i r i e
t o i n t r u d e on
turned
-
action, urging
insufficient
to
that:
The o n l y m o r a l f o r c e t h a t c o u l d be b r o u g h t t o
b e a r w o u l d be an a s s u r a n c e t h a t the G o v e r n m e n t
proposed having
a t r e a t y w i t h the Crees a t
some d e f i n i t e p e r i o d .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , the
M o r r i s o f M a n i t o b a as T r e a t y
earlier
been p r o m p t e d by
treaties.
Thus, T r e a t i e s
T r e a t i e s 2, 4,
p a r t s of
and
Crown a p p o i n t e d
Commissioner.
the Saulteaux
1 t o 5 had
5 also covering
Nation
government
to e n t e r
been s i g n e d
Indians
and
by
had
into
1875
their
were n e g o t i a t e d
B l a c k f o o t , Piegan,
Blood,
6 and
Dene o f A l b e r t a and
7 ) ; w i t h the
the C r e e , B e a v e r and
( T r e a t i e s 8 and
Northern
The
with
lands
in
Saskatchewan.
Subsequently, t r e a t i e s
with
Lieutenant-Governor
11)
with
Saskatchewan
S a r c e e and
Cree of A l b e r t a
British
Cree of Northern
( T r e a t i e s 9 and
10).
the
(Treaties
the N o r t h w e s t
Dene o f N o r t h e a s t
the
with
Territories;
Columbia
Ontario
and
- 77
The
c o n s i s t e n t theme r e v e a l e d
i n t o the T r e a t i e s n e g o t i a t e d
Provinces
entered
firmed
i s t h a t by
guaranteed
i n the
i n the
arrangements w i t h
the
Indian
1870's i n t h e
the T r e a t y - m a k i n g p r o c e s s
into p o l i t i c a l
and
-
the
research
Prairie
the
Indian
Crown w h i c h
Nations
con-
following principles:
1.
The I n d i a n n a t i o n s r e t a i n e d j u r i s d i c t i o n
o v e r t h e i r p e o p l e , l a n d s , and r e s o u r c e s , b o t h
on
and
o f f the
reserves, subject
t o some
shared
jurisdiction
with
the
appropriate
government
bodies
on
the
lands
known
as
u n o c c u p i e d Crown l a n d s .
T h i s i s the foundat i o n of I n d i a n Government.
2.
By
signing
the
treaties,
the
Indian
n a t i o n s c r e a t e d an o n g o i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
t h e Crown w i t h r e s p e c t t o s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c
development i n exchange f o r l a n d s
surrendered.
3.
The I n d i a n n a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d a p o l i t i c a l
p r o t o c o l f o r the a n n u a l r e v i e w the p r o g r e s s o f
the t r e a t i e s .
These p r i n c i p l e s are
the
t r e a t i e s concluded
tury before.
As
w i t h the
c o m p a c t t o d e a l w i t h the
i n t e g r i t y w i t h i n the
t h e Crown.
the balance
the
the
those
the
these
Indian Nations
changed
o f power between t h e
a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n o f the
Crown a
white
p e a r a n c e o f the b u f f a l o .
i n the
as e s t a b l i s h i n g a
and
political
intervening century
Indian Nations
Indians
as
and
the
More s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
devastating
political
i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f new
sufficiency.
the
Indians
epidemics,
the
the
i n t e g r i t y w i t h i n the unceded
a l s o e x t e n d s t o the p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e
tance
to preserving
and
encroach-
disap-
p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e embodied
confined
was
Crown
a r e s u l t o f the
settlement,
The
T r e a t i e s i s a c c o r d i n g l y not
and
cen-
post-Confedera-
i n f l u x o f w h i s k e y t r a d e r s i n t o t h e N o r t h w e s t and
territorial
embodied i n
framework o f a p r o t e c t o r a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p
What had
were f a c i n g i n c r e a s e d
treaties,
and
issues of t e r r i t o r i a l
ment o f E u r o p e a n " c i v i l i z a t i o n " .
the
Six Nations
w i t h the e a r l i e r
t i o n t r e a t i e s were v i e w e d by
with
consistent with
in
the
Indian's
lands,
I n d i a n economy and
forms f o r I n d i a n economic
but
assisself-
- 78
The
constitutional vehicle for entering
Confederation
1763.
As
we
t r e a t i e s continued
the
Indian
and
Nations understanding of t h e i r
also established
Thus, the
Indian
However, t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the
the
has
them.
Crown.
It
compacts
the
with
post-Con-
that t h e i r
to
and
undergovern
the
judicial
Indians'
Treaties
verbal
t r e a t y agreements.
f r o m the
two
and
the
the
are
oral
proper-
t r e a t y because, w i t h i n
c u l t u r e , i t i s understood
The
clear
i n l a r g e p a r t on
These n e g o t i a t i o n s
i n t e g r a l p a r t of the
sincerity
Indian
d i s p a r i t y between t h e s e
t h a t men
a s s u r a n c e s and
c o m m i s s i o n e r s were a c c e p t e d by
p a r t of the
h o n e s t y and
The
a c t u a l t e x t o f the
t h e i r spoken words.
ments o f the
contravened
o b l i g a t i o n s i s based
t r a d i t i o n s of Indian
bound by
being
an
from
Crown.
which preceded
l y r e g a r d e d as
of
the
t r e a t i e s would c o n t i n u e
Treaties.
Imperial
the
negotiated
l e g i s l a t i v e , executive
d i f f e r e n c e s between the
oral
N a t i o n s who
since Confederation
negotiations
consistent with
r e l a t i o n s h i p with
of the meaning of the
views o f the
was
post-
Royal Proclamation
every reason to b e l i e v e
their relationship with
record
the
the p r o c e s s f o r making f u t u r e
f e d e r a t i o n t r e a t i e s had
standing
t o be
i n t o the
have s e e n t h i s embodied p r i n c i p l e s d e r i v e d
p r i o r compacts w i t h
Indians.
-
the
Indian
They e x p e c t e d
government o f f i c i a l s
the
are
statepeople
the
as
same
that
they
themselves o f f e r e d .
T h e r e i s no d i s p a r i t y between t h e
standing
of the T r e a t i e s
sentations
made by
the
and
Treaty
i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the T r e a t y
appear t h a t
100
y e a r s has
main.
"Elders
The
to b r i n g
an
i t would
the
the
in i t s study,
4 - A R e p o r t on
identified
repre-
in interpretation re-
of Saskatchewan I n d i a n s ,
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n P r o j e c t , " has
verbal
r e g a r d e d as
b e h i n d the w o r d s o f
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Treaty
under-
Unfortunately,
been s u f f i c i e n t
Significant differences
Federation
t e x t i f the
Commissioners are
agreements.
not
C a n a d i a n Government t o s t a n d
Commissioners.
the T r e a t y
Indian's
the
Treaty
these d i f f e r e n c e s .
- 79 1.
Land and R e s o u r c e s :
The n a t u r e o f t h e
land/resources
c e s s i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t
topic
f o r w h i c h t h e two s o u r c e s ,
t r e a t y t e x t and
Indian elders, provide v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t i n t e r pretations.
The e l d e r s i n d i c a t e t h a t i t was a
limited cession.
The c o n c e p t o f a l i m i t e d
l a n d c e s s i n b e l i e s t h e t e x t o f T r e a t y 4, w h i c h
s t a t e s t h a t t h e I n d i a n s i g n a t o r i e s "do h e r e b y
c e d e , r e l e a s e , s u r r e n d e r and y i e l d up t o t h e
Government o f t h e D o m i n i o n o f C a n a d a , f o r Her
M a j e s t y t h e Queen, and h e r s u c c e s s o r s f o r e v e r ,
a l l t h e i r r i g h t s , t i t l e s and p r i v i l e g e s w h a t soever,
to the lands
included
w i t h i n the
following limits."
The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
cession i s best
desof the land/resources
cribed
by r e f e r e n c e
to the e l d e r s '
understanding of t h e i r r i g h t s with respect to w i l d life,
subsurface
r i g h t s , and t h e s t a t u s o f
lands,
including waters,
not u t i l i z e d f o r
agriculture.
a)
The s u b j e c t o f w i l d l i f e , w h i l e i t h a s been
conventionally
phrased
i n terms o f
Indian
fishing
and
trapping
"rights,"
hunting,
" r i g h t - o f - a c c e s s " o r " r i g h t to use," i s d i s c u s s e d h e r e a s an e l e m e n t o r f e a t u r e o f t h e
land
cession
because the e l d e r s
s t a t e the
I n d i a n p e o p l e c o n t i n u e t o own o r have e x c l u s i v e use o f a l l w i l d l i f e .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , the
elders state that w i l d l i f e continues to belong
t o t h e I n d i a n p e o p l e as an e l e m e n t i n t h e
i n v e n t o r y o f unceded r e s o u r c e s .
I t i s stated
f r e q u e n t l y t h a t t h e Crown assumed a t r e a t y
o b l i g a t i o n to protect w i l d l i f e populations f o r
continuing Indian use.
b)
Subsurface
and o t h e r
non-agricultural
resources
- The e l d e r s
i n d i c a t e that the
resources
c e d e d u n d e r T r e a t y 4 were l i m i t e d
and r e s t r i c t i v e as some l a n d r e s o u r c e s
were
r e t a i n e d by t h e I n d i a n p e o p l e i n t h e c e d e d
lands.
The C o m m i s s i o n e r
stated
that the
w h i t e m e n wanted l a n d t o f a r m o n l y t o t h e d e p t h
o f a p l o w , s t a t e d most f r e q u e n t l y a s a d e p t h
of s i x inches.
T h e r e i s an i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t
non-agricultural
land
- mountain
country,
l a k e s , o t h e r l a n d s u n f i t f o r farmng - w e r e n o t
r e q u e s t e d and n o t c e d e d .
2.
I n d i a n Government:
There i s
among t h e e l d e r s t h a t I n d i a n p e o p l e
the r i g h t t o govern t h e m s e l v e s .
unanimity
retained
3.
Crown P r o t e c t i o n and A s s i s t a n c e :
The
e l d e r s s t a t e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s were p r o m i s e d
Crown p r o t e c t i o n and a s s i s t a n c e t o d e v e l o p and
prosper.
This promise i s described i n general
t e r m s , w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o a c o n t i n u i n g and comprehensive
Crown r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and a l s o i n
specific
terms
with
respect
to
economic
d e v e l o p m e n t a s s i s t a n c e and a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e
event o f famine o r p r i v a t i o n .
-
The
-
80
c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e T r e a t i e s as p o l i t i c a l
and
compacts, i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t ,
the b a s i s f o r B r i t i s h
Indian p o l i c y
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y undermined
f o r two
which
c e n t u r i e s , has
Mr.
the Mackenzie V a l l e y P i p e l i n e
I n q u i r y has
Justice
t h e C a n a d i a n a d m i n i s t a t o r s had
Berger
was
been
i n the Canadian a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of
post-Confederation Treaties.
conception
legal
the
i n the Report
r e c e n t l y summarized
of
the
o f the T r e a t i e s .
"When t r e a t i e s were s i g n e d d u r i n g t h e
19th
c e n t u r y , the s e t t l e m e n t of the n a t i v e p e o p l e ' s
c l a i m s was r e g a r d e d p r i m a r i l y as s u r r e n d e r o f
t h e i r l a n d so t h a t s e t t l e m e n t c o u l d p r o c e e d .
The payment o f money, t h e p r o v i s i o n o f g o o d s
and
services,
and
the
establishment
of
r e s e r v e s - a l l of which accompanied such a
were
conceived
in
part
as
surrender
c o m p e n s a t i o n and
i n p a r t as
t h e means o f
change.
The g o v e r n m e n t ' s e x p e c t a t i o n was t h a t
a backward people would, i n the f u l l n e s s of
s e m i - n o m a d i c ways
and,
t i m e , abandon t h e i r
w i t h t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e w h i t e man's r e l i g i o n ,
e d u c a t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r e , t a k e t h e i r p l a c e i n
political
t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f t h e e c o n o m i c and
l i f e o f Canada.
The g o v e r n m e n t s o f t h e day d i d n o t r e g a r d t h e
t r e a t i e s as a n y t h i n g l i k e a s o c i a l c o n t r a c t i n
w h i c h d i f f e r e n t ways o f l i f e were accommodated
w i t h i n m u t u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e l i m i t s ; they gave
little
c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o a n y t h i n g beyond
the
e x t i n g u i s h m e n t of n a t i v e c l a i m s to the l a n d ,
o n c e and f o r a l l .
The n a t i v e p e o p l e , by and
l a r g e , understood
the s p i r i t o f the t r e a t i e s
d i f f e r e n t l y ; t h e y r e g a r d e d t h e t r e a t i e s as t h e
means by w h i c h t h e y w o u l d be a b l e t o r e t a i n
t h e i r own c u s t o m s and t o g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s i n
the f u t u r e .
But t h e y l a c k e d t h e power t o
(Report o f the M a c k e n z i e
enforce t h e i r view.
V a l l e y P i p e l i n e I n q u i r y p. 163 (1977)
The
F e d e r a l Government's breach
embodied i n t h e t r e a t i e s b e a r s
o f the
compacts
c a r e f u l examination
i n a number o f
areas.
Detribalization.
While
the t r e a t i e s d i d
s p e c i f i c a l l y promise t h a t Indian people
o f g o v e r n m e n t by c h i e f s and
understood
provided
councillors,
would r e t a i n
i t was
on a l l s i d e s t h a t t h i s w o u l d happen.
that:
not
their
system
clearly
For example
they
-
-
81
Her M a j e s t y . . .
s h a l l n e x t y e a r , and
annually
a f t e r w a r d s , f o r e v e r , c a u s e t o be p a i d i n c a s h ,
a t some s u i t a b l e s e a s o n t o be d u l y n o t i f i e d t o
t h e I n d i a n s , and a t a p l a c e o r p l a c e s t o be
purpose
within
the
appointed
for
that
territory
ceded;
each
Chief,
twenty-five
d o l l a r s ; e a c h head man n o t e x c e e d i n g f o u r t o a
band, f i f t e e n d o l l a r s . . .
From p a s s a g e s s u c h as t h i s ,
Indian people b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i r
l e a d e r s would n o t
Hon.
a l l o f the
1870s -- was
c h i e f and
right
u n d e r m i n e d by
A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s --
negotiated
the
be
the
i t i s e a s y t o see
the
why
to choose t h e i r
treaties.
own
Indeed,
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the Crown
treaties
who
made w i t h S a s k a t c h e w a n I n d i a n s
s t r o n g l y o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t the o f f i c e
councillor
had
Canadian government.
He
the
t o be
recognized
and
respected
in
of
by
the
declared:
" . . . I am o f o p i n i o n t h a t i t i s o f i m p o r t a n c e
to s t r e n g t h e n
t h e hands o f t h e C h i e f s
and
C o u n c i l l o r s by a due
r e c o g n i t i o n of
their
They
o f f i c e s and r e s p e c t b e i n g shewn them.
s h o u l d be s t r o n g l y i m p r e s s e d w i t h the b e l i e f
t h a t t h e y a r e o f f i c e r s o f the Crown, and t h a t
i t i s t h e i r d u t y t o see t h a t the I n d i a n s o f
their
tribes
obey
the
p r o v i s i o n s of
the
t r e a t i e s . . . In
all
the
negotiations
for
t r e a t i e s , the C h i e f s took a c o n t r o l l i n g p a r t ,
and g e n e r a l l y e x h i b i t e d g r e a t common s e n s e
and e x c e l l e n t j u d g m e n t .
I t i s therefore of
upmost
importance
to
retain
their
the
confidence
and
cause
their
office
to
be
and
r e c o g n i z e d and r e s p e c t e d by b o t h w h i t e s
Indians."
Morris' advice
Act provided
was
not
followed.
t h a t the C a n a d i a n C a b i n e t
headmen from o f f i c e
by
f o r example, p r o v i d e d
Instead,
could
Order i n C o u n c i l .
the
Indian
remove c h i e f s
The
1906
Indian
and
Act,
that:
"Any e l e c t e d o r l i f e c h i e f and any
councillor
o r headman, o r any c h i e f o r c o u n c i l l o r
or
headman c h o s e n a c c o r d i n g t o the c u s t o m o f any
b a n d , may, on t h e gound o f d i s h o n e s t y ,
intemp e r a n c e , i m m o r a l i t y o r i n c o m p e t e n c y , be d e s posed by t h e G o v e r n o r i n C o u n c i l and d e c l a r e d
i n e l i g i b l e to h o l d the o f f i c e of c h i e f o r
councillor
or
headman
for
a
period
not
exceeding three years."
Similar
When the
treaties
I n d i a n A c t p r o v i s i o n s had
were s i g n e d ,
existed since
I n d i a n p e o p l e were not
1896.
informed
of
-
these p r o v i s i o n s .
subjects
and
-
82
Although they promised
t o be "good and l o y a l
o f Her M a j e s t y t h e Queen," and t o " i n a l l r e s p e c t s ,
a b i d e by t h e l a w " t h e y c a n n o t have u n d e r s t o o d
that
obey
that
C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d use t h o s e l a w s t o u n d e r m i n e t h e
p o s i t i o n s and a u t h o r i t i e s o f t h e i r c h o s e n l e a d e r s .
not
long
Laird,
Morris'
before
t h i s began t o h a p p e n .
successor
as T r e a t y
Commissioner, expressed h i s o p i n i o n
t o do away w i t h
p e o p l e began t o s e t t l e on t h e i r
headmen were r e a c t i o n a r y
t o o much a b o u t t h e i r
the Indian
councillors.
hold
They c l a i m e d
of the Indian
the leaders
the c h i e f s
they
talked
t h e bands t o
On many
chiefs
who had d i e d ,
to obtain
to
resigned, or
when t h e
surrenders
of
l a n d s , d i d t h e government b e g i n t o a l l o w the e l e c t i o n o f
Even s o , t h e g o v e r n m e n t r e t a i n e d a
to confirm
opposed the Department o f I n d i a n
P r o h i b i t i o n of Ceremonies.
the Indian
a chief or c o u n c i l l o ri f
Affairs'
policies.
When t h e t r e a t i e s were made
p e o p l e o f W e s t e r n C a n a d a , t h e y were t o l d
t h e y w o u l d n o t be f o r c e d
At
agents.
Only a f t e r the t u r n o f the century,
v e t o p o w e r , and would r e f u s e
with
that
O f t e n t h e band members were n o t p e r m i t t e d
c h i e f s and c o u n c i l l o r s a g a i n .
he
agents
and n o t " p r o g r e s s i v e " ;
Canadian government a c t i v e l y a t t e m p t e d
reserve
Indian
A c t was used as a u t h o r i t y t o d e p o s e
e l e c t i o n s to replace
been removed.
As t h e I n d i a n
t r e a t y r i g h t s , and e n c o u r a g e d
defy the peremptory orders
reserves,
chiefs.
reserves,
i n c r e a s i n g l y promoted t h i s v i e w .
and
As e a r l y as 1878, D a v i d
t h e L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r o f t h e N o r t h - W e s t T e r r i t o r i e s and
t h a t i t w o u l d be b e t t e r
and
B u t i t was
that
to adopt the c u l t u r e o f the white
the n e g o t i a t i o n of Treaty
1, G o v e r n o r A r c h i b a l d
men.
declared:
"Your G r e a t M o t h e r w i s h e s t h e good o f a l l
r a c e s u n d e r h e r sway.
She w i s h e s h e r Red
C h i l d r e n , as w e l l as h e r W h i t e p e o p l e , t o be
happy and c o n t e n t e d .
She w i s h e s them t o l i v e
She w o u l d l i k e them t o a d o p t t h e
in comfort.
h a b i t s o f the whites —
to t i l l
l a n d and
r a i s e f o o d , and s t o r e i t up a g a i n s t a t i m e o f
want.
She t h i n k s t h i s w o u l d be t h e b e s t
t h i n g f o r h e r Red C h i l d r e n t o d o ; t h a t i t
w o u l d make them s a f e r f r o m f a m i n e and s i c k n e s s , and make t h e i r homes more c o m f o r t a b l e .
- 83
-
But t h e Queen, t h o u g h she may t h i n k i t good
f o r you
t o a d o p t c i v i l i z e d h a b i t s , has
no
i d e a o f c o m p e l l i n g you t o do s o .
T h i s she
l e a v e s t o y o u r own c h o i c e , and you need n o t
l i v e l i k e t h e w h i t e man
u n l e s s you can
be
p e r s u a d e d t o do so w i t h you own f r e e w i l l . "
This promise,
h o w e v e r , was
gets of Indian A f f a i r s
and
The
o t h e r s were t h e
w i t h the d a i l y
of property.
the
"sundance"
purpose of these
that
that they discouraged
passed
i n 1895,
these
ant m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of Indian c u l t u r e .
the
the
a series
to p r o h i b i t
amendments was
tar-
religious
r o u t i n e o f l a b o u r on
Beginning
amendments t o t h e I n d i a n A c t was
monies.
o f t h e main
I n d i a n agents compained
r e s e r v e , t h a t t h e y were c r u e l , and
vate accumulation
One
I n d i a n s -- p a r t i c u l a r l y
the "give-away dances."
ceremonies i n t e r f e r e d
t o be k e p t .
officials
ceremonies of the P l a i n s
and
not
these
of
cere-
to suppress
Under t h e I n d i a n
pri-
importAct:
" E v e r y I n d i a n o r o t h e r p e r s o n who e n g a g e s i n ,
assists
i n c e l e b r a t i n g or
encourages
or
either
directly
or
indirectly
another
to
c e l e b r a t e any I n d i a n f e s t i v a l , d a n c e o r o t h e r
ceremony o f w h i c h t h e g i v i n g away o r p a y i n g
o r g i v i n g b a c k o f money, g o o d s o r a r t i c l e s
t a k e s p l a c e b e f o r e , a t , o r a f t e r the c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e s a m e . . . i s g u i l t y o f an o f f e n c e
and i s l i a b l e on summary c o n v i c t i o n t o i m p r i sonment f o r a term n o t e x c e e d i n g s i x months
and n o t l e s s t h a n two months."
I n d i a n c u l t u r e was
but
important
certain
not d e s t r o y e d
i n s t a n c e s , b a n d s were g i v e n s p e c i a l
i f they agreed
as
lands guaranteed
to the
leased or otherwise
Indians e n t i t l e d
the s a l e ,
The
t r e a t i e s promised
permission
to h o l d
to s u r r e n d e r
Indian people
disposed
w o u l d n e v e r be
of," without
thereto f i r s t
had
and
"the
Indians."
Yet
the Government o f C a n a d a , a c t i n g as
consent
obtained,"
l e a s e o r o t h e r d i s p o s i t i o n was
b e n e f i t o f the s a i d
t h a t the
and
these,
Indeed, i n
a
some o f
r e s e r v e l a n d , o r c o m p l y w i t h o t h e r demands o f t h e i r
Surrenders.
if
laws such
a s p e c t s o f i t were d r i v e n u n d e r g r o u n d .
sundance o r o t h e r ceremony —
their
by
agent.
reserve
"sold,
of
the
then
" f o r t h e use
only
and
i n t h e p a s t one
hundred
years
t r u s t e e o f the
reserve
lands
- 84 -
f o r the I n d i a n people
has s o l d o r o t h e r w i s e
permanently
disposed
o f the whole o f , o r major p o r t i o n s o f , I n d i a n r e s e r v e s .
l e a s t some o f t h e s e
obtained
"surrenders,"
from t h e I n d i a n s
no c o n s e n t o f any k i n d was
entitled
to the land.
government o f f i c i a l s
other
annulled
F u r t h e r m o r e , few o f t h e s e
the v a l i d i t y o f such
t h a t most o f t h i s
civil
placed
to enable
—
consent.
s a l e s o r a l i e n a t i o n s were f o r " t h e use
b e n e f i t " o f the Indian people.
evidence
by
by f r a u d , c o e r c i o n , o r m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
t a c t i c s which c o m p l e t e l y
Instead, there
i s clear
l a n d was s o l d t o t h e a g e n t o f h i g h l y
s e r v a n t s , o r f r i e n d s o f the government o f the day,
these
people
A vivid
Indian A f f a i r s '
gard
I n many
t h e c o n s e n t t h a t was g i v e n by t h e I n d i a n s was o b t a i n e d
cases,
and
In a t
t o make l a r g e p e r s o n a l
profits.
case i n p o i n t r e v e a l i n g the Department o f
f r a u d u l e n t d i s p o s i t i o n o f reseve
l a n d and d i s r e -
o f the p r i n c i p l e of Indian consent i s that i n v o l v i n g the
F t . S t . J o h n Band o f B e a v e r I n d i a n s
British
Columbia.
i n the n o r t h e a s t e r n
T h i s band s i g n e d T r e a t y
8 i n 1900.
r e s e r v e o f 18,000 a c r e s o f p r i m e a g r i c u l t u r a l
lished
near t h e n o r t h e r n
The
t r a d i t i o n a l ways.
along
family lines,
tories during
The Band t r a v e l l e d
l a n d was
i n accordance
and s p r i n g months.
During
on t h e r e s e r v e .
families returned
terri-
w i n t e r , when
were
A t t h e end o f s p r i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t
to the reserve
h u n t , p i c k b e r r i e s , r e s t and c a r e
t h i s l a n d use was n o t u n d e r s t o o d
through
with
organized
traditional
t r a v e l was on f o o t o r by dog team, t h e band's h o r s e s
pastured
estab-
i n groups,
t o h u n t and t r a p i n t h e i r
the w i n t e r
I n 1918, a
community o f F t . S t . J o h n .
r e s e r v e was used by t h e I n d i a n s
their
part of
l a n d t o camp f o r t h e summer,
f o r their horses.
by t h e w h i t e
However,
settlers
who,
v a r i o u s Boards o f Trade, s t a r t e d to put p r e s s u r e
Department o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s
t o "get the l a n d back from t h e
I n d i a n s " who " d i d n ' t use i t . "
Second W o r l d War, and a n o t h e r
the D e p a r t m e n t o f V e t e r a n ' s
on t h e
The p r e s s u r e
increased
a f t e r the
branch o f the f e d e r a l government,
A f f a i r s , a l s o began m o u n t i n g a
- 85
-
c a m p a i g n t o have I n d i a n A f f a i r s open up
r e t u r n i n g war
Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s
t h i s pressure.
An
I n d i a n a g e n t was
At a " s u r r e n d e r
sent
a l r e a d y been s o l d .
Indian agent r e p o r t e d
I n d i a n s were t o l d
t h i s alleged surrender
t o by
never o b t a i n e d .
had
ssessed
reserves.
year
former reserve
Indians
meeting,
a
the
surrender
Such c o n -
reveals that
t o have been e x e c u t e d
signed
for a
in
i n 1948
and
without
as " T h e i r v i r t u a l
new
o f f i c i a l s without
any
the Band's c o n s e n t .
inferior
W h i l e the D e p a r t m e n t r e p r e s e n t e d
expanded beyond t h i s l i m i t e d
The
o l d r e s e r v e was
that i n a poor f u r
the
In p l a c e o f
Indians
imminent."
Department
18,000
acres
q u a l i t y were s e l e c t e d .
t h a t the r e s e r v e b a s e c o u l d
acreage,
t h i s has
Furthermore, there
be
n o t been done.
s o l d t o the D e p a r t m e n t o f
A f f a i r s at a p r i c e f a r below the a p p r a i s e d
f a c e o f the l a n d .
the
replacement
e x t i n c t i o n seems
r e s e r v e s were s e l e c t e d by
o f p r i m e l a n d , 6,000 a c r e s o f
the
dispo-
a r e p o r t o f the department o f h e a l t h s t a t e d t h a t the
Finally
the
i n f r o n t of
number o f y e a r s
T h e i r s i t u a t i o n became so d e s p e r a t e
"deserve our p i t y "
to
absence.
I n d i a n s were l e f t
of t h e i r
the
reports
a t the m e e t i n g .
p r e s e n c e o f t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e b a n d , was
J u s t i c e o f the P e a c e i n t h e i r
the
that
The
obtained
Indeed the evidence
statutory d e c l a r a t i o n , purported
The
from
the unanimous c o n s e n t o f a l l the
a d u l t male members o f t h e Band p r e s e n t
s e n t was
to
traplines.
t o O t t a w a t h a t he
o f the r e s e r v e a s s e n t e d
to F t . S t . John
to t h i s meeting)
were p r o m i s e d l a n d c l o s e r t o t h e i r
days a f t e r
u l t i m a t e l y bowed
( L o c a l newspapers c a r r i e d
the same e f f e c t p u b l i s h e d p r i o r
Two
for
m e e t i n g " t o o b t a i n the c o n s e n t o f
Band t o t h e s a l e o f t h e r e s e r v e , t h e
l a n d had
land
veterans.
The
Ottawa.
the r e s e r v e
Veterans'
v a l u e of the bare
i s strong evidence
in
c a s e t o s u g g e s t t h a t g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s were w e l l aware o f
surthe
rich
- 86 -
oil
and g a s d e p o s i t s
prior
t o the s u r r e n d e r
agreeing
Affairs
I n d e e d , some 15 y e a r s
meeting the Indians
to lease the subsurface
Veterans'
ral
u n d e r the r e s e r v e .
rights.
signed
documents
Nevertheless,
when
i n q u i r e d o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s as t o whether mine-
r i g h t s had been s o l d w i t h t h e l a n d , t h e D e p a r t m e n t ,
t o l a w and t o t h e I n d i a n s '
been s o l d .
oil
interest,
s a i d that these
T h i s land has subsequently
and g a s p r o d u c i n g
land
r i g h t s had
become some o f t h e r i c h e s t
i n a l l of British
f i t s o f w h i c h have a c c r u e d
contrary
C o l u m b i a , t h e bene-
t o t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e Government and
t h e war v e t e r a n s .
To d a t e ,
t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t h a s n o t been a b l e t o
a c c o u n t f o r t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f 8 0 % o f t h e money r e c e i v e d
from the
sale o f the reserve.
Land E n t i t l e m e n t .
reserves
of land s u f f i c i e n t
f a m i l y were g u a r a n t e e d .
acres
it
t o a l l o w one s q u a r e m i l e
I n some t r e a t i e s
f o r each f a m i l y o f f i v e .
great
t o which they
In s p i t e o f t h i s
were e n t i t l e d .
debt.
solemn p r o m i s e ,
t h e amount o f
t o pay t h i s
However, t h e g o v e r n m e n t i s a t t e m p t i n g
t r e a t y l a n d e n t i t l e m e n t by u s i n g
mine t h e m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g
was 160
The C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t , w i t h
r e l u c t a n c e , i s now m a k i n g some e f f o r t
standing
f o r each
the formula
i s now known t h a t some bands have n e v e r r e c e i v e d
land
on
By t h e t e r m s o f t h e t r e a t i e s ,
long
out-
to renege
l e g a l o p i n i o n s which
under-
a r r i v e d a t through the t r e a t i e s .
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e S a s k a t c h e w a n t r e a t i e s g u a r a n t e e an a l l o t m e n t o f
reserve
l a n d o f 128 a c r e s
p e r I n d i a n , b u t g i v e no c l e a r
t i o n a s t o when t h a t a l l o t m e n t
into
i s t o be made.
indica-
From t h e 1880s
the e a r l y 1970s, t h e Department o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s
invariably
f o l l o w e d one r u l e t o c a l c u l a t e l a n d e n t i t l e m e n t
b a s e d on t h e
p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e Band a t t h e t i m e t h e r e s e r v e s
were s u r v e y e d o r
specifically
covered
However, now t h a t i t has been
t h a t t h e r e a r e many more c a s e s o f o u t s t a n d i n g
entitlement
without
identified.
t h a n had p r e v i o u s l y been s u s p e c t e d ,
any c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h
Indian people,
dis-
t r e a t y land
the Department,
has r e v e r s e d i t s
- 87 -
ninety-year-old
p o l i c y and o b t a i n e d
a new l e g a l o p i n i o n
Department o f J u s t i c e which i n e x p l i c a b l y d e c l a r e s
f r o m the
that the
government o f Canada's " l a w f u l o b l i g a t i o n " t o t h e I n d i a n
of Saskatchewan i s simply
entitlement
to provide
enough l a n d
to f u l f i l the
t h e band had a t t h e d a t e o f t h e f i r s t
for
t h a t band, w i t h o u t
any
subsequent survey
reference
survey
to the p o p u l a t i o n
o f land
a t the date o f
o r to the c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n .
t e r a l c h a n g e s i n p o l i c y have e r o d e d t h e s p i r i t
people
Such
unila-
and t e r m s o f t h e
treaties.
Medical
s i o n was p l a c e d
Care.
i n Treaty
t a i n a medicine chest
clause
At the request
o f the C h i e f s , a p r o v i -
No. 6 r e q u i r i n g t h e G o v e r n m e n t t o m a i n -
f o r t h e needs o f t h e I n d i a n s .
The s p e c i f i c
i s as f o l l o w s :
" T h a t t h e m e d i c i n e c h e s t s h a l l be k e p t a t t h e
h o u s e o f e a c h I n d i a n A g e n t f o r t h e u s e and
b e n e f i t o f the Indians, a t the d i s c r e t i o n o f
such Agent."
Although
in
the formal
made e x p l i c i t
no s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n f o r m e d i c a l
text o f Treaty
appears
negotiators
v e r b a l p r o m i s e s t h a t s u c h c a r e w o u l d be made
able to the Indians.
No.
No. 8, t h e Government
care
avail-
The r e p o r t o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s f o r T r e a t y
8 states:
"They r e q u e s t e d
t h a t m e d i c i n e s be f u r n i s h e d .
Landing,
A t V e r m i l i o n , C h i p e w y a n and S m i t h ' s
an e a r n e s t a p p e a l was made f o r t h e s e r v i c e s
a medical
man.
...We
promised
that
of
s u p p l i e s o f m e d i c i n e s w o u l d be p u t i n t h e
c h a r g e o f p e r s o n s s e l e c t e d by t h e G o v e r n m e n t
a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s , and w o u l d be d i s t r i b u t e d
free
t o those
o f the Indians
who m i g h t
r e q u i r e them.
We e x p l a i n e d t h a t i t w o u l d be
p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e Government t o
a r r a n g e f o r r e g u l a r m e d i c a l a t t e n d a n c e upon
I n d i a n s so w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d o v e r s u c h an e x tensive territory.
We a s s u r e d them, h o w e v e r ,
t h a t t h e Government w o u l d a l w a y s be r e a d y t o
a v a i l i t s e l f o f any o p p o r t u n i t y o f a f f o r d i n g
m e d i c a l s e r v i c e j u s t as i t p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e
physician attahced
to the Commission should
g i v e f r e e a t t e n d a n c e t o a l l I n d i a n s whom he
m i g h t f i n d i n need o f t r e a t m e n t as he p a s s e d
through the country."
(Report o f the T r e a t y
C o m m i s s i o n e r s , T r e a t y No. 8, p.6)
-
Similarly,
that p r a c t i c a l l y
-
88
the Commissioner
f o r T r e a t y No. 11 n o t e d
a l l t h e bands i n v o l v e d
i n the n e g o t i a t i o n s r e -
g u e s t e d t h a t some p r o v i s i o n be made f o r m e d i c a l c a r e .
Commission d i d n o t f o r m a l l y
i n c l u d e such a p r o v i s i o n
t r e a t y b u t D r . A.L. M c D o n a l d , who a c c o m p a n i e d
treated
the s i c k
and i n j u r e d
first
The
case
i n the
the Commissioner,
among t h e a s s e m b l e d
Indians.
i n which t r e a t y p r o v i s i o n s
f o r medical
c a r e were i n i s s u e was t h e u n r e p o r t e d 1935 E x c h e q u e r
of
The
D r e a v e r v. The K i n g i n w h i c h
the C o u r t based
c o u r t case
i t s decision
l a r g e l y upon t h e t e s t i m o n y o f C h i e f D r e a v e r who was t w e n t y
old
when T r e a t y No. 6 was s i g n e d i n 1876.
Chief Dreaver
f i e d as t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n s between t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s
C h i e f s and Headmen a c t i n g
testi-
and t h e
as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the I n d i a n s
t e s t i m o n y was t h a t a l l m e d i c i n e s were t o be s u p p l i e d
free
I n d i a n s a n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , s u c h m e d i c i n e s had i n f a c t
been
supplied g r a t u i t i o u s l y
J u s t i c e Angers
held
from
that
years
1876 t o 1919.
to the
I n h i s j u d g m e n t , Mr.
the "medicine chest" promise
No. 6 was t o be i n t e r p r e t e d
His
i n Treaty
as f o l l o w s :
"The c l a u s e m i g h t u n q u e s t i o n a b l y be more e x p l i c i t b u t , as I have s a i d , I t a k e i t t o mean
t h a t a l l m e d i c i n e s , drugs o r medical s u p p l i e s
w h i c h m i g h t be r e q u i r e d by t h e I n d i a n s . . . w e r e
t o be s u p p l i e d t o them f r e e o f c h a r g e . "
In
1966, a s e c o n d
case
involving
the medicine
chest
p r o v i s i o n came b e f o r e t h e c o u r t s .
I n R e g i n a v. J o h n s t o n t h e
Defendant
t o pay a h o s p i t a l
was c h a r g e d w i t h
by t h e S a s k a t c h e w a n
failure
Hospitalization
tax required
A c t . J o h n s t o n argued
that,
by t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f T r e a t y No. 6, t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t was
obligated
the
t o pay t h e m e d i c a l e x p e n s e s
Treaty.
t r a t e held
o f t h o s e I n d i a n s c o v e r e d by
T h i s p o s i t i o n was a c c e p t e d a t t r i a l
that:
and t h e M a g i s -
- 89
-
" R e f e r r i n g t o the " m e d i c i n e c h e s t " c l a u s e o f
T r e a t y No. 6, i t i s common k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e
p r o v i s i o n s f o r c a r i n g f o r the s i c k and i n j u r e d i n t h e a r e a s i n h a b i t e d by the
Indians
i n 1876 were somewhat p r i m i t i v e compared t o
p r e s e n t day
standards.
I t can
be
safely
assumed t h a t t h e I n d i a n s had l i m i t e d knowl e d g e o f what p r o v i s i o n s were a v a i l a b l e and
i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e y were c o n c e r n e d t h a t
t h e i r p e o p l e be a d e q u a t e l y c a r e d f o r .
With
t h a t i n v i e w , and p o s s i b l y c a r r y i n g the o p i n i o n o f A n g e r s , J . , a s t e p f a r t h e r , I can o n l y
c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e " m e d i c i n e c h e s t " c l a u s e and
the
"pestilence" clause
in Treaty
No.
6
s h o u l d p r o p e r l y be i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean t h a t
the I n d i a n s are e n t i t l e d to r e c e i v e a l l medical
s e r v i c e s , i n c l u d i n g medicines,
drugs,
m e d i c a l s u p p l i e s and h o s p i t a l c a r e f r e e o f
charge."
( c i t e d i n R. v . J o h n s t o n (1966) 56
D.L.R. (20 749 a t 754 S a s k .
C.A.)
On
ruling
appeal,
t h a t the
meaning.
The
the
Saskatchewan Court of Appeal
"medicine chest"
court
should
be g i v e n
a
reversed
literal
stated:
" A g a i n , on t h e p l a i n r e a d i n g o f t h e " m e d i c i n e
chest"
c l a u s e , i t means no more t h a n
the
words c l e a r l y c o n v e y :
an u n d e r t a k i n g by t h e
Crown t o k e e p a t the house o f t h e
Indian
a g e n t a m e d i c i n e c e s t f o r t h e use and b e n e f i t
direction
of
the
of
the
Indians
at
the
Agent.
Such l i m i t a t i o n w o u l d i n d i c a t e t h a t
t h e o b l i g a t i o n was t o h a v e p h y s i c a l l y on the
r e s e r v a t i o n s , f o r t h e use and b e n e f i t o f t h e
medicine
under
the
Indians,
a
supply
of
s u p e r v i s i o n of the agent.
I can f i n d n o t h i n g
h i s t o r i c a l l l y , o r i n any d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n i t i o n , o r i n any
l e g a l pronouncement, t h a t
would
justify
the
conclusion
that
the
I n d i a n s , i n s e e k i n g and a c c e p t i n g the c r o w n ' s
o b l i g a t i o n s t o p r o v i d e a ' m e d i c i n e c h e s t ' had
in contemplation
p r o v i s i o n of
a l l medical
s e r v i c e s , i n c l u d i n g h o s p i t a l care."
( i d at
753)
This narrow, l e g a l i s t i c
disregards
an
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
the T r e a t y .
I t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
approach which the Canadian C o u r t s
have t a k e n
are
the
i n i n t e r p r e t i n g the
promises.
P r o t e c t i o n and
Indian right
D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n Economy.
t o e c o n o m i c s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n was
Indian Nations
Much o f
clause
t h e o r a l p r o m i s e s w h i c h the I n d i a n p e o p l e i n s i s t
i n t e g r a l p a r t of
Treaty
the
when t h e y
negotiated
the
the n e g o t i a t o r s ' a t t e n t i o n was
assumed
treaties with
focused
on
by
the
securing
The
the
Crown.
the
- 90
-
economic f u t u r e o f t h e i r people.
o f the
treaties,
the o r i g i n a l
In f a i l i n g
to f u l f i l l
t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f Canada has
i n t e n t o f the
treaty-making
a g r e e m e n t s a means by w h i c h t h e
t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t and
the
actually
process,
preverted
making
I n d i a n p e o p l e w o u l d be
h e l d back f r o m p r o g r e s s i n g
terms
the
limited
t o an
in
indepen-
d e n t economic s t a t u s .
In t h e
1870s, when the
t r e a t i e s were n e g o t i a t e d ,
Plains
Indians
had
never to r e c o v e r .
The
were d e c i m a t e d and
ly.
Their wholesale
resist
post-Confederation
traditional
economy o f the
g r e a t h e r d s o f b u f f a l o w h i c h had
by
the end
of the
s l a u g h t e r was
'80s
the w e s t w a r d c o u r s e
l a r g e l y due
means o f s u r v i v a l .
of s e t t l e m e n t
I n Canada, the new
was
sustained
were gone c o m p l e t e t o the p o l i c y
S t a t e s ' g o v e r n m e n t t o u n d e r m i n e the
sion policies
western
s u f f e r e d i r r e v o c a b l e harm f r o m w h i c h i t
it
the United
the
first
of
I n d i a n s ' powers
by d e s t r o y i n g
to
their
Dominion's westward
a l s o b e n e f i t t e d from the d e s t r u c t i o n of the
expanIndian
economy.
Thus, when t h e
w e s t e r n Canada met
Indian leaders
economic o r d e r .
Indians
nomy.
long
perceived
The
lists
Although
of a g r i c u l t u r a l
t o o k up
e q u i p m e n t , and
by
m i d - l 8 7 0 s , the
Indians
fund
the
their
farming
was
a new
f o r the
thus
reserve
land.
As
the T r e a t y
were i n s i s t i n g
on
the
the a n n u a l sum
Fort P i t t
and
in
eco-
included
allotted
t i m e went
as w e l l
6 negotiations, in
the e s t a b l i s h m e n t
encouragement o f a g r i c u l t u r e .
a l l o c a t e d f o r both
of l i f e
a m a i n s t a y o f the new
treaties
peoples,
p u r s u i t , the
t h e y w o u l d need c a p i t a l
time of
C o m m i s s i o n e r s a g r e e d , and
was
I n d i a n way
goods w h i c h were to be
Indian peoples r e a l i z e d
capital
the
t h a t i t w o u l d be
were
respective
maintain
t e r m s o f a l l o f the w e s t e r n
e a c h band as t h e y
the
space f o r t h e i r
the means t o e s t a b l i s h and
a new
t o become
w i t h t h e Crown's C o m m i s s i o n e r s , t h e y
r e s e r v i n g not o n l y the l i v i n g
but
i n what was
to
on
as
the
of a
The
o f $1000 f o r t h r e e
years
Fort C a r l t o n groups.
-
However, p o s t
-
91
t r e a t y d e v e l o p m e n t s have d e m o n s t r a t e d
F e d e r a l Government's u n w i l l i n g n e s s to abide
u n d e r t a k e n i n the name o f t h e
by
the
the
commitments
Crown.
"The
l a n d a l l o c a t e d f o r r e s e r v e s was
often
quite unsuitable for agriculture,
and
the
r e s e r v e s were o f t e n w h i t t l e d away t o p r o v i d e
a d d i t i o n a l land f o r white settlement.
The
g o v e r n m e n t n e v e r a d v a n c e d the c a p i t a l n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p an a g r i c u l t u r a l b a s e f o r the
I n d i a n s , and when t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n began
to expand, the whole concept of
developing
a g r i c u l t u r e on r e s e r v e l a n d s became i m p r a c t i cal."
(Report o f the Mackenzie V a l l e y P i p e l i n e I n q u i r y p. 166 ( 1 9 7 7 ) ) .
By
of
1896
t h e avowed p o l i c y o f the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t
I n d i a n A f f a i r s was
to p r o v i d e
no a s s i s t a n c e t o I n d i a n s
w o u l d make them c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h w h i t e
West.
By
the
1920's huge p r o f i t s had
f r o m the r e s o u r c e s
of Indian lands.
were made d i r e c t l y on
settlers
i n the
been made by
In some c a s e s
the l a n d i t s e l f .
The
w h i c h a l i e n a t e d much f o r m e r l y r e s e r v e d
land
"Graham
the r e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e
then
However, I n d i a n p e o p l e
their
s o l e economic p u r s u i t .
t i c p r o d u c t i o n and
t h e i r needs f r o m t i m e
remained
i n t a c t , and
although
The
n e v e r saw
tilling
o f the
as much a p a r t o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n o f
The
century,
prior
into
finally
the
land
and
the
hunting
been i n the
domeshad
economy
there
for their
as
trade,
northern
forest belt
devaswere
people.
territories
was
t r e a t i e s made i n t h e
n o r t h e r n p a r t s o f Canada i n the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h
eighteenth
surrenders",
t h e l o s s o f t h e b u f f a l o was
protection of t r a d i t i o n a l
i t had
profits
I n d i a n economy, b a s e d on
which they sought to reserve
t i e t h c e n t u r i e s as
the
Superintendent.
immemorial.
t o the p l a i n s , e v e n s o u t h
other resources
North
non-Indians
they
complex p a t t e r n s of c o o p e r a t i o n
supplied
tating
The
that
i n Saskatchewan
p r i v a t e h a n d s , were so s c a n d a l o u s l y e x p l o i t a t i v e
forced
General
treaties
and
e a r l y twen-
concluded
i n the
t o the c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h a t p r o t e c t i o n
- 92
i n the R o y a l
11 p r o v i d e
Proclamation
the
cover
territory
A l b e r t a and
Northwest T e r r i t o r i e s .
and
The
mineral
I t was
resources
h i s t o r y of T r e a t i e s 8
i n 1899-1900 and
encompassing Northeast
Indians
the d i s c o v e r y o f the
o f the
British
rich
Mackenzie Basin
in entering
i n the Northwest.
s e t f o r t h the government's
1921,
some 450,000 s q u a r e m i l e s o f
a r o u s e d the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t s i n t e r e s t
t r e a t y w i t h the
and
this.
treaties negotiated
a vast
Columbia, Northern
chemical
1763.
c l e a r e s t evidence of
These two
together
of
-
An
1891
the
petro-
that
into
first
a
Report
clearly
motives:
" . . . t h e d i s c o v e r y [ o f ] immense q u a n t i t i e s o f
petroleum...renders
it
advisable
that
a
t r e a t y o r t r e a t i e s s h o u l d be made w i t h t h e
Indians
who
c l a i m those
regions
as
their
h u n t i n g g r o u n d s , w i t h a view to the e x t i n g u i s h m e n t o f the I n d i a n t i t l e i n s u c h
port i o n s o f t h e same, as i t may be c o n s i d e r e d i n
t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e p u b l i c t o open up f o r
settlement."
( F u m o l e a u , As Long as t h i s Land
S h a l l L a s t , p. 41, 1975.)
No
t r e a t y was
the
1898.
pectors
i n t o t h e M a c k e n z i e V a l l e y on
the d e s i r e of
the K l o n d i k e
t h e i r way
t h e g o v e r n m e n t to e n s u r e p e a c e f u l
l a n d t h a t l e d t o t h e making o f T r e a t y
1898
Indians
Columbia a s s e r t e d
p o l i c e and
signed.
Indian
from the
their
8.
F o r t S t . John r e g i o n o f
territorial
r i g h t s by
m i n e r s to pass t h r o u g h the
area
occu-
In June
British
r e f u s i n g to
until
a Treaty
A r e p o r t o f t h e N o r t h w e s t Mounted P o l i c e s t a t e d
allow
was
the
position:
"The
Indians f e l t i t unjust that
are not owners o f the c o u n t r y are
r o b them o f t h e i r l i v i n g . "
An
Treaty
pros-
t o the Yukon g o l d
p a t i o n of the
some 500
gold
e n t r y o f l a r g e numbers o f w h i t e
rush of
f i e l d s and
I t was
made, h o w e v e r , u n t i l
official
8 stated
that:
people
allowed
who
to
account o f the r a t i o n a l e f o r n e g o t i a t i n g
-
-
93
F o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l p u r s u a n c e o f t h a t humane
and g e n e r o u s p o l i c y w h i c h had a l w a y s c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e D o m i n i o n i n i t s d e a l i n g w i t h the
a b o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s i t i s of v i t a l import a n c e t o g a i n t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e a t the o u t s e t .
For the I n d i a n c h a r a c t e r i s such t h a t i f s u s p i c i o n o r d i s t r u s t once be a r o u s e d , t h e t a s k
For
of e r a d i c a t i o n i s extremely d i f f i c u l t .
t h e s e r e a s o n s i t was c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e t i m e
was r i g h t f o r e n t e r i n g i n t o t r e a t y r e l a t i o n s
with
the
I n d i a n s o f the
District
and
so
s e t t i n g a t r e s t the f e e l i n g o f
uneasiness
w h i c h was b e g i n n i n g t o t a k e h o l d o f them and
lay
the f o u n d a t i o n f o r permanent, f r i e n d l y
and
profitable
relationships
between
the
races."
The
contemporaneous evidence
t i o n of Treaty 8 leaves l i t t l e
" p e r m a n e n t , f r i e n d l y and
autonomy.
for
p r o f i t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
the
Indianw would guarantee
inno-
i n e x c h a n g e f o r t h e Crown g u a r a n t e e
n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h the I n d i a n s ' t r a d i t i o n a l
tical
the n e g o t i a -
doubt t h a t the f o u n d a t i o n
r a c e s " l a y i n a c o m p a c t whereby the
cent passage f o r whites
surrounding
economy and
of
poli-
C h i e f Drygeese i n the t r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s a t
F o r t R e s o l u t i o n i n 1899
made t h e
Indian understanding
quite
clear.
" I t i s g o i n g t o c h a n g e , i f you want t o change
o u r l i v e s , t h e n i t i s no use t a k i n g t r e a t y ,
because
without
ttreaty
we
are
making
a
living
f o r o u r s e l v e s and
our
families...I
would
like
a w r i t e n promise
f r o m you
to
p r o v e you a r e n o t t a k i n g o u r l a n d away f r o m
u s . . . T h e r e w i l l be no c l o s e d s e a s o n on o u r
land.
T h e r e w i l l be n o t h i n g s a i d a b o u t t h e
land...My people
will
continue
to l i v e
as
t h e y were b e f o r e and no W h i t e man w i l l change
t h a t . . . Y o u w i l l i n the f u t u r e want us t o l i v e
l i k e W h i t e man d o e s and we do n o t want t h a t
...The p e o p l e a r e happy as t h e y a r e .
I f you
t r y t o c h a n g e t h e i r ways o f l i f e by t r e a t y ,
you w i l l d e s t r o y t h e i r h a p p i n e s s .
There w i l l
be b i t t e r s t r u g g l e between you p e o p l e and my
[ F u m o l e a u , op. c i t . , p . 9 1 f f . ]
people."
As
Indian people
saw
this
statement
d i d not regard
and
their
Report
that their
territories
rights
friendship.
to continue
The
their
the
lands
but
I n d i a n s were i n -
to h u n t , f i s h
w o u l d n o t be a f f e c t e d by
of the T r e a t y
makes c l e a r ,
the T r e a t y as c e d i n g
i t as a t r e a t y o f p e a c e and
sistent
other evidence
and
the T r e a t y .
trap
over
The
Commissioner unambiguously a f f i r m s that
this
-
94
-
was t h e c e n t r a l n e g o t i a t i n g p o s i t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n
people.
"Our
chief
difficulty
was
the
apprehension
t h a t t h e h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g p r i v i l i e g e s were
t o be c u r t a i l e d .
The p r o v i s i o n i n t h e t r e a t y
under which
a m m u n i t i o n and t w i n e
i s t o be
furnished
went
far
in
the
direction
of
q u i e t i n g the fears of the Indians, f o r they
i t would
be u n r e a s o n a b l e
to
admitted
that
f u r n i s h t h e means o f h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g i f
laws
were
t o be
enacted
which
would
make
h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g s o r e s t r i c t e d a s t o r e n der
i t i m p o s s i b l e t o make a l i v e l i h o o d
by
such p u r s u i t s .
B u t o v e r and above t h e p r o v i s i o n , we h a d t o s o l e m n l y a s s u r e
them
that
o n l y such l a w s as t o h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g as
were i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e I n d i a n s and were
found necessay
i n order to protect the f i s h _
and
furbearing animals
w o u l d be made, a n d
t h a t t h e y w o u l d be a s f r e e t o h u n t a n
fish
a f t e r t h e t r e a t y a s t h e y w o u l d be i f t h e y
never
entered
into
i t .
(emphasis
added)
( R e p o r t o f T r e a t y C o m m i s s i o n e r s , T r e a t y No. 8
P P 6-7)
However, t h e a c t u a l t e x t o f T r e a t y
this
sue
"solemn a s s u r a n c e " ,
their
subject
the c o u n t r y
lumbering,
and s a v i n g and e x c e p t i n g such
up f r o m t i m e
trading or other
Pursuant
and
t o time
fishing...
tracts
a s may
f o r settement,
be
mining,
purposes."
to t h i s purported
f o l l o w i n g passed
trapping.
a u t h o r i t y , t h e Government i n
legislation restricting
native
t o t h e economy o f t h e I n d i a n s .
Canadian Courts
which,
their hunting.
as a m a t t e r
have t h u s
held
sanctioned
Indian
that
consent
[1966] S.C.R.
the F e d e r a l
by
o f the
o f C a n a d i a n l a w , be
[1964] S.C.R. 624; R. v. G e o r g e
Canadian Courts
violation
l e g i s l a t i o n has been r e c o g n i z e d
by F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w i t h o u t p r i o r
(R. v . S i k y e a
Birds
The
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e T r e a t i e s , have c o n s i s t e n t l y
aborogated
essential
c o n t r a r y t o the I n d i a n s c o n c e p t i o n
t h a t T r e a t y p r o m i s e s may
267).
I n 1918 t h e M i g r a t o r y
Act further r e s t r i c t e d
o f t h e t r e a t y p r o m i s e s by t h i s
binding
hunting
I n 1917 c l o s e d s e a s o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e
N.W.T. and A l b e r t a on moose, c a r i b o u and o t h e r a n i m a l s
Convention
" t o pur-
r e g u l a t i o n s as may be made by t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f
to taken
the y e a r s
makes t h e r i g h t o f t h e I n d i a n s
u s u a l v o c a t i o n s o f h u n t i n g , t r a p p i n g and
to such
required
8, i n t h e f a c e o f
-
In
1921 w i t h
95
t h e d i s c o v e r y o f o i l a t Norman W e l l s t h e
t r e a t y b o u n d a r y was e x t e n d e d N o r t h
11.
Again,
offical
-
t o t h e A r c t i c Ocean by T r e a t y
g o v e r n m e n t d o c u m e n t s make c l e a r t h e m o t i v a -
t i o n f o rthe Treaty.
The D o m i n i o n Land S u r v e y o r
wrote:
"The
r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s o f o i l a t Norman
[ W e l l s ] have been made on l a n d s v i r t u a l l y belonging
to those
tribes
[of
non-treaty
Indians].
U n t i l t r e a t y h a s been made w i t h
them, t h e r i g h t o f t h e M i n i n g Lands and Yukon
B r a n c h [ o f t h e f e d e r a l government] t o d i s p o s e
i s open t o d e b a t e .
of these o i l r e s o u r c e s
[ F u m o l e a u , o p . c i t . , p . 159]
While the t e x t o f Treaty
in
11 f o l l o w s t h a t o f T r e a t y
p r o v i d i n g f o r the c e s s i o n o f Indian
gard
the Treaty,
their land.
title,
anymore t h a n w i t h T r e a t y
They c o n s i d e r
8
t h e Dene do n o t r e -
8, as a s u r r e n d e r o f
i t t o be a t r e a t y o f p e a c e and
friend-
ship.
"They saw t h e w h i t e man's t r e a t y as h i s way
of o f f e r i n g
them h i s h e l p and f r i e n d s h i p .
They were w i l l i n g t o s h a r e t h e i r l a n d w i t h
him i n t h e manner p r e s c r i b e d by t h e i r t r a d i t i o n and c u l t u r e .
The two r a c e s w o u l d l i v e
s i d e by s i d e i n t h e N o r t h , e m b a r k i n g on a
common f u t u r e . [ F u m o l e a u , i d . , p. 2 1 0 f f . ]
In
traditional
1921, a s i n 1899, t h e Dene wanted t o r e t a i n
way o f l i f e
encroachment o f white
and t o o b t a i n g u a r a n t e e s a g a i n s t t h e
s e t t l e r s on t h e i r
C o m m i s s i o n e r d i d g u a r a n t e e t h e Dene f u l l
and
fish,
their
land.
In f a c t the
freedom t o h u n t ,
b e c a u s e t h e Dene n e g o t i a t o r s were adamant t h a t
t h e g u a r a n t e e was g i v e n
they
would not s i g n the t r e a t y .
trap
unless
To t h e
Dene, t h i s g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t would n o t i n t e r f e r e
their
traditional
extinguishment,
life
with
on t h e l a n d was an a f f i r m a t i o n , n o t an
of their
rights.
In h i s R e p o r t o f t h e M a c k e n z i e V a l l e y P i p e l i n e I n q u i r y ,
Mr.
J u s t i c e Berger has reviewed
F e d e r a l Government's v i o l a t i o n
the
Indians.
the h i s t o r i c a l
record
of the
o f t h e solemn a s s u r a n c e made t o
-
96
-
"The Dene had s i g n e d T r e a t i e s 8 and 1 1 on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e y would be f r e e t o h u n t and f i s h o v e r
t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y , and
t h a t the g o v e r n m e n t
would p r o t e c t them f r o m the c o m p e t i t i o n and i n t r u s i o n
of white trappers.
Yet, c o n t r a r y to t r e a t y p r o m i s e s ,
an
influx
of
white
trappers
and
traders
into
the
country
was
permitted
to e x p l o i t the game
resources
a l m o s t a t w i l l , and soon s t r i c t game l a w s were n e c e s s r y
to save c e r t a i n a n i m a l p o p u l a t i o n s
from e x t i n c t i o n .
The e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e s e game l a w s c a u s e d h a r d s h i p
to
t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e who depended on the a n i m a l s f o r s u r vival.
I n 1928,
t h e g o v e r n m e n t imposed a t h r e e - y e a r
closed
s e a s o n on b e a v e r i n the M a c k e n z i e D i s t r i c t .
This regul a t i o n came a t the w o r s t p o s s i b l e t i m e f o r t h e Dene,
for
t h a t y e a r t h e y were d i c e m a t e d by an i n f l u e n z a e p i demic.
O t h e r f u r b e a r i n g a n i m a l s were s c a r c e , and w i t h The Dene a t F o r t
o u t b e a v e r t h e y were s h o r t o f meat.
Rae
protested
and
refused
t o a c c e p t t r e a t y payment
until
t h e y had
been a s s u r e d
that
they could
kill
beaver.
B i s h o p B r e y n a t had a p p e a l e d t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t
on t h e i r b e h a l f , and some m i d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e c o a s e d
s e a s o n were made.
Despite c o n t i n u i n g p r o t e s t s about
t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f w h i t e t r a p p e r s , t h e y r e c e i v e d no p r o t e c t i o n from t h i s t h r e a t .
I n 1937, t h e I n d i a n s o f F o r t
i n 1920,
to
Resolution
again
refused,
as t h e y had
a c c e p t t r e a t y payment i n p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e i r t r e a t ment by t h e g o v e r n n m e n t . . . A t the same t i m e t h a t
the
n a t i v e p e o p l e had been r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l
a c t i v i t i e s , o i l and m i n e r a l e x p l o r a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t
had p r o c e e d e d a p a c e .
In 1932, the r i c h e s t u r a n i u m m i n e
i n the w o r l d began o p e r a t i o n a t P o r t Radium on G r e a t
Bear Lake.
G o l d was
discovered
in Yellowknife
in
1933.
I n 1938, Norman W e l l s p r o d u c e d 22,000 b a r r e l s o f
o i l , and i n 1 938-1 939 the v a l u e o f g o l d m i n e d i n t h e
N o r t h w e s t T e r r i t o r i e s e x c e e d e d f o r the f i r s t t i m e the
t o t a l v a l u e o f raw f u r s p r o d u c e d .
The
Dene i n s i s t t h e h i s t o r y o f b r o k e n p r o m i s e s c o n tinues today.
J i m S i t t i c h i n l i , a t the v e r y f i r s t community h e a r i n g , h e l d i n A k l a v i k , r e l a t e d the
recent
e x p e r i e n c e o f the n a t i v e people:
'Now,
a t t h e t i m e o f the t r e a t y . . . 55 y e a r s
a g o . . . t h e y s a i d , "As l o n g as t h e r i v e r r u n s ,
as l o n g as t h e sun goes up and down, and
as
l o n g as you see t h a t b l a c k m o n t a i n up t h e r e ,
w e l l , you are e n t i t l e d to your l a n d . '
The
r i v e r i s s t i l l running.
The sun
still
g o e s up and down and the b l a c k m o u n t a i n i s
s t i l l up t h e r e , b u t t o d a y i t seems t h a t , the
way o u r p e o p l e u n d e r s t a n d , the g o v e r n m e n t i s
g i v n g up o u r l a n d .
I t i s g i v i n g [ i t up] t o
people
and
the
other
people
the
seismic
coming
up
here, s e l l i n g . . . o u r land.
The
government i s not k e e p i n g i t s word, at l e a s t
as some o f us see i t .
Now,
there
has
been l o t s o f damage done
a l r e a d y t o t h i s p a r t o f the n o r t h l a n d , and i f
we d o n ' t s a y a n y t h i n g , i t w i l l g e t w o r s e . . . "
( M a c k e n z i e V a l l e y P i p e l i n e I n q u i r y p. 169
1977)
The
greatest
i n t e g r i t y of the
t h r e a t to the
Dene came i n the
territorial
1970's w i t h
the
and
political
proposal
to
-
p r o j e c t e v e r t o be c o n t e m p l a t e d
enterprise.
-
97
i n N o r t h A m e r i c a by p r i v a t e
I t was t h i s p r o p o s a l
which l e d to the
establishment
o f Mr. J u s t i c e B e r g e r ' s I n q u i r y .
In the c o u r s e o f the I n q u i r y ,
o v e r a 1,000 I n d i a n
speaking
guages, expressed
s c i e n t i f i c experts
concluded
that
people, often
their opposition
on t h e N o r t h
to the p r o j e c t .
testified.
claims
Over 300
social
c o s t s o f the
economy, and t h e u n d e l i b l e
i t would cause t o the s e t t l e m e n t
of the
o f t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e , no P i p l e i n e s h o u l d
y e a r s to enable these claims
lan-
Mr. J u s t i c e B e r g e r
i n l i g h t o f the " d e v a s t a t i n g "
p r o j e c t , the undermining o f the n a t i v e
prejudice
i n t h e i r own
t o be s e t t l e d .
outstanding
be b u i l t
H i s Report
a s u c c i n c t statement o f the e s s e n t i a l nature o f these
f o r ten
contains
claims.
"Native people d e s i r e a settlement o f n a t i v e
They do
claims before a p i p e l i n e i s b u i l t .
not want a s e t t l e m e n t . . . t h a t w i l l
extinguish
t h e i r r i g h t s t o the l a n d .
They want a s e t tlement that w i l l entrench t h e i r r i g h t s to
the l a n d and t h a t w i l l l a y t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f
n a t i v e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n under the C o n s t i t u t i o n o f Canada.
insist
The n a t i v e p e o p l e o f t h e N o r t h now
t h a t t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f n a t i v e c l a i m s must be
s e e n as a f u n d a m e n t a l r e - o r d e r i n g o f t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the r e s t of us.
Their
c l a i m s must be seen as t h e means t o e s t a b l i s h i n g a s o c i a l c o n t r a c t b a s e d on a c l e a r
understanding that they are d i s t i n c t peoples
in h i s t o r y .
They i n s i s t upon t h e r i g h t t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e i r own f u t u r e , t o e n s u r e t h e i r
place,
but
not
their
assimilation,
in
Canadian l i f e .
The c o n c e p t o f n a t i v e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n must
understood
i n the c o n t e c t
of
native
be
When t h e Dene r e f e r t o t h e m s e l v e s as
claims.
a n a t i o n , as many o f them h a v e , t h e y a r e n o t
r e n o u n c i n g Canada o r C o n f e d e r a t i o n .
Rather,
they are p r o c l a i m i n g that they are a d i s t i n c t
p e o p l e , who s h a r e a common h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , a common s e t o f v a l u e s , and a common
world
view.
They want t h e i r c h i l d r e n and
t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n t o be s e c u r e i n
t h a t same k n o w l e d g e o f who t h e y a r e and where
t h e y came f r o m .
They want t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e , t r a d i t i o n s and v a l u e s
t o o c c u p y an
honourable place
i n the contemporary
life
of our country.
Seen i n t h i s l i g h t , t h e y s a y
t h e i r c l a i m s w i l l l e a d to the enhancement o f
Confederation
—
not to i t r e n u n c i a t i o n . "
( i d . p. x x i i - i i i )
It
consistent
i s c l e a r from t h i s
with
the I n d i a n
statement that
peoples'
the claims
understanding
are
o f the guaran-
-
t e e s they b e l i e v e d t h e y had
o f the n e g o t i a t i o n o f
Although
Columbia.
f r o m t h e Crown a t the
through
i t d i d a p p r o v e , i n 1977,
the Yukon and
North
This p i p e l i n e p r o j e c t crosses
o f t h e B e a v e r , C r e e and
the p r o j e c t was
the I n d i a n p e o p l e
passed
Yet
without
o f t h i s a r e a and
t o the
Indian people.
the C h i e f s took
In
1978,
impact
Parliamentary Committee, arguing
abrogation of t h e i r
no
avail.
made.
The
rights
process
to permit
Treaty, which p a r a l l e l s
and
any
the b e n e f i t o f
their
by
trapline
rights,
no
t h e i r v i e w s on
should
to t h e i r
t h a t o f the
allocated
reserves.
their
The
rights
farmers
evidence
hunting
frontier,
forests
h y d r o e l e c t r i c power and
The
Indian
of
the
peace
assurances"
hunting,
been b r e a c h e d
taken
trapping
through
a
Treaty
back
reserves
t h e i r market v a l u e
r e p l a c i n g them w i t h
to
the
smaller
t e r r i t o r i e s , w i t h the
the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
Highway, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e o i l and
o f the n o r t h e r n
and
documented the s y s t e m a t i c d i s r e g a r d f o r
within their
o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l
and
"terms
Northwest
"solemn
the g o v e r n m e n t had
under the T r e a t y a t l e s s than
b e n e f i t of non-Indian
the
i t as a t r e a t y o f
had
to
hearing
understanding
Dene o f t h e
an
a l r e a d y been
s y s t e m w h i c h c i r c u m s c r i b e d the
t h e y d e s c r i b e d how
these
T h i s was
be b u i l t .
interference with their
These solemn a s s u r a n c e s
registration
any
p r o t e s t s to a
the T r e a t y .
f r i e n d s h i p , s i g n e d o n l y upon r e c e i v i n g
fishing.
consultation with
o f t h e p r o j e c t on
They s t a t e d t h a t t h e y saw
t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be
and
as
territories
legislation
the c o n c e s s i o n o f a
them t o p r e s e n t
introduced evidence
Territories.
the
d e c i s i o n t o a p p r o v e t h e P i p e l i n e had
c o n d i t i o n s " under w h i c h the p i p e l i n e
people
British
t h a t t h e l e g i s l a t i o n was
guaranteed
However t h e I n d i a n s won
route
B r i t i s h Columbia a l l
without
C o m m i s s i o n o f I n q u i r y as
East
the
a new
the h u n t i n g
Slavey of Northern
o f whom a r e s i g n a t o r i e s t o T r e a t y 8.
approving
time
F e d e r a l Government d i d n o t a p p r o v e
Mackenzie V a l l e y P i p e l i n e ,
f o r the p i p e l i n e
obtained
treaties.
the
the
-
98
gas
the
advance
Alaska
i n d u s t r y , the
opening
t o l o g g i n g , the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f dams f o r
the e v e r
i n c r e a s i n g p e n e t r a t i o n of
the
- 99
bush by w h i t e
roads
and
sports hunters
seismic
But
nature
and
assisted
the evidence
went f u r t h e r t h a n j u s t
c o n f l i c t and
extent of resource
successful p u r s u i t of a hunting
and
the e x t e n t
as h u n t i n g p e o p l e ,
nomy.
I n d i a n s want t o r e t a i n
part of t h e i r
the hearings
It detailed
n a t i v e economy, how
industrial
t h e s y s t e m a t i c and
wage l a b o u r as
s i o n of t h e i r
enhancement o f t h e
and
land without
the h o l d i n g out o f
of
The
to
economy
the
developfor
I t des-
been e r o d e d
young
by
people
industrial
insidious
c o n s u l t a t i o n or consent
oppression
a
inva-
had r e i n f o r c e d
among I n d i a n s .
the h e a r i n g s ,
the I n d i a n p e o p l e
to c o n s e n t
presented
to the
con-
of a major p i p e l i n e or other large s c a l e development.
primary
term
was
t h a t the G o v e r n m e n t o f Canada must e n t e r i n -
t o an agreement w i t h t h e
interest
presented
to the
t o wean t h e i r
terms u n d e r w h i c h t h e y were p r e p a r e d
struction
The
by
eco-
industrial
s e n s e o f s e l f - w o r t h had
skills,
see
economy as
I n d i a n economy.
t h e o n l y avenue t o p r o g r e s s .
A t t h e end
to
economy w i t h no sense o f t h e need
a deep sense o f c u l t u r a l
the
the e v i d e n c e
the I n d i a n i d e n t i t y
s u s t a i n e d attempt
away from t r a d i t i o n a l
tra-
i n d u s t r y , the
i m p e d i m e n t s t o the p u r s u i t o f
Indian peoples'
trap-
r e q u i r e d f o r the
and
l a n d s were b e i n g g i v e n o v e r
e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n and
c r i b e d how
But
the encroachment of
the
and
valuable
that identity
future.
by
com-
trapping strategy.
w i t h a v i a b l e and
a l s o d e s c r i b e d how
become b e l e a g u e r e d
ment o f t h e
the s k i l l s
to which they c o n t i n u e
themselves
society.
the d i s r e g a r d o f
t h e g r e a t s u r p r i s e o f government and
Indians demonstrated
significant
d e s c r i b i n g the
a c t i v i t y , the l o g i s t i c s o f
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y and
The
access
I n d i a n economy c e n t e r e d on h u n t i n g
p i n g , the t i m i n g o f i t s s e a s o n a l
To
of
I t d e s c r i b e d the components o f t h e
p l e x and d i s t i n c t i v e
had
by a l a b y r i n t h
trails.
Indian treaty r i g h t s .
vel,
-
i n l a n d s and
Indian people
resources
to e n t r e n c h
the
upon w h i c h the I n d i a n
Indian
economy,
-
c u l t u r e and
s o c i e t y depended.
I n d i a n s must have g u a r a n t e e d
gathering t e r r i t o r i e s .
Any
-
Under such
an a g r e e m e n t ,
developments w i t h i n these
a g r e e m e n t the I n d i a n p e o p l e
of
Indian people.
would entrench
and
territories
the
The
agreement.
F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t has
The
Provincial
Pipeline
i s t o go
turned
ahead.
as
successfully
i t s back on
done.
any
Moreover, the
Governments have r e c e n t l y concluded
an
Indian
i n t h e i r h o m e l a n d , i n ways i n w h i c h t h e T r e a t y ,
not
food-
Through such
i n law
i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t , has
and
the
hunting, trapping, fishing
must be s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n s e n t
interest
100
such
Federal
agreements
w i t h Japan f o r the m a s s i v e development of the c o a l d e p o s i t s of
Northeast
B r i t i s h Columbia, again without
The
Indian people
of Northeast
Indian
consent.
B r i t i s h Columbia
t h a t i n c o n c l u d i n g t h e T r e a t y w i t h t h e Crown t h e y had
necessary
guarantees
t h a t the
f u t u r e would be
Crown's m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e , and
hunting
t e r r i t o r i e s w o u l d be
Government was
to
concerned
that their
respected.
t h e i r country
I n 1981
i t i s concerned
trans-continental
corridor
Canadian A r c t i c .
The
t o t h e n a t u r a l gas
theme i s c o n t i n u o u s .
the a m b i t i o n s of the c o l o n i a l
who
looked
the o t h e r
European " c i v i l i s a t i o n " ,
development.
with
Indian Nations
as
At t h a t t i m e
diplomacy
principle
governors
and
in their
the
Federal
as a
corridor
to d e v e l o p
o f A l a s k a and
t h e Crown and
was
of Northeast
beyond t h e
Indian Nations
entrenched
i n the R o y a l
i s t r a t i o n o f the c o l o n i e s .
century
d i p l o m a t i c channels
by
the
frontiers
and
respected
the C r e e ,
i n the
were a b l e
of
the
i n the
governing
and
to e n s u r e
strength, that
Proclamation
I n 1981
B r i t i s h Columbia,
regard of this p r i n c i p l e
the
the b a s i s f o r f u t u r e s e t t l e m e n t
the
a
I t h a r k e n s back t o
i n the e i g h t e e n t h
u n d e r w r i t t e n by m i l i t a r y
of consent
the
the
t o the l a n d s o f t h e S i x N a t i o n s , t h e D e l a w a r e s ,
C h e r o k e e s and
through
In 1899
t o o p e n up
the g o l d o f t h e Y u k o n .
secured
to t h e i r
interest
thought
treaties
the
B e a v e r and
admin-
Slavey
f a c e o f the s y s t e m a t i c
t h e C a n a d i a n Government a r e u n a b l e
to i n f l u e n c e t h a t government.
They have
disby
- 101 -
n e i t h e r t h e d e s i r e n o r t h e means t o r e s o r t t o t h e s w o r d :
t h e y seek t h r o u g h r e n e w i n g d i r e c t d i p o m a t i c
with
links
rather
established
the I m p e r i a l Crown, t o ensure t h a t i n the p r o c e s s o f C o n s t i -
tutional
change, the o v e r r i d i n g p r i n c i p l e of Indian
consent i s
respected.
B.
Canadian A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
As
i n t h e Unceded I n d i a n
Lands.
s i g n i f i c a n t as an a s s e s s m e n t o f C a n a d a ' s
t i o n of Treaty
o b l i g a t i o n s i s t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
administra-
o f need t o
invoke
the the c o n t i n u i n g
legal
should
n e v e r be f o r g o t t e n
that s i g n i f i c a n t areas of land
Canada's t e r r i t o r i a l
any
r o l e o f the I m p e r i a l
those areas have never entered
The
in British
institutions.
Columbia i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f the d i s r e g a r d
i n t h e unceded a r e a s .
the Indian
title
The e a r l y I n d i a n
land
Douglas.
on V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d he
i n a s e r i e s o f land
l a s t o f w h i c h was n e g o t i a t e d
policy
of the
C o l u m b i a was e s t a b l i s h e d by G o v e r n o r
In a n t i c i p a t i o n o f w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t
the
they
h i s t o r y o f Canada's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f I n d i a n
in British
purchased
who o c c u p y
i n t o compacts under which
t o changes i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l
p r i n c i p l e o f consent
policy
within
b o u n d a r i e s have n e v e r been t h e s u b j e c t o f
t r e a t y o f c e s s i o n , and t h a t t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
have c o n s e n t e d
Crown, i t
i n 1859.
cession
The t r e a t i e s
treaties,
Douglas
made were b a s e d upon t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e had
distinct
ideas
about p r o p e r t y
t r e a t i e s guaranteed
t o c a r r y on t h e i r
existence
their
right
fisheries,
Royal Proclamation
o f 1763.
of e s t a b l i s h i n g reserves
interior,
The t e r m s o f t h e
t o hunt over unoccupied
the l a t t e r being
o f t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e on t h e c o a s t .
t r e a t i e s , are consistent with
one
and l a n d .
i n order
l a n d s and
fundamental
to the
The D o u g l a s
t h e p r i n c i p l e s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e
C o u p l e d w i t h h i s t r e a t y p o l i c y was
f o r the I n d i a n s ,
to protect Indian
lands
particularly
f r o m e x p l o i t a t i o n and
e n c r o a c h m e n t by t h e l a r g e number o f w h i t e s e t t l e r s
the m i d - 1 8 5 0 ' s i n t h e t r a i n o f t h e g o l d
i n the
rush.
that
came i n
In e s t a b l i s h i n g
- 102
these
reserves Douglas i n s t r u c t e d
l a n d s s e l e c t e d by
comprised
the
the
l a r g e t r a c t s of land necessary
successors
premised
Some o f
these
those
reserves
f o r the m a i n t e n a n c e
a f t e r Douglas' r e t i r e m e n t i n
of
revising his reserves.
upon t h e v i e w t h a t the I n d i a n and
In a l e t t e r
T h e i r a c t i o n s were
t h e i r p a t t e r n s of land
of settlement
and
to the C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , a w h i t e
i n t e r i o r expressed
Tribe
1864
s e t about r e v e r s i n g h i s p o l i c y o f r e c o g n i t i o n of
were o b s t r u c t i o n s t o the p r o g r e s s
tion.
the
t o set out
i n t e r i o r n a t i v e economy. -
a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s and
use
his surveyors
Indians themselves.
Almost immediately
his
-
s i m i l a r views of
to r e s e r v e s around
the G r e a t
civiliza-
settler
the c l a i m s o f the
in
Shuswap
Shuswap L a k e .
"They c l a i m a l l the a v a i l a b l e l a n d on
the
many m i l e s
North R i v e r , extending northward
a b o v e t h e mouth, w h i c h a l s o p o s s e s s e s
attract i o n to the s e t t l e r .
These I n d i a n s do n o t h i n g
more w i t h t h e i r l a n d t h a n c u l t i v a t e a
few
s m a l l p a t c h e s o f p o t a t o e s h e r e and t h e r e ; t h e y
l i v e by
fishing,
are a vagrant
people
who
h u n t i n g and b a r t e r i n g s k i n s ; and t h e c u l t i v a tion of t h e i r
l a n d c o n t r i b u t e s no more t o
t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d t h a n a few d a y s d i g g i n g o f
wild roots."
J o s e p h T r u t c h , t h e C h i e f C o m m i s s i o n e r o f L a n d s , became
t h e new
a r c h i t e c t of
Indian p o l i c y
r e t i r e m e n t as G o v e r n o r .
I n d i a n r e s e r v e s and
He
i n the c o l o n y , a f t e r
justified
supported
r e d u c i n g o f the
his intention
t h e r e s e r v e s o f t h e Kamloops Band i n t h i s
t o do
Douglas'
Shuswap
the same f o r
way:
"The I n d i a n s have r e a l l y no r i g h t to t h e l a n d s
t h e y c l a i m , n o r a r e t h e y o f any a c t u a l v a l u e
they
o r u t i l i t y t o them, and I c a n n o t see why
s h o u l d e i t h e r r e t a i n these l a n d s to the p r e j u d i c e o f t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t o f the c o l o n y , o r
to be a l l o w e d t o make a m a r k e t o f t h e e i t h e r
t o Government o r t o i n d i v i d u a l s . "
We
have e a r l i e r d i s c u s s e d the p r o v i s i o n s i n the Terms
o f U n i o n u n d e r w h i c h B.C.
entered
Confederation
i n 187 1 and
the
entrenchment o f the p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e o f the I m p e r i a l G o v e r n ment.
We
have r e v i e w e d
the F e d e r a l d i s a l l o w a n c e
i n 1874
of
the
-
103
-
B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Land A c t b e c a u s e , u n d e r the g u i d i n g hand
J o s e p h T r u t c h , t h e new
l e d g e any
Indian
Province
rights
the
s t e a d f a s t l y refused
how
i n s i s t a n c e on
the r e c o g n i t i o n o f the p r i n c i p l e of
followed Confederation,
The
reserve lands.
A t a t i m e when w h i t e
to
preempt t h r e e h u n d r e d and
of reserves
s e t t l e r s were
agreed
twenty acres per
Indians
permitted
t w e n t y a c r e s o f l a n d , the
b a s e d on
that
the r i g h t s o f the
Government, a f t e r much n e g o t i a t i o n , g r u d g i n g l y
Those r e s e r v e s
have
consensual
P r o v i n c e , i n the y e a r s
sought to l i m i t
to
five.
We
F e d e r a l Government d i d n o t m a i t a i n i t s
a c q u i s i t i o n of Indian lands.
establishment
t o acknow-
t o l a n d s w i t h i n the P r o v i n c e .
a l s o reviewed
of
Provincial
to
the
f a m i l y of
t h a t were u l t i m a t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d o f t e n
s i s t e d o f l a n d u n s u i t a b l e t o t h e n e e d s o f the I n d i a n s , t h e
land having
a l r e a d y b e e n p r e e m p t e d by
settlers.
Even
reserve
c o m m i s s i o n s , and
b u i l d i n g of highways, r a i l r o a d s
and
best
those
r e s e r v e s t h a t were e s t a b l i s h e d were w h i t t l e d away o v e r
by l a n d s u r v e y s ,
con-
the
years
expropriations for
transmission lines
the
since in
B.C.,
as e l s e w h e r e
i n Canada, the path of l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e to
these
p r o j e c t s has
a l w a y s been I n d i a n r e s e r v e
in
B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h e r e r e m a i n s as a s o u r c e
unresolved
claims to " c u t - o f f "
Apart
northeastern
British
To
settlement
i n the r e s t of B r i t i s h
and
day
lands.
Treaty
C o l u m b i a , t h e h i s t o r y o f w h i c h we
the
this
of great b i t t e r n e s s
f r o m t h e e a r l y D o u g l a s T r e a t i e s and
already reviewed,
resources
reserve
land.
have
development of land
Columbia i s a d i r e c t
8 in
and
violation
o f the p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t to the a q u i s i t i o n of I n d i a n l a n d s
its
Indian p o l i c y .
However, i n B r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a , the
o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s e n t went f u r t h e r .
As
violation
i n the
areas, e a r l y i n i t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Indian A f f a i r s
Treaty
the
Federal
Government a d o p t e d a p o l i c y o f c o e r c i n g I n d i a n a s s i m i l a t i o n
white
was
socity.
T h a t t h i s was
made q u i t e c l e a r
t h e o b j e c t i v e o f the
i n Canada's f i r s t
Indian
Indian Act which s e t
I n d i a n , as d e f i n e d u n d e r the A c t ,
become " e n f r a n c h i s e d "
only thereby
assume the
full
into
policy
the p r o c e d u r e s w h e r e b y an
and
is
civil
out
could
- 104 -
r i g h t s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f c i t i z e n s h i p .
the Department o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s
The a n n u a l R e p o r t o f
f o r 1872 p r e s e n t e d
an o f f i c i a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the c o n d i t i o n s o f the n a t i v e s o f B r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a and t h e b a s i s f o r " c u l t u r a l
replace
ment".
"...the people are depraved.
V i r t u e i s una p p r e c i a t e d , and v i c e and i n t e m p e r a n c e
prev a i l . . . Hence may be a c c o u n t e d
f o r the decreased
population
which
i s evidently
now
taking
place... Strenuous
e f f o r t s ... a r e
r e q u i r e d w i t h a view t o b r i n g i n g out amelioration
i n t h e c o n d i t i o n and h a b i t s o f t h o s e
I t i s evident that the
c o a s t n o r t h e r n bands.
i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f e a c h member o f
s o c i e t y i n those I n d i a n communities a r e n o t
u n d e r s t o o d , and g e n e r a l
degradation
i s the
consequence.
D r . P o w e l l . . . u r g e s t h a t an e n l i g h t e n e d and l i b e r a l I n d i a n p o l i c y s h o u l d be
a d o p t e d and p u r s u e d t o w a r d s them.
H i s desc r i p t i o n o f t h e i r p r a c t i c e s and p r o p e n s i t i e s
i t abundantly manifest
that
civilirenders
zation
i n i t s best
s e n s e , and
humanizing
a g e n t s a r e a b s o l u t e l y r e q u i r e d as a means o f
e l e v a t i n g t h e i r c o n d i t i o n , and a l s o f o r r e n d e r i n g t h e i r f u t u r e i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h an i n f l o w i n g w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n what i t o u g h t t o b e " .
The
ity
and a g r i c u l t u r e .
simultaneously
enforced
by
h u m a n i z i n g a g e n t s were t o be e d u c a t i o n ,
Generations
t h e c h u r c h e s and G o v e r n m e n t .
and
o f I n d i a n c h i l d r e n were e x p o s e d
to a l l three o f these
stay i n the i n d u s t r i a l
the Indian agents,
Christian-
"agents"
residential
during
schools
their
established
In the minds o f the m i s s i o n a r i e s
however, t h e r e
loomed a m a j o r p r o b l e m t o
t h e g o a l o f a s s i m i l a t i o n and t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f t h e n a t i v e
l a n g u a g e s and c u l t u r e .
The n a t u r e
t i o n speak l o u d l y o f the e x t e n t
of
I n d i a n Agents these
a
t o which the fundamental
I n d i a n p e o p l e were d i s r e g a r d e d .
t r a d i t i o n o f the p o t l a t c h .
o f t h i s p r o b l e m and i t s s o l u -
The p r o b l e m was t h e I n d i a n
I n t h e m i n d s o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s and
ceremonial
feasts, often lasting
t i m e d u r i n g w h i c h d a n c e s , s o n g s and c e r e m o n i a l
aboriginal spirit
world,
were d i s t r i b u t e d ,
embodied
thrift,
f o r weeks a t
masks e c h o e d t h e
where l a r g e amounts o f g o o d s and money
the a n t i t h e s i s o f the p a t t e r n s o f
i n d u s t r i o u s n e s s and C h r i s t i a n m o r a l i t y w h i c h t h e y
to i n c u l c a t e .
rights
sought
- 105 -
A Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r y
potlatch
in this
described
t h e e v i l s o f the
way:
"During t h e whole w r i t e r , s c h o o l s a r e d e s e r t e d
by a l l t h o s e c h i l d r e n whose p a r e n t s a t t e n d t h e
d a n c e s ; when t h e w i n t e r
i s over they
have
s q u a n d e r e d a l l t h e i r summer e a r n i n g s and a r e
c o m p e l l e d t o l e a v e t h e i r homes and roam a b o u t
i n t h e i r c a n o e s i n s e a r c h o f f o o d , and t h u s
n e g l e c t c u l t i v a t i n g t h e i r l a n d s and
sending
t h e i r c h i l d r e n to school.
I n t h e summer t h e y
l e a v e again f o r s e v e r a l months, working abroad
t o e a r n a few d o l l a r s i n o r d e r t o g i v e a d a n c e
i n t h e w i n t e r , and spend i n one w i n t e r ' s n i g h t
t h e e a r n i n g s o f t h e w h o l e summer".
In response t o the p r e s s u r e
1883
o f the Church groups, i n
t h e F e d e r a l Government i s s u e d a P r o c l a m a t i o n
potlatch;
i n the f o l l o w i n g year
condemning t h e
t h e I n d i a n A c t was amended t o
include the f o l l o w i n g p r o v i s i o n :
" E v e r y I n d i a n o r o t h e r p e r s o n who e n g a g e s i n
or a s s i s t s i n c e l e b r a t i n g the Indian f e s t i v a l
known a s t h e ' p o t l a c h ' . . . i s g u i l t y o f a m i s demeanor and s h a l l be l i a b l e t o i m p r i s o n m e n t
f o r a t e r m o f n o t more t h a n s i x n o r l e s s t h a n
two m o n t h s . . . A n y I n d i a n o r o t h e r p e r s o n who
e n c o u r a g e s , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , an
I n d i a n o r I n d i a n s t o g e t up s u c h a f e s t i v a l
o r d a n c e o r t o c e l e b r a t e t h e same o r who
s h a l l a s s i s t i n t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f same i s
g u i l t y of a l i k e offence".
I n t h e e y e s o f t h e Government o f C a n a d a , t h e r e f o r e , t h e
p o t l a t c h was so h e i n o u s t h a t i t r e q u i r e d
of the c r i m i n a l law.
reinforced
tion
To t h e I n d i a n
a pattern of social,
the heavy
condemnation
t h e p o t l a t c h r e f l e c t e d and
e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l
t h a t was c e n t r a l t o n a t i v e c u l t u r e .
The p o t l a t c h combined
i n a u n i q u e way t h e f u n c t i o n s o f a b a n k i n g and c r e d i t
the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p r o p e r t y
with
to another c h i e f required
interest a t another potlatch.
distribution
the b a n d s .
system
I t was a p r o p e r t y
i n t h e form o f s h a r i n g
The p o t l a t c h f u n c t i o n e d
organiza-
system:
repayment
and income
e c o n o m i c s u r p l u s among
as a p u b l i c and l e g a l
ceremony f o r c e l e b r a t i n g and p u b l i c i z i n g
births,
marriages,
commemorating d e a t h s ,
b e s t o w i n g h e r e d i t a r y t i t l e s , and
transfering property,
which
i n c l u d e d n o t o n l y goods b u t a l s o
-
names t h e r i g h t ' s
for
the a r t i s t i c
the p o t l a t c h .
and
-
songs.
I t provided
energy of the coast people
masks, r a t t l e s
wonderful
drawing
t o d a n c e s and
106
I t was
and
on the c o l l e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h o s e
the s e a s and
t h e r i v e r s and
an
in
the
used
in
order,
participated
o f the l a n d , the
forests,
and
F o r the I n d i a n s o f
P a c i f i c N o r t h West C o a s t t o p a r t i c i p a t e
t o be
that
f o r the c r e a t u r e s , r e a l
m y t h o l o g i c a l , t h a t i n h a b i t e d them.
a f f i r m what i t was
artifacts
t h e a t r e o f the h i g h e s t
t h e i r deep r e s p e c t f o r t h e s p i r i t s
stimulus
as r e f l e c t e d
other ceremonial
drama and
the
the
i n the p o t l a t c h was
to
Indian.
Some i d e a o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the p o t l a t c h and
the i n t e g r i t y o f the I n d i a n people
made by t h e K w a w q u i t l
can be seen i n the
C h i e f s t o Franz
p o l o g i s t , he came among them i n 1896.
Boaz when, as an
They s a i d
to
statements
anthro-
him:
We want t o know w h e t h e r you have come t o s t o p
o u r d a n c e s and f e a s t s , as t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s and
a g e n t s who
l i v e among o u r n e i g h b o u r s
t r y to
do.
We do n o t want anybody h e r e who
will
i n t e r f e r e w i t h o u r c u s t o m s . We were t o l d t h a t
a man-of-war w o u l d come i f we c o n t i n u e d o do
as o u r
grandfathers
and
great
grandfathers
have d o n e .
B u t we do n o t mind such words.
Is
t h i s t h e w h i t e man's l a n d ?
We a r e t o l d i t i s
the Queen's l a n d ; b u t no!
I t i s mine!
Where
was t h e Queen when o u r God gave the l a n d t o my
g r a n d f a t h e r and t o l d him " T h i s w i l l be t h i n e " ...When y o u r man-of-war comes l e t him d e s t r o y
Do you see yon woods?
Do you
our h o u s e s .
see yon t r e e s ?
We s h a l l c u t them down and
build
new
h o u s e s and
live
as o u r f a t h e r s
did.
We w i l l d a n c e when o u r law command us
to d a n c e , and w i l l f e a s t wh en o u r h e a r t s
desire to f e a s t .
Do we ask the w h i t e man
"do
No, we do n o t .
Why
as t h e I n d i a n d o e s ? "
t h e n do you
ask
us "do
as the w h i t e
man
does?"
I t i s a s t r i c t law t h a t b i d s us d i s t r i b u t e o u r p r o p e r t y among o u r f r i e n d s
and
L e t the w h i t e
neighbours.
I t i s a good l a w .
ours.
man o b s e r v e h i s l a w , we s h a l l o b s e r v e
And now,
i f y o u a r e coming t o f o r b i d us t o
d a n c e , b e g o n e , i f n o t , you w i l l be welcome t o
us".
I t was
hibited
was
and
this
punished
revised in
1951.
"strict
under the
law"
o f the K w a w q u i t l
I n d i a n A c t f r o m 1884
t h a t was
until
the
proAct
- 107 -
The l a w was e n f o r c e d ,
Indians continued
albeit
s p o r a d i c a l l y , f o r the
to potlatch notwithstanding
of the enforcement f e l l
upon t h e K w a w q u i t l N a t i o n .
A l e r t Bay, j u s t a few m i l e s
Boaz, twenty-nine
the law.
f r o m where t h e i r
I n d i a n s were t r i e d
p o t l a t c h held a t V i l l a g e
Island.
The b r u n t
I n 1922 a t
c h i e f s had
forparticipating
The t r i a l s
were
addressed
i n a large
initiated at
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n A g e n t , Mr. H a l l i d a y , who f o r many
y e a r s had c o m p l a i n e d t o O t t a w a a b o u t t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e p o t l a t c h amongst t h e K w a w q u i t l .
in
initiating
at their
Notwithstanding
t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s , he s a t as t h e j u d g e
trials
u n d e r p o w e r s c o n f e r r e d on hm by t h e I n d i a n A c t .
C o n v i c t i o n s were e n t e r e d
a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n s , and t h e y were
t h a t t h e y would r e c e i v e p r i s o n s e n t e n c e s
c o l l e c t i v e l y agreed
latch artifacts.
unless
their
told
Bands
t o s t o p p o t l a t c h i n g and g i v e up t h e i r
F o r t h e Bands w h i c h a g r e e d members were
suspended sentences.
potgiven
Those who were members o f Bands who d i d n o t
a g r e e t o t h e c o n d i t i o n were s e n t
i n j e c t i o n of the c r i m i n a l
to prison.
The e n o r m i t y
law i n t o the heart of Indian
t i o n s i s compounded by t h e r e a l i z a t i o n
v e n e d even t h e w h i t e man's j u s t i c e .
unbiased,
t h e r o l e he p l a y e d
t h a t the t r i a l s
The j u d g e ,
of this
institucontra-
f a r f r o m beng
was i n f a c t a l s o t h e p r o s e c u t o r .
The a r t i f a c t s w h i c h were " r e l i n q u i s h e d " as a r e s u l t o f t h e s e
trials
found t h e i r way i n t o
t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l Museum
o f Man t o form p a r t o f C a n a d a ' s n a t i o n ' s c u l t u r a l
r e c e n t l y have t h e y
been r e t u r n e d
heritage.
to the K w a g i u t l .
U l t i m a t e l y , the M i s s i o n a r i e s themselves turned
the
l a w and l o b b y e d
A n t l e on h i s v i s i t
for a repeal.
Only
against
As was s t a t e d by R e v e r e n d
t o C h i e f J o h n n y Scow:
"When a l l i s s a i d and d o n e , t h e I n d i a n h a s
borne w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f p a t i e n c e an o u t rageous
attack
upon
his liberty,
scarcely
equalled i n the annals o f B r i t i s h
colonialism.
The I n d i a n i s a s k i n g f o r a m o d i f i c a t i o n
o f t h e l a w w h i c h w i l l a l l o w him t o use s u c h o f
h i s o l d c u s t o m s w h i c h a r e n o t c o n t r a r y t o what
we c a l l o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n . . . "
John
-
108 -
I n d i a n p e o p l e have m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r ways d e s p i t e
s u c h as t h e s e , a l t h o u g h t h e i r p r a c t i c e was d r i v e n
B u t t h e c o n s i s t e n t and p e r v a s i v e i n t r u s i o n
and c u l t u r a l
institutions,
l a n d s and t h e u n d e r m i n i n g
t a k e n a heavy t o l l
Government r e l e a s e d
no l e s s
of t h e i r
amongst
underground.
into Indian p o l i t i c a l
t h a n t h e t a k i n g away o f
traditional
Indian peoples.
the f o l l o w i n g
laws
their
e c o n o m i e s has
I n 1980 t h e F e d e r a l
statistics:
1.
The m o r t a l i t y r a t e o f I n d i a n p e o p l e i s 2
to 4 t i m e s t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e , d e p e n d i n g on
age g r o u p .
2.
The I n d i a n p r i s o n p o p u l a t i o n i s 7 t i m e s
t h a t o f t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e and t h e j u v e n i l e
d e l i n q u e n c y r a t e i s g r e a t e r than 3 times t h a t
of t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e .
3.
The s t a t e o f I n d i a n h e a l t h i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y lower than the n a t i o n a l average.
The
I n d i a n s who a r e h o s p i t a l i z e d f o r i n f e c t i o u s
d i s e a s e s are 7 times t h a t o f the n a t i o n a l
average.
R e s p i r a t o r y system d i s e a s e s are 5
times t h a t o f t h e n a t i o n a l average; d i g e s t i v e
s y s t e m d i s e a s e s , 1 1/2
times that of the
n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e ; c h i l d b i r t h and
pregnancy
p r o b l e m s , 1 3/4 t i m e s t h e n a t i o n a l
average,
and a c c i d e n t s and v i o l e n c e 3 t o 4 t i m e s t h e
n a t i o n a l averge.
4.
For t h e I n d i a n p e o p l e , t h e most p a i n f u l
consequence o f t h e i r
position
i n Canadian
s o c i e t y i s the s u i c i d e r a t e .
I n 1 976 t h e
s u i c i d e r a t e o f I n d i a n p e o p l e was 2 1/2 t i m e s
the
national average.
I n 1977 t h e s u i c i d e
r a t e among I n d i a n t e e n a g e r s was 6 t i m e s t h a t
of t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e .
I n d i a n p e o p l e a r e i n no d o u b t as t o t h e c a u s e s o f t h e s e
chilling
figures.
The K w a w q u i t l
I n d i a n H e a l t h i n 1980 w h i c h
B a y , B.C.
found
d i e d b e f o r e age 40.
addressed
a Federal Inquiry
into
t h a t 56% o f I n d i a n s i n A l e r t
They t o l d
the Commissioner:
You have h e a r d f r o m o u r p e o p l e o f t h e i r h i s t o r y , o f the s o u r c e s
from which
we,
the
K w a w g i u t l , drew o u r s t r e n g t h .
You have h e a r d
from o u r p e o p l e o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h
t h o s e who, o v e r
t h e p a s t 100 y e a r s , have
t r i e d t o draw o u r s t r e n g t h f r o m u s .
The
missionairies
and
I n d i a n agents
tried
to
a c c o m p l i s h t h i s by c h a n g i n g o u r
spiritual
b e i n g ; by p r o h i b i t i n g t h e c e n t r a l i n s t i t u t i o n
of o u r l e g a l , e c o n o m i c and c u l t u r a l
tradit i o n , t h e p o t l a t c h ; by t a k i n g o v e r t h e e d u c a t i o n of our c h i l d r e n .
You have h e a r d how t h e
s t r e n g t h we drew f r o m o u r t r a d i t i o n a l
reliance upon n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s has been weakened
- 109 -
by t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f Government and
industry,
both
of
which
have
drained
away
those
r e s o u r c e s and r e s t r i c t e d
Indian involvement
i n a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h p r e d a t e the p r e s e n c e o f
n o n - I n d i a n s by many t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s .
We
know t h a t t h e r o o t c a u s e s o f o u r l a c k o f
strength,
poor
health
and
alcoholism are
d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the undermining o f o u r
s p i r i t u a l , c u l t u r a l and e c o n o m i c s e l f - s u f f i ciency.
In a l l t h e s e a r e a s o f n o n - I n d i a n i n t r u s i o n s ,
we h a v e r e s i s t e d .
We have a s s e r t e d t h a t , as
o r i g i n a l p e o p l e , we have a d i s t i n c t i v e c u l t u r e , a d i s t i n c t i v e economy and d i s t i n c t i v e
rights.
We have a s s e r t e d t h a t , as I n d i a n
p e o p l e , we must r e g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r
these
m a t t e r s c e n t r a l t o o u r s u r v i v a l as K w a g i u t l .
Only
t h e n , we
will
r e g a i n our
strength.
( F i n a l s u b m i s s i o n o f t h e N i m p k i s h I n d i a n Band
t o t h e G o l d t h o r p e I n q u i r y , M a r c h 24, 1980)
vi.
Protests and Delegations to uphold the
Obligations
— 110 —
VI.
P r o t e s t s and D e l e g a t i o n s
While
to uphold
the O b l i g a t i o n s
t h e h i s t o r y o f Canada's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e
t r e a t y o b l i g a t i o n s has been i n c o n s i s t a n t w i t h those
consolidated
i n the Royal
principles
Proclamation, Indian protest against
d e r o g a t i o n from the o b l i g a t i o n s has, w i t h e q u a l
consistency,
sought to uphold
agreed
In
those
1906 t h r e e C h i e f s f r o m B r i t i s h
London t o p l a c e t h e i r
VII.
high principles mutually
claims before
In t h e i r p e t i t i o n
C o l u m b i a went t o
His Majesty
they complained
land against t h e i r wishes,
C a n a d i a n Government had p r o v e d
In
Edward t h e
to t h e i r
had s e t t l e d
and t h a t a l l a p p e a l s
on
t o the
useless.
1909 a p e t i t i o n was p r e s e n t e d
Cowichan I n d i a n s .
King
t h a t the t i t l e
l a n d had n e v e r been e x t i n g u i s h e d ; t h a t w h i t e men
their
upon.
The p e t i t i o n r e c i t e s
r e l i a n c e of the Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n
to His Majesty
by t h e
the Cowichan T r i b e ' s
as a b a s i c c o m p a c t .
"The I n d i a n t i t l e t o t h e s a i d t e r r i t o r y was
always
recognized
by
Your
Majesty's
predecessors.
This
Indian
Title
was
expressly
recognized
and
afirmed
by
the
proclamation
issued
by
Your
Mesty's
predecessor
K i n g G e o r g e I I I on t h e 7 t h o f
O c t o b e r 1763.
said
C o w i c h a n T r i b e as w e l l
as a l l
The
I n d i a n s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a have a l w a y s r e g a r d e d
the s a i d P r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e i r g r e a t f a t h e r
George
I I I as the C h a r t e r
of
their
King
rights.
E v e r s i n c e t h e d a t e o f the s a i d p r o c l a m a t i o n
the I n d i a n s have c o n t i n u e d t o be t h e f i r m and
faithful
allies
of
the
Crown
and
have
rendered
important
military
service
especially
i n two w a r s , t h e war
o f the
Revolution
and
that
of
1812
and
these
s e r v i c e s were e x p r e s s l y r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e
j u d g e m e n t o f Mr. J u s t i c e S t r o n g i n t h e S t .
C a t h e r i n e s M i l l i n g & Lumber Company v. The
Queen, 4 C a r t w r i g h t p.137."
The C o w i c h a n N a t i o n
looked
to t h e I m p e r i a l
Government
as b e i n g p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n , h a v i n g
recognized
this obligation
i n Imperial Statutes.
-111The
t i t l e o f the I n d i a n s i s recognized i n
v a r i o u s I m p e r i a l S t a t u t e s r e l a t i n g to B r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a b e f o r e t h e C o n f e d e r a t i o n o f 1867 i n
which the lands i n q u e s t i o n are r e f e r r e d to
as
"Indian
Territories".
This
i s also
r e c o g n i z e d by t h e f o u r t e e n I n d i a n
treaties
made by S i r James D o u g l a s as a g e n t f o r t h e
Hudson Bay Company w h i c h T r e a t i e s a r e s e t
forth
i n the S e s s i o n a l papers o f B r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a f o r 1 876 a t page 165 e t s e q . The
same s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i s r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e
correspondence
between t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e
f o r t h e C o l o n i e s and S i r James D o u g l a s d u r i n g
t h e y e a r s 1858 t o 1861. These a r e s e t f o r t h
i n t h e s a i d s e s s i o n a l p a p e r s a t page 172 and
following.
In a r e p o r t made b y t h e I n d i a n C o m m i s s i o n e r s
a p p o i n t e d by t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f Canada d a t e d
22nd J a n u a r y 1 844 and made w h i l e t h e I n d i a n
Affairs
o f Canada
were
still
under t h e
direction
o f t h e I m p e r i a l Government t h e
Indian
Commissioners
s a y "The
subsequent
p r o c l a m a t i o n o f H i s M a j e s t y George I I I i s s u e d
i n 1 763 f u r n i s h e d them ( t h e I n d i a n s ) w i t h a
f r e s h guarantee
f o r the possession of t h e i r
h u n t i n g g r o u n d s and t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e
Crown.
T h i s document t h e I n d i a n s l o o k upon
as t h e i r C h a r t e r .
They have p r e s e r v e d a c o p y
o f i t t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e and have r e f e r r e d
to
i t on
several
occasions
in
their
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o t h e Government.
S i n c e 1 763
t h e Government a d h e r i n g
to the
Royal
Proclamation
o f t h a t y e a r have n o t
considered themselves e n t i t l e d to dispossess
the I n d i a n s o f t h e i r l a n d s without e n t e r i n g
i n t o any g r e e m e n t w i t h them and r e n d e r i n g
them some c o m p e n s a t i o n .
For considerable
t i m e a f t e r t h e c o n q u e s t o f Canada t h e w h o l e
o f t h e W e s t e r n p a r t o f t h e upper p r o v i n c e
w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a few m i l i a t r y p o s t s on
the
frontier
and a g r e a t
extent
on t h e
eastern part of t h e i r occupation.
As t h e
s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y a d v a n c e s and t h e
l a n d was r e q u i r e d f o r new o c c u p a n t s x x x x x
x x x x r e n d e r e d t h e i r r e m o v a l d e s i r a b l e the
B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t made s u c c e s s i v e a g r e e m e n t s
w i t h them f o r t h e s u r r e n d e r o f p o r t i o n s o f
their lands.
The I n d i a n s t i t l e and r i g h t s were a l s o f u l l y
r e c o g n i z e d by t h e L e g i s l a t u r e o f V a n c o u v e r
I s l a n d as shown by t h e p e t i t i o n o f t h e House
of Assembly o f Vancouver I s l a n d r e f e r r e d to
i n the S e s s i o n a l Papers o f B r i t i s h Columbia
1 876 page 179 e t s e q . And i n r e p l y t o t h e
said
petition
the Right
Hounourable the
Secretary o f State f o r the Colonies i n h i s
dispatch
from
Downing
Street
dated 19th
O c t o b e r 1861 s a y s " I am f u l l y s e n s i b l e o f t h e
great importance
of purchasing without loss
of time t h e n a t i v e t i t l e
t o the s o i l o f
Vancouver I s l a n d .
In
h i s judgement
i n the S t . Catherines
M i l l i n g C a s e , 4 C a r t . 181 Mr J u s t i c e Gwynne
q u o t e s f r o m a r e p o r t made i n 1 856 by R o y a l
Commissioners appointed
t o i n v e s t i g a t e the
I n d i a n l a n d q u e s t i o n as f o l l o w s : "By t h e
-
112
-
p r o c l a m a t i o n o f 1763 t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s a k i n
to t h o s e a s s e r t e d by S o v e r e i g n
Princes
are
recognized
as b e l o n i n g t o the I n d i a n s ,
that
i s t o s a y , t h a t none o f t h e i r l a n d can
be
alienated
save
by
Treaty
made
publicly
between t h e Crown and them."
At t h e t i m e o f the U n i o n o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a
w i t h t h e D o m i n i o n o f Canada s e c t i o n 109
of
the B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a A c t 1867 was i n c o r terms
of
the
union
and
porated
in
the
expressly reserves
and p r o t e c t s t h e
Indian
t i t l e to the s a i d l a n d s .
The r i g h t s o f y o u r P e t i t i o n e r s i n r e s p e c t o f
said
lands
therefore
at
Confederation
r e m a i n e d and s t i l l c o n t i n u e t o be u n d e r the
dominion"
of
"sovereignty,
protection
and
y o u r M a j e s t y by v i r t u e o f the s a i d P r o c l a m a t i o n o f 7 t h O c t o b e r , 1763.
By t h e T h i r t e e n t h A r t i c l e o f t h e t e r m s o f
admission of B r i t i s h Columbia i n t o Confederat i o n i t i s p r o v i d e d " t h a t the charge of the
I n d i a n s and the t r u s t e e s h i p and management o f
t h e l a n d s r e s e r v e d f o r t h e i r use and b e n e f i t
s h a l l be assumed by the D o m i n i o n G o v e r n m e n t
and
a p o l i c y as l i b e r a l
as
that h i t h e r t o
p u r s u e d by t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a G o v e r n m e n t
s h o u l d be c o n t i n u e d by the D o m i n i o n G o v e r n ment a f t e r t h e u n i o n " and i t was f u r t h e r p r o v i d e d " t o c a r r y o u t such p o l i c y t r a c t s o f
l a n d o f s u c h e x t e n t as i t has h i t h e r t o been
the p r a c t i c e o f the B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a G o v e r n ment t o a p p r o p r i a t e
f o r that purpose
shall
f r o m t i m e t o t i m e be c o n v e y e d f r o m t h e l o c a l
t o t h e D o m i n i o n Government i n t r u s t f o r the
use and b e n e f i t o f the I n d i a n s on a p p l i c a t i o n
o f t h e D o m i n i o n G o v e r n m e n t ; and
i n case of
disagreement
between
the
two
Governments
respecting
the q u a n t i t y o f s u c h t r a c t s o f
l a n d s t o be so g r a n t e d
the m a t t e r s h a l l
be
r e f e r r e d f o r the d e c i s i o n o f the S e c r e t a r y o f
S t a t e f o r the C o l o n i e s . "
After citing
P r o v i n c i a l and
Federal
t i o n of
title
trary
Indian
t o S.109
of
b r e a c h e s o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n s by
Governments i n f a i l i n g
prior
the
Sir
the
r i g h t of
the
at P r i n c e
o f the
r i g h t s be
the P r i v y C o u n c i l
was
tacidly
R u p e r t and
ques-
to
con-
that
Indians
submitted
to
the
the
for decision.
s u p p o r t e d by
summer o f
the
land,
to p r o t e c t
W i l f r e d L a u r i e r i n the
Indians
the
requests
question
request
of
petition
l a n d or t h a t the
This
to t a k i n g p o s s e s s i o n
the
taken
Committee of
to s e t t l e
B.N.A. A c t ,
e i t h e r a c t i o n be
Judicial
the
1910
at Kamloops.
Prime M i n i s t e r
when he
He
met
stated:
a group
of
-
113
-
"The o n l y way t o s e t t l e t h i s q u e s t i o n t h a t
you have a g g i t a t e d f o r y e a r s i s by a d e c i s i o n
o f t h e j u d i c i a l c o m m i t t e e , and I w i l l
take
s t e p s to h e l p you."
A p r i l 26,
On
t h a t i t was
1911
Sir Wilfred Laurier re-iterated
the g o v e r n m e n t ' s d u t y
t o have t h e m a t t e r
determined.
"The
I n d i a n s w i l l continue to b e l i e v e they
have a g r i e v a n c e u n t i l i t has been s e t t l e d by
the c o u r t t h a t t h e y have a c l a i m o r t h a t t h e y
have no c l a i m . "
Sixty-seven C h i e f s speaking
1911,
pressed
the
i s s u e of consent
a t S p e n c e ' s B r i d g e , May
t o the t a k i n g o f t h e i r
10,
land:
"We c l a i m t h a t we a r e t h e r i g h t f u l o w n e r s o f
our t r i b a l
territory,
and
everything
pert a i n i n g t h e r e t o . We have a l w a y s l i v e d i n o u r
c o u n t r y ; a t no t i m e have we e v e r d e s t e r e d i t ,
o r l e f t i t to o t h e r s .
We have r e t a i n e d i t
from t h e i n v a s i o n o f o t h e r t r i b e s a t t h e c o s t
of our b l o o d .
Our a n c e s t o r s were i n p o s s e s s i o n o f o u r c o u n t r y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e w h i t e s came.
It is
the same as y e s t e r d a y when t h e l a t t e r came
and l i k e t h e day b e f o r e when t h e f i r s t f u r
t r a d e r came.
We a r e aware the B.C.
Government c l a i m s
our
country,
like
a l l other
I n d i a n t e r r i t o r i e s i n B.C.;
b u t we deny t h e
r i g h t t o do i t .
We n e v e r gave i t n o r s o l d i t
t o them.
They c e r t a i n l y n e v e r g o t t h e t i t l e
t o t h e c o u n t r y f r o m u s , n e i t h e r by a g r e e m e n t
nor c o n q u e s t ,
and none o t h e r t h e n us c o u l d
have any r i g h t t o g i v e them t i t l e .
. . . I f a person takes possession of something
b e l o n g i n g t o y o u , s u r e l y you know i t , and he
knows i t , and l a n d i s a t h i n g w h i c h c a n n o t be
t a k e n away, and h i d d e n . . . "
Despite
the
Indians request
and
the Prime M i n i s t e r o f Canada, the m a t t e r
J u d i c i a l Committee.
Affairs
in British
f r o m 1912
t o 1916.
C o l u m b i a was
appointed.
question.
not
referred
of
to
the
Indian
This commission
sat
I n numerous i n s t a n c e s the c o m m i s s i o n was
C o m m i s s i o n s work c o u l d have i n c l u d e d the
the P r e m i e r
was
I n s t e a d , a J o i n t R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n on
c o t t e d by t h e I n d i a n s b e c a u s e , a l t h o u g h
title,
the avowed s u p p o r t
of B r i t i s h
the s c o p e o f
i s s u e of
Columbia refused
the
aboriginal
to d i s c u s s
the
A f t e r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the C o w i c h a n P e t i t i o n ,
f e d e r a l government f r a m e d a s t a t e d c a s e
boy-
f o r the c o u r t s
to
the
-
determine Indian
to
the
the King
mitted
British
-
Columbia again
refused
to
consent
reference.
I n 1913
to
title;
114
a group of Nishga Indians
requesting
presented
a
r e c o g n i t i o n of A b o r i g i n a l t i t l e
t o the P r i v y C o u n c i l .
The
Petition
petition
be
sub-
recited:
"1.
From t i m e i m m e m o r i a l the s a i d N a t i o n o r
T r i b e of Indians e x c l u s i v e l y possessed, occup i e d and u s e d and e x e r c i s e d s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r
t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e t e r r i t o r y now f o r m i n g the
Province
of
British
Columbia
which
is
i n c l u d e d w i t h the . . . l i m i t s . . .
2.
...when s o v e r e i g n t y
over
the
territ o r y . . . w a s assumed by
Great B r i t a i n ,
such
s o v e r e i g n t y was a c c e p t e d by the s a i d N a t i o n
o r T r i b e , and t h e r i g h t o f t h e s a i d N a t i o n o r
T r i b e to p o s s e s s ,
o c c u p y and
use
the s a i d
t e r r i t o r y was r e c o g n i z e d by G r e a t B r i t i a n . . .
3.
. . . s i n c e assuming s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r the
s a i d t e r r i t o r y t h e Crown has by
Proclamation
the
and o t h e r w i s e
recognized
the r i g h t of
s a i d N a t i o n o r T r i b e so t o p o s s e s s ,
occupy
and use t h e s a i d t e r r i t o r y , and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , by t h e P r o c l a m a t i o n o f H i s M a j e s t y K i n g
George t h e
I I I i s s u e d on
the 7 t h day
of
O c t o b e r 1763, h a v i n g the f o r c e and e f f e c t o f
Great
a
Statute
of
the
Parliament
of
Britain...
'We
do
therefore standing well within
our
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s , f o r b i d you t o
stave
off
t h e l a n d i n t h i s v a l l e y , and do h e r e b y
p r o t e s t a g a i n s t your proceeding
further...
u n t i l s u c h t i m e as a s a t i s f a c t o r y s e t t l e m e n t
be made b e t w e e n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
the
Crown and o u r s e l v e s . '
On
J u n e 20,
Order-in-Council
1914,
promising
the
t o s u b m i t the
Exchequer C o u r t o f Canada w i t h
Council, provided
if
t h a t the
would a c c e p t
of Reserves.
these
the
Quite
Royal
the
Indians
t h e y were s u c c e s s f u l , t h e i r
they
F e d e r a l government passed
Indians
claims
r i g h t of appeal
had
to a g r e e
an
to
to the
the
Privy
i n advance
that
r i g h t s would be e x t i n g u i s h e d ,
C o m m i s s i o n f i n d i n g s on
n a t u r a l l y , the
Indians
refused
the
to
and
allotment
accept
conditions.
In S e p t e m b e r 1916
Majesty's
the
Duke o f Connaught a c t i n g as
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n Canada r e s p o n d e d
to the
Nishga
His
-
T r i b e s ' p r o t e s t request
stating
the d e c i s i o n o f the Royal
115
-
t h a t i t was
t h e i r duty
to
await
Commission:
" a f t e r which,
i f t h e y do n o t a g r e e t o t h e
c o n d i t i o n s s e t f o r t h by t h a t C o m m i s s i o n , t h e y
can a p p e a l to the P r i v y C o u n c i l i n E n g l a n d ,
when t h e i r c a s e w i l l have e v e r y c o n s i d e r a tion.
As t h e i r c o n t e n t i o n s w i l l be d u l y c o n s i d e r e d by t h e P r i v y C o u n c i l i n t h e e v e n t o f
the I n d i a n s b e i n g d i s s a t i f i e d w i t h the d e c i s i o n of the commission, h i s Royal H i g h n e s s i s
at
not p r e p a r e d t o i n t e r f e r e i n the m a t t e r
p r e s e n t and he hopes t h a t you w i l l a d v i s e t h e
this
Indians
to
await
the
decision
of
commission."
Again
i n December, 1918
the L o r d P r e s i d e n t o f the
Council
through
Nishgas
had
British
C o l u m b i a , s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e c o u l d be made t o t h e
a complaint
Committee - but
for
his counsel, Almeric Fitzroy,
s t a t e d t h a t i f the
about e x e c u t i v e a c t i o n of the p r o v i n c e
t h i s w o u l d o n l y be done by
t h e C o l o n i e s on
Privy
of
Judicial
the S e c r e t a r y o f
the a d v i c e r e c e i v e d from the Dominion
State
govern-
ment.
The
were i n t e n d e d
a c t u a l f i n d i n g s o f the
t o be
a "final
Indian A f f a i r s
of
Indian reserve land valued
a t $1,522,704.00.
of
valued
a t $444,853.00.
g a v e us bad
C o m m i s s i o n ' s f i n d i n g s were a p p r o v e d by
B.C.
New
As
reserves
was
E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r o f the A l l i e d
away good l a n d and
In
relating
acres
q u e n t l y s t a t e d by t h e
governments i n the
Commission, which
i n B.C.," i n v o l v e the r e d u c t i o n o f 47,058
87,292 a c r e s were s e t up,
took
Royal
adjustment of a l l matters
to
"they
1912
1920's.
The
the
federal
I n d i a n s d i d not
1919,
the
Tribes,
land i n exchange."
and
The
provincial
consent.
the c o m p r e h e n s i v e S t a t e m e n t o f the A l l i e d
f o r t h e Government o f B.C.
subse-
T r i b e s of
Indians continued
claim:
" t h a t we have a c l e a n a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t t o
T h a t r i g h t the I n d i a n
take salmon f o r food.
T r i b e s have c o n t i n u o u s l y e x e r c i s e d f r o m t i m e
immemorial.
Long b e f o r e t h e D o m i n i o n o f
Canada came i n t o e x i s t e n c e t h a t r i g h t was
Royal
guaranteed
by I m p e r i a l e n a c t m e n t , t h e
to
Proclamation
issued
116
-
i n the
year
1763."
p.37
"We
c l a i m t h e r i g h t t o be c o m p e n s a t e d f o r
t h o s e p o r t i o n s o f o u r t e r r i t o r y w h i c h we
may
a g r e e t o s u r r e n d e r . . . w e c l a i m as even more
important the r i g h t to r e s e r v e o t h e r p o r t i o n s
p e r m a n e n t l y f o r o u r own use and b e n e f i t . . .
We a r e n o t o p p o s e d t o the c o m i n g o f the w h i t e
p e o p l e i n t o o u r t e r r i t o r y p r o v i d e d t h i s be
c a r r i e d o u t j u s t l y and i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e
B r i t i s h p r i n c i p l e s embodied i n the R o y a l
Pro¬
clamation....
The
A l l i e d Tribes of B r i t i s h
t i o n to Parliament
i n J u n e , 1926.
The
Columbia submitted
P e t i t i o n reveals
c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e I n d i a n p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h o u t the p e r i o d
C a n a d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and
The
Indians
their
background
to c o n s i d e r
warrants extensive
t o the p e t i t i o n
a
the
of
quotations.
the r e f u s a l of
t h e McKenna A g r e e m e n t as a s e t t l e m e n t
claims.
"...The S t a t e m e n t p r e p a r e d
by the Committee
a p p o i n t e d by the C o n f e r e n c e h e l d a t V a n c o u v e r
i n J u n e , 1916, and s e n t t o the Government o f
C a n a d a and
t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r the
C o l o n i e s , c o n t a i n e d the f o l l o w i n g :
Committee c o n c l u d e s
this
statement
by
The
asserting that, while i t i s believed that a l l
o f t h e I n d i a n t r i b e s o f the p r o v i n c e
will
p r e s s on t o the J u d i c i a l C o m m i t t e e , r e f u s i n g
t o c o n s i d e r any s o - c a l l e d s e t t l e m e n t made up
u n d e r t h e McKenna A g r e e m e n t , t h e Committee
a l s o f e e l s c e r t a i n t h a t the t r i b e s a l l i e d f o r
t h a t p u r p o s e w i l l a l w a y s be r e a d y t o c o n s i d e r
any r e a l l y e q u i t a b l e method o f s e t t l e m e n t o u t
of
court
w h i c h m i g h t be
proposed
by
the
Governments.
A r e s o l u t i o n , p a s s e d by t h e I n t e r i o r T r i b e s
a t a m e e t i n g a t S p e n c e ' s B r i d g e on the 5 t h
December, 1917, c o n t a i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g : governments
and
a
We
are
sure
that
the
men
have f o r
c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f w h i t e
many y e a r s had i n t h e i r m i n d s a q u i t e wrong
i d e a o f the c l a i m s w h i c h we make, and
the
We do not want
s e t t l e m e n t w h i c h we d e s i r e .
anything
extravagant,
and
we
do
not
want
a n y t h i n g h u r t f u l to t h e r e a l i n t e r e s t o f the
want a s e t t l e m e n t
based
white
people.
We
upon j u s t i c e .
We want a f u l l o p p o r t u n i t y o f
making a f u t u r e f o r o u r s e l v e s .
We want a l l
t h i s done i n s u c h a way t h a t i n the f u t u r e we
s h a l l be a b l e to l i v e and work w i t h the w h i t e
p e o p l e as o u r b r o t h e r s and f e l l o w c i t i z e n s .
the
of
Peti-
- 1 1 7 -
The
their
interest
protected
petition
then s e t s out the I n d i a n
i n t h e l a n d , namely t h a t t h e y
understanding
held
a usufruct,
by S.109 o f t h e B.N.A. A c t , and by t h e I m p e r i a l
Government.
T h r o u g h o u t p r a c t i c a l l y t h e whole o f t h e
o f Canada, t r i b a l ownership o f l a n d s has
f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d , and a l l d e a l i n g s w i t h
various
tribes
have been based
upon
I n d i a n t i t l e so acknowledged.
rest
been
the
the
I t was l o n g ago c o n c e d e d by Canada i n t h e
most a u t h o r i t a t i v e
way p o s s i b l e
that the
I n d i a n t r i b e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a have t h e
same t i t l e .
T h i s i s p r o v e d beyond p o s s i b i l i t y o f d o u b t by t h e r e p o r t o f t h e M i n i s t e r o f
J u s t i c e , w h i c h was p r e s e n t e d on J a n u a r y 19,
1875,
and was
approved
by t h e G o v e r n o r
G e n e r a l i n C o u n c i l on J a n u a r y 23, 1875.
We
set out the f o l l o w i n g
extract
from
that
report:
Considering
then these s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s o f
t h e c a s e no s u r r e n d e r o r c e s s i o n o f t h e i r
t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s , w h e t h e r the same be o f a
legal
o r e q u i t a b l e nature,
has been
ever
e x e c u t e d by t h e I n d i a n T r i b e s o f t h e p r o v i n c e
- t h a t they a l l e g e t h a t the r e s e r v a t i o n s o f
l a n d made by t h e Government f o r t h e i r u s e
have
been
arbitrarily
so made,
and a r e
totally
inadequate
to t h e i r
support
and
r e q u i r e m e n t s and w i t h o u t t h e i r a s s e n t - t h a t
they a r e n o t averse t o h o s t i l i t i e s i n o r d e r
to e n f o r c e r i g h t s s u c h i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o
d e n y them, and t h a t t h e A c t under c o n s i d e r a tion
not only
ignores
those
rights,
but
e x p r e s s l y p r o h i b i t s the I n d i a n s from e n j o y i n g
the r i g h t s o f r e c o r d i n g or preempting l a n d ,
e x c e p t by c o n s e n t o f t h e L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r ,
f e e l t h a t he c a n n o t do o t h e r the u n d e r s i g n e d
w i s e than a d v i s e t h a t the A c t i n q u e s t i o n i s
o b j e c t i o n a b l e as t e n d i n g t o d e a l w i t h
lands
w h i c h a r e assumed t o be the a b s o l u t e p r o p e r t y
o f t h e p r o v i n c e , an a s s u m p t i o n w h i c h comp l e t e l y i g n o r e s as a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e I n d i a n s
British
C o l u m b i a , t h e honour and g o o d
of
f a i t h w i t h w h i c h t h e Crown has i n a l l o t h e r
cases s i n c e i t s sovereignty of the t e r r i tories
i n North
America d e a l t w i t h
their
various Indian tribes.
The
undersigned
would
also refer
to the
B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a A c t , 1867, s e c t i o n 109,
a p p l i c a b l e t o B r i t i s h Columbia, which enacts
in e f f e c t , that a l l lands belonging
to the
p r o v i n c e , ' s u b j e c t t o any t r u s t e x i s t i n g i n
r e s p e c t t h e r e o f , and t o any i n t e r e s t
other
t h a n t h a t o f t h e p r o v i n c e i n t h e same.'
T h a t w h i c h h a s been o r d i n a r i l y s p o k e n o f a s
the ' I n d i a n t i t l e ' must o f n e c e s s i t y c o n s i s t
o f some s p e c i e s o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e l a n d s o f
B r i t i s h Columbia.
of
-
118
-
I f i t i s c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e y have n o t a f r e e hold
i n the
soil,
but
t h a t t h e y have
an
u s u f r u c t , a r i g h t of occupation or possession
o f t h e same f o r t h e i r own u s e , t h e n i t w o u l d
seem t h a t t h e s e l a n d s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a r e
subject,
i f not
to a
'trust existing
in
r e s p e c t t h e r e o f , ' a t l e a s t ' t o an
interest
o t h e r than t h a t o f the P r o v i n c e h e r e o n . '
In p r e s e n t i n g
agrues should
Proclamation
be
was
the p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h t h e
the b a s i s o f e q u i a b l e
stressed.
C a n a d i a n l e g i s l a t i o n be
Allied
settlement,
They s u g g e s t e d
the
Royal
that a l l other
brought i n l i n e with i t .
We
beg t o p r e s e n t
f o r consideration of
the
two G o v e r n m e n t t h e f o l l o w i n g w h i c h we
regard
as n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s o f e q u i t a b l e s e t t l e ment:
That the P r o c l a m a t i o n
i s s u e d by K i n g G e o r g e
I I I i n t h e y e a r 1763 and t h e R e p o r t p r e s e n t e d
1875
by t h e M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e i n the y e a r
estabbe a c c e p t e d by the two G o v e r n m e n t s and
l i s h e d as t h e m a i n b a s i s o f a l l d e a l i n g s
and
all
adjustments of Indian land r i g h t s
and
o t h e r r i g h t s w h i c h s h a l l be made.
T h a t i t be c o n c e d e d t h a t e a c h T r i b e f o r whose
use
and
b e n e f i t land
i s set aside
(under
S t r i b l e 13 o f t h e "Terms o f U n i o n " ) a c q u i r e s
full,
p e r m a n e n t and
beneficial
thereby
a
t i t l e t o t h e l a n d so s e t a s i d e t o g e t h e r w i t h
a l l n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s p e r t a i n i n g t h e r e t o ; and
t h a t S e c t i o n 127 o f t h e Land A c t o f B r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a be amended a c c o r d i n g l y .
T h a t i f the G o v e r n m e n t s and the A l l i e d T r i b e s
s h o u l d n o t be a b l e t o a g r e e upon a s t a n d a r d
o f l a n d s t o be r e s e r v e d t h a t m a t t e r and a l l
matters
relating
to
lands
to
be
other
which
cannot
be
adjusted
in
reserved
p u r s u a n c e t o t h e p r e c e d i n g c o n d i t i o n s and by
c o n f e r e n c e between the two g o v e r n m e n t s
and
Allied
Tribes
be
referred
to
the
the
S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r the C o l o n i e s
t o be
f i n a l l y d e c i d e d by t h a t M i n i s t e r i n v i e w o f
o u r l a n d r i g h t s c o n c e d e d by the two G o v e r n ments i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h o u r f i r s t c o n d i t i o n
and i n p u r s u a n c e o f the p r o v i s i o n s of. A r t i c l e
13 o f t h e "Terms o f U n i o n " by s u c h method o f
procedure
as
shall
be
decided
by
the
P a r l i a m e n t of Canada.
That the b e n e f i c i a l o w n e r s h i p of a l l r e s e r v e s
s h a l l b e l o n g t o the T r i b e f o r whose use
and
b e n e f i t they are s e t a s i d e .
That a l l r e s t r i c t i o n s c o n t a i n e d
A c t and
o t h e r S t a t u t e s o f the
removed.
Tribes
i n the Land
Province
be
T h a t the I n d i a n A c t be r e v i s e d and t h a t a l l
amendments o f t h a t A c t r e q u i r e d f o r c a r r y i n g
i n t o f u l l e f f e c t these c o n d i t i o n s of s e t t l e ment, d e a l i n g w i t h the m a t t e r o f c i t i z e n s h i p ,
- 119 and
adjusting
a l l outstanding
matters
relating
to the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
of Indian
A f f a i r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a be made.
The
the P r i v y
Petition
ended w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r a r e f e r e n c e t o
Council.
A s p e c i a l J o i n t Committee o f the Senate
Commons was a p p o i n t e d
to enquire into
and House o f
this Petition.
As was
s t a t e d b e f o r e t h e C o m m i t t e e , and r e p e a t e d numerous t i m e s
o u t t h e h e a r i n g s , t h e p e t i t i o n was m e r e l y
ence be made t o t h e P r i v y
Committee t o a c t u a l l y
tence o f a b o r i g i n a l
Council.
inquire
title.
hearings, during which
a request
through
that a refer
I t was n o t a r e q u e s t f o r t h e
i n t o the nature, e x t e n t , or e x i s -
Nevertheless, after
f i v e days o f
t h e c o m m i t t e e p l a c e d numerous
b e f o r e the I n d i a n s i n t h e i r a t t e m p t
impediments
to properly present
their
c a s e , the Committee h e l d :
"The
p e t i t i o n e r s have n o t e s t a b l i s h e d any
c l a i m t o t h e l a n d s a t B r i t i s h Columbia
based
on A b o r i g i n a l T i t l e . "
The
pared
C o m m i t t e e h e l d t h a t a s t h e I n d i a n s were n o t p r e -
t o a c c e p t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e P r i v y C o u n c i l on t h e b a s i s
t h a t t h e y would a g r e e
t o t h e e x t i n g u i s h m e n t o f t h e i r c l a i m s and
a c c e p t the f i n d i n g o f t h e Reserve
s h o u l d be now r e g a r d e d
The
preventing
Commissioners,
"the matter
as f i n a l l y c l o s e d . "
n e x t y e a r an amendment was added t o t h e I n d i a n A c t
Indians from
r a i s i n g money t o p r e s s t h e i r
lands
claims.
The
next year
p r e v e n t i n g I n d i a n s from
an amendment was added
raising
to the I n d i a n A c t
money t o p r e s s t h e i r
land claims
"141.
E v e r y p e r s o n who, w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t
of the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t General expressed i n
writing,
receives,
obtains,
solicits
or
r e q u e s t f r o m any I n d i a n any payment o r c o n t r i b u t i o n o r p r o m i s e o f any payment o r c o n t r i b u t i o n f o r the purpose o f r a i s i n g a fund
- 120 o r p r o v i d i n g money f o r t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f any
c l a i m w h i c h t h e t r i b e o r band o f I n d i a n s t o
w h i c h s u c h I n d i a n b e l o n g s , o r o f w h i c h he i s
a member, h a s o r i s r e p r e s e n t e d
t o have f o r
t h e r e c o v e r y o f a n y c l a i m o r money f o r t h e
b e n e f i t o f t h e s a i d t r i b e o r b a n d , s h a l l be
g u i l t y o f an o f f e n c e and l i a b l e upon summary c o n v i c t i o n f o r e a c h s u c h o f f e n c e t o a
p e n a l t y n o t e x c e e d i n g two h u n d r e d d o l l a r s and
not l e s s than f i f t y d o l l a r s o r t o i m p r i s o n ment f o r any t e r m n o t e x c e e d i n g
two m o n t h s .
1927, c. 3 2 , s. 6."
The
following
l a w was e f f e c t i v e
twenty f i v e y e a r s .
in stifling
The l a w was o n l y
More r e c e n t p r o t e s t s h o l d
ples consolidated
British
i n the Royal
behalf
Proclamation.
of B r i t i s h
changed
i n 1951.
as t e n a c i o u s l y t o t h e p r i n c i -
Columbia Indian C h i e f s r e p r e s e n t i n g
Bands i n t h e P r o v i n c e
p r o t e s t f o r the
The U n i o n o f
t h e 150 s t a t u s
Columbia, d e c l a r e d
on
Indian
their
i n 1976:
"...the
I n d i a n T r i b e s have h e l d and
still
h o l d N a t i v e T i t l e , a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s & owners h i p t o a l l a l n d s and r e s o u r c e s o f B.C.
. . . a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s t o h u n t , f i s h and
and g a t h e r f o o d , r e s o u r c e s and g o o d s . . .
trap
. . . t h e I n d i a n T r i b e s have h e l d and s t i l l h o l d
i n a l i e n a b l e and a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s t o s e l f government.
...we...have n e v e r r e a c h e d any a g r e e m e n t o r
treaty with
t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a and
the occupation,
settlement,
B.C. c o n c e r n i n g
s o v e r e i g n t y and j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r o u r n a t i v e
lands.
...such n a t i v e t i t l e
and a b o r i g i n a l
rights
have n e v e r been e x t i n g u i s h e d , p u r c h a s e d , o r
a c q u i r e d by t r e a t y , a g r e e m e n t o r by a n y o t h e r
means by t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f Canada and t h e
g o v e r n m e n t o f B.C.
. . . i n r e c o g n i t i o n o f n a t i v e t i t l e and a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s t h e r e w i l l be l a n d , m o n e t a r y and
o t h e r c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r l a n d s and
resources
h e l d by t h e I n d i a n p e o p l e o f B . C . . . . t h a t have
a l r e a d y been i r r e t r i e v a b l y e n c r o a c h e d u p o n ,
sold, or otherwise
used under P r o v i n c a l o r
Federal Grants of t i t l e o r l i c e n c e . "
The
within
modern p e t i t i o n s
also reflect
the anger
I n d i a n people because o f the d i s r e g a r d
Government o f these
principles.
generated
by t h e C a n a d i a n
George M a n u e l , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e
- 121
O n i o n o f B.C.
Position
-
I n d i a n C h i e f s , s p o k e when the A b o r i g i n a l R i g h t s
Paper,
1980,
was
presented
t o the
Canadian Government:
"The m e s s a g e p r e s e n t e d by a l l I n d i a n
people
a t t h e E l e v e n t h A n n u a l G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y came
l o u d and c l e a r .
The message i s "we a r e no
l o n g e r p r e p a r e d to l i v e on o u r k n e e s . "
From
now on we w i l l
f i g h t on o u r f e e t f o r o u r
right
to s e l f - r e l i a n c e
through
our
Indian
Governments."
This expression
for
Indian
s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n was b e i n g a s s e r t e d by the
I n d i a n s a t our Assembly.
We a r e s i c k
and
t i r e d o f t h e w h i t e man's h e a v y handed c o n t r o l
over our l i v e s .
We want t o c o n t r o l o u r l i v e s
within
the
framework o f
our
beliefs
and
traditions
i n our I n d i a n homeland,
British
Columbia."
The
both
modern p r o t e c t s r e f l e c t the c o n t i n u i n g d i s r e g a r d
F e d e r a l and
Provincial
G o v e r n m e n t s o f the p r i n c i p l e
c o n s e n t i n d e a l i n g w i t h unceded I n d i a n l a n d and
derogation
other
from t r e a t y r i g h t s .
Indian Nations
violations
of t h e i r
C o l u m b i a the N i s h g a
tranditional
are
From one
end
At
this very
time
molybdemun m i n i n g .
r e s e r v e s by P r o v i n c i a l
f o r the
'crime'
salmon i n t h e i r
in
Police
and
traditional
these
At t h i s very
rivers.
to f i s h
their
waters
time
i n v a s i o n of
rights
and
British
the s e i s u r e o f t h e i r
of exercising t h e i r
the
lands
t h r e a t to
t a i l i n g s b e i n g dumped i n t o
Micmacs i n Quebec a r e p r o t e s t i n g t h e l i t e r a l
nets
o f Canada t o
I n d i a n s a r e p r o t e s t i n g the
f r o m Amax C a r p e n t e r ' s
centinum,
faced w i t h t h r e a t s to t h e i r
rights.
w w a t e r s by
the
of
the
their
fishing
for
by
The
p r o v i s i o n s i n the C h a r t e r
Indian people are
of R i g h t s
respecting
as f o l l o w s :
"S. 33 (1) t h e A b o r i g i n a l and T r e a t y R i g h t s o f
t h e A b o r i g i n a l P e o p l e s o f Canada a r e h e r e b y
r e c o g n i z e d and a f f i r m e d .
S.25 The g u a r a n t e e i n t h i s C h a r t e r o f c e r t a i n
r i g h t s and f r e e d o m s h a l l not be c o n s t r u e d
so
abrogate
or
derogate
from
any
as
to
Aboriginal,
Treaty
or
other
rights
or
freedoms
that
pertain
to
the
Aboriginal
P e o p l e s o f Canada i n c l u d i n g (a) any r i g h t s o r
f r e e d o m s t h a t have been r e c o g n i z e d
by
the
and
R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n o f O c t o b e r 7, 1763,
rights
or
freedoms
t h a t may
be
(b)
any
a c q u i r e d by t h e A b o r i g i n a l P e o p l e s o f Canada
by way o f l a n d c l a i m s e t t l e m e n t s . "
S.35(2) o f
the
the C h a r t e r
conferences
amending f o r m u l a
is
of
provisions bely
the
full
o f a r r i v i n g a t the C h a r t e r
i n the p r o c e s s
s o u g h t t o u n d e r m i n e and
Indian Nations
to i n f l u e n c e the
p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e i r
In J u n e o f
Two
1978,
legal
Britain.
The
the
Crown i n t h e i r e f f o r t s
constitution until
to
Canada
the a t t e m p t s o f
F e d e r a l Government o f
the
a
E l d e r s would go
to her
Canada
Canadian
the N a t i o n a l I n d i a n
Indian Nations
C h i e f s and
refused
position.
make r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
t i e s of the
as
of c r e a t i n g the
thwart
i t s annual general
d e l e g a t i o n o f C h i e f s and
as w e l l
Constitutional discussions with
months l a t e r
passed a r e s o l u t i o n at
Queen and
the
Nations.
a n n o u n c e d i t s i n t e n t i o n t o s e e k p a t r i a t i o n o f the
constitution.
before
t h e C a n a d i a n Government has
allow Indian p a r t i c i p a t i o n
has
after patriation,
c o n s e n t o f the I n d i a n
From t h e o u t s e t
and
called
finalized.
Both the p r o c e s s
Act
involve representatives
A b o r i g i n a l P e o p l e s o f Canada i n the f e d e r a l - p r o v i n c i a l
constitutional
its
would
Brotherhood
assembly t h a t a
to E n g l a n d
to v i s i t
based upon the h i s t o r i c
t o the Crown i n R i g h t
E l d e r s were s e e k i n g
to prevent
the o u t s t a n d i n g
the
the
of
support
the p a t r i a t i o n o f
the
i s s u e s between the
and
of
the
Canadian
Indian
twelve
Nations
- 1 -
and t h e C a n a d i a n and B r i t i s h
G o v e r n m e n t s were
resolved.
When t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a r r i v e d i n E n g l a n d , t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r
o f Canada r e f u s e d
t o a l l t h e Queen t o meet w i t h
t h e C h i e f s and
E l d e r s j u s t as t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t f o r o v e r 100 y e a r s h a s
thwarted
in
s i m i l a r a t t e m p t s by t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
Britain
f o r the redress o f t h e i r
rights.
move by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r i s c l e a r .
prepared
a f t e r O c t o b e r , 1980, e n t i t l e d
Canada's N a t i v e s
t o seek a forum
The r e a s o n f o r t h i s
In a c o n f i d e n t i a l
"Briefing
document
M a t e r i a l on
P e o p l e s and t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n " t h e c u r r e n t
f e d e r a l p o s i t i o n i s unambiguously s e t o u t :
There i s l i k e l y
t o be a m a j o r e f f o r t b y
Canada's N a t i v e P e o p l e s t o w i n n a t i o n a l and
international
support
(especially
at
Westminster)
for
their
stand
against
patriation.
I f the Native
Peoples
press
f o r w a r d w i t h t h e i r p l a n s and i f t h e y s u c c e e d
in
gaining
support
and sympathy
abroad,
Canada's
image
will
suffer
considerably.
B e c a u s e Canada's N a t i v e P e o p l e l i v e , a s a
r u l e , i n c o n d i t i o n s which are very d i f f e r e n t
from those
o f most o t h e r
Canadians - as
sample s t a t i s t i c s
s e t o u t below a t t e s t
t h e r e would be s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s a s k e d a b o u t
whether the N a t i v e P e o p l e s enjoy b a s i c r i g h t s
i n Canada."
I n d i a n s have a l i f e e x p e c t a n c y t e n y e a r s
l e s s than the Canadian average;
I n d i a n s e x p e r i e n c e v i o l e n t d e a t h s a t more
than three times the n a t i o n a l average;
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60% o f I n d i a n s i n Canada
receive social assistance;
o n l y 32% o f w o r k i n g - a g e I n d i a n s a r e
employed;
l e s s t h a n 50% o f I n d i a n homes a r e p r o p e r l y
serviced;
i n Canada as a w h o l e t h e p r i s o n p o p u l a t i o n
i s a b o u t 9% N a t i v e , y e t N a t i v e P e o p l e s
make up o n l y 3% o f Canada's p o p u l a t i o n .
In 1977, t h e r e were 280 I n d i a n s i n j a i l
p e r 100,000 p o p u l a t i o n , compared t o 40 f o r
the n a t i o n a l average."
When t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
rep/eated
full
requests,
participation.
the Indian
t a l k s began and i n s p i t e o f
Nations
were e x p r e s s l y
refused
What was o f f e r e d was t h e p r o s p e c t o f
c o n s u l t a t i o n which never m a t e r i a l i z e d .
Thus:
twelve
- The
the
1979
- 2 -
Indian Nations
were i n v i t e d
F i r s t M i n i s t e r s meetings held
S e p t e m b e r 1980.
and
m e e t i n g were c l o s e d t o
i n October,
Most o f t h e
the
M i n i s t e r C l a r k to d i s c u s s t h e i r
Indian
the
Indian
s t e e r i n g c o m m i t t e e o f the C o n t i n u i n g
the C o n s t i t u t i o n , t o d i s c u s s t h e i r
Indian Nations
i n June of
1980
I n d i a n l e a d e r s met
with
f r o m the
the
First
the C o n s t i t u t i o n over
the
w i t h a Sub-committee of
the
the C o n s t i t u t i o n f o r
nothing
more t h a n an
two
opportunity
G o v e r n m e n t s t a t e s t h a t t h e mechanism s e t up
(35(2) o f the
the I n d i a n
Briefing
T h i s was
with
brief.
The
Sections
l e a d e r s met
the
C o m m i t t e e o f M i n i s t e r s on
a
Prime
f r o m the m e e t i n g s o f
1980.
to present
with
C o m m i t t e e o f M i n i s t e r s on
and
summer o f
h o u r s i n A u g u s t , 1980.
second
l e a d e r s met
were e x c l u d e d
C o m m i t t e e o f M i n i s t e r s on
Continuing
the
involvement.
Continuing
- The
sessions of
February,
involvement.
- I n December, 1979,
M i n i s t e r s meeting
1978,
at
observers.
- I n S e p t e m b e r , 1979,
- The
to be o b s e r v e r s
Charter
allows
f o r d i s c u s s i o n s to
leadership after patriation.
M a t e r i a l r e v e a l s the h o l l o w
nature
Its
of
this
in
continue
internal
prospect.:
"Native
leaders
realize
that
entrenching
their
rights will
be
enormously
difficult
after p a t r i a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y since a majority
would
have to a g r e e
to
of
the
provinces
changes which might b e n e f i t N a t i v e Peoples a t
expense
of
provincial
power.
They
the
t h e r e f o r e demand an e n t r e n c h m e n t o f
Native
r i g h t s before p a t r i a t i o n . "
This
the
issue of
process
r e c o r d o f the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t s r e f u s a l
Indian p a r t i c i p a t i o n
i n the
s e r i o u s l y s u g g e s t s t h a t the
constitutional
ability
of
the
to
take
renewal
Indian
- 3
twelve
Nations,
S.35(2)
after patriation,
is likely
t o be
S e c t i o n 25
Indian
rights.
and
33
a l s o o f f e r but
r i g h t s as d e f i n e d
seeks to entrench
Indian
clause
not
derogate
and
a f f i r m s a b o r i g i n a l and
r i g h t s undefined.
This
lack
the p r o t e c t i o n i t
this
F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t ' s B r i e f i n g document s t a t e s i n
to Treaty
rights.
"Constitutionalizing
t h e q u e s t i o n s o f how
interpeted."
In a 1981
treaty
rights,...begs
t r e a t y r i g h t s s h o u l d be
d i s c u s s i o n paper prepared
M i n i s t e r s responsible for Native
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and
Implications
treaty
of
Government documents themselves acknowledge
of P r o v i n c i a l
which
brought.
c o n s t i t u t e s a m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n on
The
from
i t i s t h a t s e c t i o n to
definition
limitation.
f o r the
Affairs,
Legislative Institutions
f o r the P r o v i n c e s " ,
Conference
entitled
-
i t is stated:
"Clearly
Section
33
lacks
substance
and
easily
subject
to
varying
thereby
is
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . . . This
section
invites,
or
a s s u r e s , d e t e r m i n a t i o n by the c o u r t s as t o
meaning
and
nature
of
treaty
or
the
aboriginal rights."
The
to
those
rights
leases
"Federal
a saving
I t i s s e c t i o n 33
r i g h t s but
affords.
p r o t e c t i o n to
i n S e c t i o n 25.
recognizes
those
through
in particular
n o b i l i t y r i g h t s do
w h i c h c a r e f u l s c r u t i n y must be
S e c t i o n 33
limited
i s in r e a l i t y only
s e c t i o n s o f the C h a r t e r ,
d e a l i n g w i t h e q u a l i t y and
Indian
to i n f l u e n c e t h a t p r o c e s s
illusory.
S e c t i o n 35
ensure t h a t other
-
Province
cus
of A l b e r t a ' s D i s u c c s i o n Paper s t a t e s :
"The most s e r i o u s p r o b l e m i s t h a t no a d e q u a t e
and
commonly
acceptable
definition
of
aboriginal rights exists.
In t h i s
regard,
two a p p r o a c h e s a r e p o s s i b l e . The f i r s t w o u l d
entail
a
negotiated
definition
of
what
a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s would i n c l u d e .
I n d i a n and
twelve
- 4 -
I n u i t l e a d e r s have i n d i c a t e d t h e i r v i e w t h a t
this
would
be
the
preferred
approach.
However, t h e r e a r e no g u a r a n t e e s t h a t e i t h e r
t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t o r p r o v i n c e s would be
w i l l i n g to enter into negotiations or that
agreement
could
be
achieved.
Should
a g r e e m e n t n o t be p o s s i b l e , r e c o u r s e
would
t h e n be t o t h e c o u r t s . "
The
M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e has a f f i r m e d
Federal
likely
that
likely
be l e f t
those
i t is
t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a b o r i g i n a l and t r e a t y r i g h t s would
to the courts.
The j u r i s p r u d e n t i a l r e c o r d
C a n a d i a n C o u r t s on t h e i s s u e s o f I n d i a n
Section
that
33 w i l l
fall
r i g h t s suggest
f a rshort o f p r o t e c t i n g
the f u l l
of the
that
panoply of
rights.
The
Canadian Courts i n t h e i r
interpretation of treaty
o b l i g a t i o n s have done s o i n a manner w h i c h b e l i e s t h e v e r y
c o m p a c t s w h i c h were made.
disregarded
Indian
The c a s e s , p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d , d e a l i n g w i t h
In contrast
with the
f o r m an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e t r e a t y
r i g h t s and r i g h t s t o m e d i c a l c a r e
process.
t h e y have
the o r a l guarantees which, i n conformity
oral tradition,
compacts.
Most s i g n i f i c a n t l y ,
are i l l u s t r a t i v e
t o the Indian
conception
hunting
of this
of the i n v i o l a b l e
n a t u r e o f t h e s e c o m p a c t s , t h e C o u r t s have d e s c r i b e d
them as "mere
p r o m i s e s and a g r e e m e n t s " w h i c h t h e Crown had t o c a r r y o u t " w i t h
the
e x a c t n e s s w h i c h h o n o u r and good c o n s c i e n c e d i c t a t e s "
Wesley
(1932) 4 D.L.R. 7 7 4 ) . The G o v e r n m e n t ' s v i e w o f t h e i r
" h o n o u r and good c o n s c i e n c e "
on
(R. v .
was s t a t e d
by P r i m e M i n i s t e r T r u d e a u
A u g u s t 8, 1 9 6 9 :
"We w i l l t r y t o b r i n g j u s t i c e t o t h a t a r e a
and t h i s w i l l mean t h a t p e r h a p s t h e t r e a t i e s
s h o u l d n ' t go on f o r e v e r .
I t ' s inconceivable
I t h i n k , t h a t i n a g i v e n s o c i e t y one s e c t i o n
o f t h e s o c i e t y have a t r e a t y w i t h t h e o t h e r
section of society."
In
their
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s , the
C a n a d i a n C o u r t s have e n d o r s e d
Government can u n i l a t e r a l l y
the p r i n c i p l e t h a t the Federal
extinguish
these r i g h t s without
twelve
- 5 -
c o n s e n t , a p r i n c i p l e w i c h i s as
conception
their
of
r i g h t s as
p r i n c i p l e s governing
Nations
afforded
well
by
Columbia.
The
by
the lands
o f B.C.)
C o l o n y was
without
compensation.
d e c i s i o n was
S.C.R.) and
C o l u m b i a as
a judicial
not
effect
in British
by
the
mentioned only
these
able
particularly
provides,
Royal
specifically
Proclamation.
i n s e c t i o n 25
i n the
the P r o c l a m a t i o n
to B r i t i s h
b o t h the
t h a t these
the
consent
Supreme C o u r t
and
of
the G o v e r n m e n t
of
confirmed
It is
t o argue t h a t
The
context
entrench
section
no
rights
Proclamation
of
the
to a l l p a r t s of
issue of
encompass r i g h t s
the
Canada
section
i s ambigious.
i s s u e s o f a b o r i g i n a l and
to r e c o g n i z e
is
non-derogation.
C o l u m b i a , the p r o t e c t i o n t h i s
C a n a d i a n c o u r t s have f a i l e d
Nations
for
Columbia.
even i n t e r m s o f n o n - d e r o g a t i o n ,
On
v.
t h e r e f o r e the s e c t i o n has
M o r e o v e r , s i n c e t h e c o u r t s have d i v i d e d on
a p p l i c a t i o n of
in
a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s w h i c h have
p r e v i o u s l y and
S e c t i o n 33 d o e s n o t
recognized
(Calder
Indian
i n the P r o v i n c e .
be
fee
inconsistent
r e p u d i a t i o n of the
affirms only
been e x t i n g u i s h e d
t h a t the
approval
land without
will
British
Indians a b o r i g i n a l
Indian Nations.
the
is
that
Crown was
i s i n t e r p r e t e d by
t h a t the P r o v i n c e
33 o f t h e C h a r t e r
areas of
extinguished
a f f i r m e d by
existence of a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s
predictable
o f the p r o t e c t i o n
held
i n the
r i g h t s of the
e x p r o p r i a t i o n of Indian
C a n a d a , (1973
Indian
a f f i r m e n t i o n of a b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s
implied
British
nature
This decision gives j u d i c i a l
The
Indian
underlying
a s s e r t i o n i n the o r d i n e n c e s
w i t h the c o n t i n u e d
A.S.
limited
land ordinances
i n the
the
r e l a t i o n s h i p between the
C o u r t o f A p p e a l has
r i g h t s because the
the
the case of the n o n - t r e a t y
B.C.
pre-Confederation
all
The
s e c t i o n 33's
illustrated
i t i s with
the h i s t o r i c
t h e Crown.
and
i n c o n s i s t e n t with
treaty rights,
the a s s e r t i o n s by
to self-government,
the
Indian
rights
twelve
w h i c h the I n d i a n N a t i o n s
- 6 -
have n e v e r r e l i q u i s h e d .
centrepiece of Indian proposals
f o r the r e s o l u t i o n o f outstanding
o b l i g a t i o n s i s the r e c o g n i t i o n o f the r i g h t
within
Since the
to self-government
the framework o f Canadian f e d e r a l i s m t h e j u d i c i a l
indifference
rights
to t h i s c r u c i a l
renders
Indians
aspect
o f a b o r i g i n a l and t r e a t y
s e c t i o n 33 a d i s t o r t e d and d i m i n i s h e d
conception
of their
image o f t h e
rights.
The a b s e n s e o f any r e c o g n i t i o n o f r i u g h t s t o
s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e c o u r t s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a b o r i g i n a l and
t r e a t y r i g h t s makes i t i m p e r a t i v e
that elsewhere
i n the C h a r t e r
t h e r e be a s p e c i f i c r e c o g n i t i o n o f a d i s t i n c t i v e
legislative
within
jurisdiction
Confederation.
Indian
as the b a s i s f o r s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n
The C h a r t e r
envisions the d i v i s i o n of
p o w e r s as between t h e F e d e r a l
and P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t s
renewal o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n .
This precludes
Indian Nations
keeping
as a t h i r d
with their
r e c o g n i t i o n o f the
level of l e g i s l a t i v e
s t a t u s as t h e o r i g i n a l
i n any
authority in
founding
nations of
Canada.
This
legal
equals
reality
failure
the o v e r r i d i n g h i s t o r i a l
that the Indian Nations
any I n d i a n
proposal
voice
i s also reflected
i n t h e amending
and
a r e , at the l e a s t , the
o f t h e E n g l i s h and F r e n c h i n t h e p r o c e s s
Canadian Confederation
and
to accept
of founding
i n the t o t a l
formula.
the
absence of
Under t h e p r e s e n t
t h i s a b s e n s e means t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e F e d e r a l
P r o v i n c i a l Governments t o e l i m i n a t e i n the f u t u r e the l i m i t e d
e n t r e n c h m e n t o f a b o r i g i n a l and t r e a t y r i g h t s w i t h o u t
Indian
consent.
The I n d i a n N a t i o n s
do n o t c o n s e n t
o b l i g a t i o n s by t h e t e r m s o f t h e C h a r t e r
In F e b r u a r y ,
of
of Rights.
1981, t h e E x e c u t i v e
Brotherhood, representing
to a d i s c h a r g e
of the N a t i o n a l
Indian
a l l o f the P r o v i n c i a l T e r r i t o r i e s i n
twelve
- 7
-
Canada p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n r e j e c t i n g
states:
the
patriation proposal.
It
twelve
- 8 -
"(6)
The G e n e r a l
Refusal o r F a i l u r e to
I n v o l v e N a t i v e Nations i n the C r e a t i o n s of
Constitutions
or
Basic
Instruments
of
Government i n the S t a t e s o f the A m e r i c a s ,
e v e n i n i n s t a n c e s where t h e f e d e r a l p r i n c i p l e
of
government o b t a i n s , as i n t h e c u r r e n t
c r e a t i o n o f a new c o n s t i t u t i o n
i n CANADA
where I n d i a n
rights
a r e , a t p r e s e n t , not
being
considered.
As s o v e r e i g n
units of
g o v e r n a n c e , N a t i v e N a t i o n s and R e p u b l i c s o r
Pueblos
possess
the
inherent
right
of
refusing
any
incorporation
or
of
being
a u t h e n t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d as a s e l f - g o v e r n i n g
u n i t where t h e i r t e r r i t o r y h a s been i n c l u d e d
i n t h e a r e a c l a i m e d by a s t a t e a p p a r a t u s .
In
o t h e r w o r d s , a c o n s t i t u t i o n and g o v e r n m e n t
c a n n o t be i m p o s e d on I n d i a n p e o p l e
without
authentic
participation
and t h e r i g h t o f
r e f u s a l t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n v o l u n t a r i l y i s a
precondition."
Discharge
of the O b l i g a t i o n s
41.
I t i s possible to build
i n c l u d e s the I n d i a n N a t i o n s .
discharge
of a l l outstanding
t h e Canada A c t .
The R o y a l
p r i n c i p l e o f consent.
aboriginal
of
a Canadian c o n s t i t u t i o n
The p r i n c i p l e s
and p r o c e s s
which
f o r the
o b l i g a t i o n s c o u l d be c o n t a i n e d i n
Proclamation
o f 1763 e n t r e n c h e d
the
Any c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f
and t r e a t y r i g h t s must be f o r m u l a t e d
the Indian Nations.
Indian Nations
the Amending F o r m u l a m a k i n g
w i t h the consent
must t a k e
i t impossible
t h e i r place i n
f o r the Federal
or P r o v i n c i a l Governments t o a l t e r o r e l i m i n a t e t h e i r
rights
without
principles
of
consent.
Indian consent i n the process
Indian Nations
its
With t h a t entrenchment o f the b a s i c
will
be a b l e
of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
to formally discharge
p r o t e c t o r a t e r o l e and f r o m i t s o b l i g a t i o n s .
the C o n s t i t u t i o n c o u l d and s h o u l d
impediment t o such a s o l u t i o n ,
Britain
At that
from
stage
be p a t r i a t e d .
The F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t has d e l i b e r a t e l y
42.
renewal the
saying
c r e a t e d an
t h a t the Indian Nations
do
not
know what t h e y want i n c l u d e d i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f A b o r i g i n a l
and
Treaty
Rights.
had
before
i t , unacknowledged, s i n c e A p r i l
British
Columbia
This
statement i s untrue.
The government h a s
1980, t h e U n i o n o f
Indian Chiefs A b o r i g i n a l Rights Position
w h i c h was a d o p t e d by t h e F i r s t
Nations
Paper,
A s s e m b l y , i n t h e same
year:
twelve
The f o u n d a t i o n
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
- 9 -
o f our p o s i t i o n i s :
r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t we a r e t h e o r i g i n a l p e o p l e o f t h i s
land,
r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t we have t h e r i g h t t o c h o o s e and
d e t e r m i n e t h e t y p e o f a u t h o r i t y we w i s h t o e x e r c i s e
t h r o u g h o u r I n d i a n Government,
the r e c o g n i t i o n of our r i g h t s to our t r a d i t i o n a l
territories,
the expansion of our Indian resources i n c l u d i n g
f i n a n c e s b a s e d on needs as i d e n t i f i e d by o u r
people,
t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n and a u t h o r i t y o f
our I n d i a n Governments
A b o r i g i n a l R i g h t s must be r e c o g n i z e d and
w i t h i n the B r i t i s h North America A c t .
43.
gations
The I n d i a n N a t i o n s
to the I n d i a n N a t i o n s
call
upon B r i t i a n
entrenched
to discharge
by:
R e f e r r i n g to the J u d i c i a l Committee o f
A.
the P r i v y C o u n c i l the o u t s t a n d i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n s
with
Indian
participation
i n framing
the
questions
and
presenting
evidence
and
argument.
B.
R e f u s i n g t o p u t t h e r e q u e s t by C a n a d a t o
patriate
the Canadian
Constitution
before
P a r l i a m e n t u n t i l the o p i n i o n i s r e n d e r e d ;
C.
E s t a b l i s h i n g an
Imperial
Indian
Conference,
with
an
invitation
to
the
G o v e r n m e n t o f Canada t o c o n c l u d e t h e t e r m s o f
the d i s c h a r g e o f I m p e r i a l o b l i g a t i o n s .
obli-