Unit 1
Overview of the
Research Process
BSc (Hons) Dissertation Module — Unit 1
Overview of the Research
Process
1
Introduction
This unit of study focuses on the main stages of the research process. It
aims to provide you with an overview of the research process without
dwelling on too much detail or depth on any single issue other than the
literature review and its place within the whole process.
Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit you should be able to:
„
Understand and apply the stages of the research process when reading
published and unpublished material.
„
Discuss the purpose of a literature review.
„
Discuss the main features of a literature review.
Rationale
„
The reason for including this unit is simple. Firstly, for those of you
who have already done some research studies, much of what unfolds
will be very familiar. Nevertheless a short re-visiting of these stages of
the research process may serve as a reminder of the principles,
processes and procedures which engage the researcher from the
beginning of the research to its completion and dissemination. If you
have not had an opportunity to acquaint yourself with and explore
these issues in previous studies, it is intended as an introduction.
„
Secondly, the literature review itself demands a rigorous and
systematic approach. As such, Cooper (1982) has described it in terms
of the research process. In this case, the research process is applied to
the review of a collection of studies. Knowledge of the entire research
process is important because it will help you to plan and carry out
activities essential in writing, reading, structuring and communicating
the review. Generally, knowledge of the research process is important
in writing a research proposal, reading research papers and writing.
The synthesis of the literature requires adherence to rules of rigorous
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inquiry, in the same way as any primary research, and with the same
concerns for validity and reliability.
This unit is divided into two distinct sections. The first section deals with an
overview of the research process, and the second section is an introduction
to the literature review.
Practical hint
Again, you may wish to simply scan the first section and spend longer on
section two of this module.
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The research process
Research has been defined by innumerable authors from disciplines as
diverse as philosophy, the physical sciences, social sciences and health care.
Similarly, there are many representations of the research process reflecting
the dominant methodology adopted. We will begin by examining definitions
of research.
What is 'research'?
Activity 1.1
5 minutes
You will have come across many definitions of the word 'research'.
Write a definition that you are familiar with and may have used in the past
Commentary
Your definition may have included words such as 'study', inquiry',
investigation', systematic', 'methodological', 'rigorous', 'knowledge'. You may
have included in your definition what you believe the aims or objectives of
research to be. Let us look at a definition and see how they match your own.
Research defined…
‘Research is the systematic and rigorous process of enquiry which
aims to describe phenomena and to develop explanatory concepts
and theories.’
(Bowling, 1997, p1)
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Bowling goes on to add that
‘Ultimately it aims to contribute to a scientific body of knowledge.’
(Bowling, 1997, p1)
From the above definition we can pick out some key concepts which make
research what it is. For example, words like systematic, rigorous, process,
enquiry, describe, phenomena, develop, explanatory, concepts, theories,
scientific, body of knowledge are all indicative of the characteristics of what
research is.
Some authors use the terms 'research', 'inquiry', investigation' and 'study'
almost interchangeably. This is particularly so in the social sciences. Care
should be taken to try and understand the context of their usage in
published reports/articles.
Research can be further defined and understood in terms of general
principles. For example, distinctions are made between basic or pure
research, applied research and strategic research (DoH, 1994).
Basic or pure research is seen as research primarily undertaken to
acquire new knowledge, without necessarily having any particular use or
application in mind from the very outset.
Applied research on the other hand, as the term suggests, sets out to
develop new knowledge that is aimed at providing outcomes that are
directed towards practical objectives.
Strategic research is a form of applied research in a field of eventual
application although the application itself has not been identified at the
time of undertaking the research. The differentiation between these
definitions of research distinguishes between the fundamental differences
between the reasons and objectives of each type of research.
From the above definitions and explanations, it should not be surprising to
see that one can conclude with some justification that the literature review
is a form of applied research. The literature review has to adhere to the
same principles of systematic approach and rigour.
You will be familiar with a number of formal processes. These serve as
structured and organised means for dealing with issues of significance at
both theoretical and applied levels.
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Activity 1.2
5 minutes
From your learning and practice experiences, list 3 formal processes common
to the disciplines informing health and health care practices
Commentary
You have encountered many ‘processes’ in every day life, from diverse
sources and disciplines. The concept itself is very useful in seeing your way
round a form of description and explanation of a phenomenon. Your list may
have included any 3 of these:
Problem solving process
Decision making process
Nursing process
Socialisation process
Assessment process
Others
What distinguishes these processes from each other is the content of the
process. Close examination may reveal certain common threads or
principles. The structure of the process may be unpacked and categorised
into distinct steps for simplicity and to give clarity to the related activities.
However, the important inter-relationship and interdependence between
these steps should not be forgotten or overlooked, as each influences the
other. In part, it is the nature of the relationships between these steps that
makes the process systematic.
The research process tends to be seen as a series and sequence of activityoriented steps, which remain relatively stable in structure and the order in
which they are undertaken. What is often different across subject disciplines
is simply the subject of study rather than the process. This is of course a
very simplistic view, since the language and methods of research approaches
vary according to their philosophical stance, and the focus of the research.
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Activity 1.3
5 minutes
From your current understanding of the research process, list in sequential
order the stages of the research process.
Commentary
You will have hopefully noted that the steps are very much the same with
very little variation in their order and their interrelationship.
In practice, these stages take place in an activity-related context in which
the researcher may be involved in more than one activity at any given time,
therefore there tends to be some overlap between them.
Diagrammatic representations of the research process vary in their
complexity. Representations have been put forward that show the stages of
the research process to be linear (Polgar et al., 1995; Burns et al., 1997), or
circular (Rudestam et al., 1992), or still yet another variation, as a spiral
(Blaxter et al., 1996). There is a risk that a diagrammatic representation
can become either an oversimplification or overly complex. A preferred
representation will be that which holds true for the nature of research as a
never-ending process that allows for entry at any point and which is
commonly represented by a series of spirals.
The example below (Table 1.1) shows a linear representation of the research
process.
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1. Asking the research question
2. Searching the literature
3. Reviewing the literature
4. Research Design
5. Ethical issues and considerations
6. Data collection
7. Data analysis
8. Presentation of results
9. Discussion and Conclusion
10. Reporting and Dissemination
Table 1.1 Stages of the research process
Stages of the research process as presented in journal articles
or reports
Research papers and reports adopt a particular format of presentation,
which incorporate the main stages of the research process.
In reported articles in journals, the stages of the research process are
represented with some noticeable variations which reflect the instructions of
editorial boards.
Activity 1.4
15 minutes
Look up two journals in your subject specialism. Look at the presentation of
articles. You should look out for headings and sub-headings which occur
regularly and represent the main format of presentation in that journal for
research-based articles. Make notes of the similarities and differences.
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Commentary
Journals are guided by certain principles of academic presentation. From
time to time journals adopt the prevailing trends in publication and take on
board the current innovations to enhance their presentations. The examples
that follow are suggested as different representations in order to meet
different demands for the purpose of publication and dissemination.
The Journal of Advanced Nursing adopts a format that goes like this:
Title
Abstract
Background
Literature Review
Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendations
This format is comparatively easy to recollect and enables you to quickly
scan-read the section you are most interested in.
It is worth noting that the format of presentation is a matter of choice and
preference by editorial boards, who are constantly striving to enhance the
quality of the presentation. Essentially, the content covers all the key areas
of the study being reported.
In other academic journals/refereed journals, the presentation, with a fuller
version of the headings in a research paper, may look something like this:
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Title
Abstract
Introduction/Background
Literature Review
Method
Analysis
Results
Discussion
Conclusions/Recommendations
References/Bibliography
Appendices
What follows is a brief description of the main aspects of each stage of the
research process. Before you read through these pages, remember that the
research process allows for a flexible entry point and you can begin at any
point you choose.
Asking the research question
The activities related to the research process are interdependent.
In practice there is some overlap between the stages. At the time when the
researcher (or research team) is trying to work out the research question,
she/he may consult the literature in order to give some clarity to his/her
thinking. Thus, there will be some overlap between the stages of asking the
question, searching the literature and reviewing the literature.
The research question is not necessarily the first thing that the researcher
thinks of.
In fact, the researcher would have some idea of the subject of interest and
perhaps over time would have made observations, had conversations with
colleagues about particular approaches to practice, and began to identify
certain areas for possible research. It is not necessarily clear as to what
research the researcher will carry out at this stage but he/she may do
several things that may help clarify the issues and focus attention on an
area of interest.
For instance, the researcher may involve colleagues in brainstorming ideas
to clarify issues of appropriateness, relevance and significance, and get the
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views of others who are knowledgeable in the field, and search the
literature.
The formulation of the research question is developed through examination
of the general literature, and progressively articulated into a more specific
question. The specific question then gives direction to the structured and
specific search and review. (See Unit 2)
The research question is an important source of direction for all the
activities that follow and it should be clearly stated in language that is
easily understood. It is particularly important that the variables should
be identifiable within the statement of the research question.
(Unit 2 covers aspect of the topic and the asking of questions)
Searching the literature
Searching the literature should be structured and systematic. As hinted
earlier, the research question and the identified variables will guide the
search. The variables, concepts, constructs, will generate subject headings
and key words, which will facilitate the literature search. Accessing
databases will require an understanding of the variables and concepts so
as to generate appropriate and relevant keywords for the search. This is
an important stage in the early part of doing the research study. It can be
very time consuming and intensive in seeking out the published as well
as the unpublished literature sources.
The search of literature continues throughout the course of the study as
new publications may be incorporated in the review of the literature at
any point to update and enhance the current knowledge.
(Unit 3 gives a detailed explanation.)
Reviewing the literature
The review of the literature is inextricably linked to the search and
critical reading of the literature. In order to make sense of the existing
research studies, the review should provide scope for comprehensive
details and critical evaluation.
Reading of the literature and a review often gives structure to the
research problem and helps formulate a specific question. The critical
evaluation of the literature requires different skills. The literature review
provides a sound understanding of the topic. It also allows for the
contextualization of the problem and further discussion of findings.
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As will be explained later, the literature review is important in writing a
research proposal and the literature review, and the research question
and the design of the study govern depth and breadth of the review.
Research design
Research design describes the overall approach used.
The design follows on from the formulation of the specific question and is
selected based on its suitability for answering the research question.
Research designs can follow either a qualitative or a quantitative
paradigm. (This is explained in more depth under Types of research).
Ethical issues
Doing research with human subjects in health care is fraught with
dilemmas of an ethical, legal and interpersonal type. In doing research
the sensitivities of the participants, their right to participate or decline to
participate has to be respected. The researcher should make clear the
process and procedures undertaken to secure access and continued
safeguard of the participants' rights and health. This is particularly
important when dealing with those who are vulnerable.
Ethical issues in research cut across all stages. It is important to note
whether ethical approval had been granted, how the ethical issues were
addressed throughout the course of the study and how these are reported
in the published report/article.
Ethical issues are an important part of any research methodology. It is
normally considered bad practice to ignore ethical issues in the published
research report/article.
Data collection
This stage describes what data was collected, how, when and by whom.
The choice of a data collection instrument is often determined by its
availability. Standardised questionnaires may be used. For example, the
Nottingham Health Questionnaire has been used extensively. Sometimes
data collection instruments are devised and tested by the researchers.
The design and construction of the data collection instrument should be
described.
The methods of data collection used commonly in health care research are
interviews, questionnaires, observation, and technical instruments for
measurements or gathering data.
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Each has its merits and limitations, and it should be borne in mind that
no instrument is perfect. Methods are also constrained by the time
available for data collection, as well as the accessibility of the respondents
from whom data are to be gathered.
A combination of methods may be used depending upon the design.
However, some designs are exclusive in the sense that they use specific
questions and they are answerable only through the use of that method.
Data storage is a very important aspect of the research process. Data should
be secure but easy to access by the researcher so that it is available for
sorting, categorising and counting.
Data analysis
The nature of the data will determine which method of analysis is used.
Descriptive studies will use qualitative analysis, whilst the quantitative
approaches will use statistical techniques.
Where studies have used a combination of approaches, the data analysis
will use a mix of techniques.
Results
Data presentation following analysis will again adopt a variety of
techniques. Graphical representation usually displays the results without
analysis or text.
The findings of the study are usually discussed with reference to the
literature and place the current findings in the context of the literature.
In nursing and health related research, the discussion should also include
the implications for practice.
Conclusions
Conclusions drawn are stated with clear reference to the research question
and the findings of the present study.
Reporting and dissemination
Successful completion of the research study can be written up and
communicated to an audience.
The structure and form of writing of research reports are similar.
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Activity 1.5
3 minutes
Think of the ways in which research can be disseminated. List 3 common
ways you are familiar with.
Commentary
The means of dissemination vary. The written material can be disseminated
in hard copies or using electronic database systems. Generally, one would
associate dissemination with written journal articles, books, oral
presentation such as conference papers, workshops and seminars.
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Types of research
Research in health and social sciences has been influenced by the prevailing
paradigms. Paradigms can be described as philosophical world-views that
incorporate principles that influence the type of knowledge that is generated
through the use of methodology appropriate and consistent to that
paradigm. Thus, there are assumptions about the nature of the social world,
what constitutes the legitimate phenomena for investigation and the
relationship of the researcher to that phenomena, how research should be
conducted, and the criteria of what constitutes knowledge and truth.
In the health and social sciences, the two most widely discussed are the
qualitative and quantitative paradigms, although a third paradigm, critical
social theory, is emerging and is increasingly discussed in recent literature.
The quantitative approach is termed the positivist, experimental,
empiricist or traditional paradigm. It assumes that reality is objective, it
exists out there, outside and independent of the researcher, and is valuefree. It adopts a formal language, an impersonal voice, and is governed by
set definitions and accepted terminology based on principles of
quantification, and the researcher remains detached from the facts.
The research process adopts a cause-effect position and identifies and
operationalises variables in accepted terms. The methodological approach is
deductive, testing theories and hypotheses in a static design that is contextfree, and allows for replication. The findings can be generalised and lead to
prediction, explanation and understanding. Reliable and valid information
and data collection tools enhance the generalisability of the findings.
The qualitative paradigm is also described as interpretative,
constructivist, naturalistic or post-modernistic. It assumes reality to be
socially and culturally constructed with multiple interpretations and
therefore, multiple realities as acceptable. It assumes that reality is thus
subjective. The researcher, instead of being detached, interacts with that
being researched, and is therefore open about values and biases. The
language is informal, personalised and based on the understanding and
meanings of categories that emerge. The inductive process underpins the
methodology, and truth is thus based on inductive logic or the practical
usefulness of the findings. The categories emerge from the data collected
from the informants, they are context-bound and lead to themes or theories
that provide better understanding and explanation of the phenomenon. The
accuracy of data and methods of data collection are made more rigorous by
means of 'triangulation', a technique of verifying information by collecting
data from a number of sources by means of a number of methods.
The critical social theory approach, like the qualitative approach, assumes
that reality is socially constructed, and influenced by societal structures
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(Harper et al., 1997). It also suggests that human beings are capable of selfcritique. Truth is viewed as subjective and human experiences and
perceptions are deemed significant in terms of their contribution to
knowledge. Supporters of this approach argue that research inquiries are
mediated through the values and value systems that prevail within the
contextual frame of what is being studied. Thus, an aim of critical theory is
to facilitate emancipation. The overall emphasis is on freeing participants
from the effects of ideology, in the sense that the analysis of ideology will
expose the dynamics within the power structures of a community, and
enable meanings and truth to be interpreted within a more informed
historical context. Emancipation brings with it liberation. Thus, the
methodology of critical social theory is generally dialogic, critical of ideology,
reveals hidden power imbalances and facilitates social transformation.
Critical theory is seen as potentially empowering to the participants.
Critical theory has a place in social and cultural studies, particularly in
health education programmes.
Research designs
Research design refers to the 'methodology' of the study. The terms
'research design' and 'methodology' are often used interchangeably. The
research design generally refers to the overall structure or plan of the study.
Thus, for, instance, the research design of a study may be descriptive or
experimental, depending on the approach selected by the researcher. The
research design should make explicit the approach selected, the research
methods or techniques of data collection and analysis. The most common
approaches in health and social sciences are listed in Table 1.2.
Survey
Experiments and quasi-experiments
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Case study
Action research
Table 1.2 Research Approaches
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Section summary
The research process is made up of stages that are inter-linked. Each stage
has a set of actions that has to be carried out in order to achieve systematic
rigour. The relationship between the stages and the interdependence of the
activities within each stage and across stages are important to bear in mind
when thinking about research studies or projects. The logical development
of ideas into research studies or investigations adopts strategies which bring
together the activities of each stage into a coherent whole. Also, the research
activity has many facets and there is always an interaction between them.
The stages of the research process can serve as a template for thinking
about research, doing research and disseminating as well as critically
reading and evaluating research.
The literature review is a very important part of any research study.
The literature review forms the basis on which the research study can be
justified as a way of adding to the knowledge base. The literature review is
thus a very important part of any research study. The place of the literature
review is in part determined by the research design adopted following the
research questions.
We will consider the literature review next.
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The literature review
It has already been suggested that the literature review is a crucial part of
the research process. The literature review informs the main sections of the
research project and thus, may serve several functions. You may already be
familiar with not only the reasons for carrying out a literature review but
also the purpose it serves. Having read as widely as you have done, this is
not surprising.
If you are not so familiar with the purpose of the literature review, this
section will introduce you to some formal definitions of a literature review
and the functions it fulfils.
You may be familiar with some of the features of a literature review. For
instance, when you were working through assignments for previous
modules, you would have made references to the literature to support and
validate your arguments. In the process of accessing, reading and critically
applying the knowledge to your topic of interest you will have exercised
skills very appropriate for doing a literature review.
Activity 1.6
20 minutes
Reflect on the process you adopted when seeking and assessing the literature
for your essays.
Consider the range and types of the literature you consulted.
Consider how you selected and applied the literature in your assignment.
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Commentary
Although you will have acquired many valuable skills, you might have found
that:
„
Opportunity and time may have been limited.
„
The process itself may not have been as systematic as you would have
liked.
Activity 1.7
5 minutes
Write down what you think is meant by 'the literature review'.
Commentary
Compare your description or definition with the ideas expressed in the
definitions listed below.
A literature review has been defined variously. Also note the sources of the
definitions and the emphasis placed on the terms used.
A few definitions are listed.
‘a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying,
evaluating, and interpreting the existing body of recorded work
produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners.’
(Fink, 1998, p3)
Polgar and Thomas (1996) state that
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‘The literature review is a summary and critical evaluation of
previous research and theory relevant to the problem which we are
intending to investigate. In this way the literature review both
provides a conceptual background for our proposal and justifies
the need for further empirical evidence by identifying 'gaps' in our
knowledge.’
(p25)
Adopting a sociological perspective, Hart (1998) defines the literature
review thus:
‘The selection of available documents (both published and
unpublished) on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data
and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfil certain
aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it
is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these
documents in relation to the research being proposed.’
(p13)
The last two definitions are taken from different perspectives: Polgar &
Thomas (health sciences); Hart (social sciences, sociology).
However defined, the literature review incorporates many concepts. For
example, it requires a systematic approach, a detailed evaluation of the
sources of information, a clear and precise interpretation and the discussion
of the information, and its methods should be explicit and replicable and it
should be possible to disseminate its processes and content. The skills
associated with the activities that facilitate the review include searching the
literature, evaluation, writing and presenting.
Aims and purpose of the literature review
The general aim, regardless of the research design and approach, is to find
out what is known and what is not known at a given moment in time about
a subject. Most of the exploration of the subject of interest is to develop
deeper understanding and to provide evidence to improve practice. The end
outcome of the literature review is the written report, which will summarise
what is known and what is not known about a selected phenomenon for
study.
The literature review serves many functions. As a researcher one could be
using the literature review at different stages of the research process. For
instance, at the pre-proposal stage, proposal stage, post proposal stage,
during the study itself and after data collection.
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Purposes of the literature review
A distinction is made between the need for and purpose of the literature
review in quantitative and qualitative studies. This distinction serves the
purpose of adhering to the methodological philosophy, assumptions and
rigour of the selected design of the study. The researcher should therefore be
aware of why the literature review is used and also how it is used in the
context of the present study.
In general terms, one can look at the literature review in quantitative
studies as influencing decisions at the Pre-Proposal, Proposal and Post
Proposal stages of the study. In the theory-driven approach of the
quantitative study, it is essential that the researcher has a sound grasp of
what is known and what is not known about the topic.
According to Parahoo (1997) the literature review should perform the
following 4 functions;
1. provide a rationale for the current study
2. place the study into the wider context of what is known and what is
unknown about the topic
3. review the relevant research carried out on the same or similar topics
4. discuss the conceptual/theoretical basis for the current study.
In providing a rationale for the study, the researcher is obliged to examine
the literature and provide justification for the need to do the study. Thus
any information that may suggest that there is a gap between our
knowledge and the actual understanding of the topic in terms of the
currency of the explanations we can provide warrants further investigation.
Therefore when looking at published research reports and other
documentation, the reader should look out for information which is based on
statistical facts, policy formulation, practice or need for replication.
Putting the current study in the context of the state of knowledge requires
that the concepts, variables, and related issues be clarified. Therefore, a
review of relevant research means that the researcher has to compare,
analyse, and summarise the focus, methodologies, findings, conclusions and
recommendations of other studies so as to draw conclusions about what is
already known. This will help the researcher to establish the value of the
methods, and put forward explanations that influenced the design of the
study. This is important because the conceptual basis of the research guides
the design of the study and selection of relevant methods of data collection
and data analysis.
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In summary, the functions of the literature review can be conceptualised
from the research proposal framework.
PRE-PROPOSAL
PROPOSAL
POST-PROPOSAL
Identifying research topic
Clarifying research topic
Compare methodologies
Identifying research
problem
Clarifying the research problem
Compare and contrast
findings
Making sense of the
importance of the research
problem
Checking and confirming the
significance of the research
problem
Analyse and Compare
reliability and validity of
measures
Getting to know what is
known
Specifying and stating the precise
purpose of the study
Put forward explanations
for findings
Identifying concepts and
variables
Describing relevant studies and
theories
Discussion of conclusions
Identifying studies with
different approaches
Summarise current knowledge
Discussion of concepts
Understanding the
methods, findings and
conclusions.
Assist in the development of the
theoretical/conceptual framework
Discussion of
implications
Comparing and
summarising
Specify research questions,
objectives, or hypotheses
Define or redefine variables
Identifying gaps in
knowledge
Identify assumptions, limitations
and constraints
Select research design
Identify appropriate methods of
measurement
Direct data collection and analysis
Interpret findings
(Adapted from Burns & Grove, 1997)
In qualitative studies, the researcher does not want to be influenced by
what the literature has to offer. The purpose of qualitative research is very
different from that of quantitative research. The qualitative study is
exploratory and not much may have been written about the topic or people
being studied.
The methodological assumptions of qualitative studies differ from those of
quantitative studies in that they are not meant to direct the whole study,
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therefore the literature review is not always carried out at the beginning.
However, researchers adopting a qualitative approach do read the literature
but this may not be as extensive or as structured as in quantitative studies.
In qualitative designs, the specific methodological issues need to be
addressed with consistency. Hence, each of the most commonly used
approaches, namely, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory,
historical and philosophical, and critical social theory, have their own set of
relevant and appropriate criteria concerning why and when the literature
review has to be completed. These are set out in the table below.
It may be useful to understand some of these distinctions.
Ethnographic research adopts a similar approach to literature review as in
quantitative research in that it is conducted at the beginning to provide a
background to inform each aspect of the study.
Pre-Proposal
Proposal
Post-Proposal
Historical
Raise
questions
Develop
questions
Literature is a source of data for analysis
and interpretation
Phenomenological research
Less used
Less used
Compare and combine findings to
determine current knowledge of
phenomenon of current study
Grounded
theory research
Less used
Less used
Literature is used to explain, support,
and extend the theory generated in the
current study
Philosophical
inquiry
Raise
questions
Redefine
questions
Literature provides sources for analysis
and answers to questions
Case study
Less used
Define the
context
Literature provides sources for
comparison
Grounded
Theory
Not used
Not used
Used in the end of the study for
comparing and contrasting findings
Critical Theory
Used
Used to
identify
phenomena
Used to compare and contrast findings
Ethnography
Used
Used
Used to compare and contrast findings
(Adapted from Burns & Grove, 1997; Creswell, 1994)
Although these boundaries have been set around why and when the
literature review is done, in practice it may well be that there is some
overlap between the stages of the research process. However, readers of
research need to be vigilant about biases that may be introduced in
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qualitative studies through a lack of rigour in the use of the literature
corresponding to the philosophical assumptions and methodology.
Scope of the literature review
In this section, we consider the scope of the literature.
According to Burns and Grove (1997), the scope of the literature review
needs to consider sources that are sufficient in breadth to allow the
researcher to have a sound knowledge of the research problem and at the
same time narrow enough to include relevant material. This may not be an
easy task.
However, breaking it down to manageable areas makes it possible to give
thought to these and evaluate them.
Types and sources of information
In health care research, the literature is, in the main, of the written,
published variety. It can be located in journals, books, theses, conference
papers, policy documents and personal communications. There are other
sources such as video or audio-tapes.
There is now a growing awareness of the different types of literature
and the credibility and value of the different types in informing the
practitioner is recognised. The value of any information is often based
on the quality of the information and the verification of the
information. In addition, the applicability of the information is a key
feature in determining what is included and what is not.
Burns & Grove (1997) suggest that the type of literature often cited
in reviews is both theoretical and empirical. The theoretical includes
concept analyses, models, theories, and conceptual frameworks.
Empirical literature includes relevant studies in journals, and
unpublished studies such as theses and dissertations.
The published literature can be further classified as primary or
secondary sources. This theme will be taken up in more detail in Unit
3
The depth of the literature review refers to the number and quality of the
sources that are examined. The number of different topics examined
determines the breadth of the literature review. This is further influenced
by the researcher's background, the complexity of the research project and
availability of the sources.
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In conclusion, Whether the written literature review is for a research project
proposal, academic thesis or a research publication in the form of an article,
it addresses two objectives. It generally;
1. describes the problems
2. gives a historical review of the problem.
The final feature of the literature review to consider is the time frame.
The time required to review the literature is influenced by the problem
being studied, sources available and the objectives of the review. There is no
set time as such, it all depends on the goals of the review and its purpose.
Activity 1.8
15 minutes
Consider the time frame for your literature review!
Commentary
When thinking of doing a literature review, you should work out a schedule
of activities to guide your use of time.
It is often a good idea to work back from the date of submission and plan
activities
You may find that you have to consider your personal circumstances and
commitments, and how these may influence your plan.
Your plan of may follow a step by step process.
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The literature review process : a framework
It may be useful at this stage to introduce the idea of a framework for an
interrogative literature review. It can serve two objectives. Firstly, it will
help to focus your attention on the systematic sequence of events that takes
place during the task of doing a literature review at an early stage in this
module. Secondly, it will further familiarise you with the language of
research.
One of the earliest framework to be advanced is that developed by Cooper
(1982).
Cooper (1982) has put forward a framework for the review of the literature
as a research process and identified 5 stages, namely:
1. problem formulation
2. data collection
3. evaluation of data points
4. data analysis and interpretation
5. dissemination of results.
Cooper (1982) has suggested that the literature review can adapt to the
research process approach. Taking Cooper's ideas forward, Smith et al.
(1991) have adapted Cooper' framework and devised a flow-chart to
illustrate the activities that are appropriate for each of the stages. The table
below sets out the stages and the activities. You may or may not work
through a similar process, with varying adherence to the framework, and a
flexible approach .
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Stages
Problem formulation
Associated Questions and Actions
Does the topic lends itself to being researched?
Is the review needed?
What methods of research synthesis are appropriate?
What expertise is required?
Is it feasible to do the review in the time and other resources
available?
Data collection
What are the likely relevant sources for the selected topic?
Which databases and archival sources to select?
What inclusion and exclusion criteria should be specified?
Is a manual search required?
Evaluation of data
How to assess the quality of the studies retrieved?
How to code the data?
Data analysis and
interpretation
Do the studies meet criteria for specific designs? i.e. qualitative,
quantitative
Is there sufficient information to analyse variability in outcomes?
Are results meaningful based on study questions? And
conventions of literature review?
Dissemination of results
What and how to report the results of the review? Published
papers, dissertation.
Table 1.3 An adaptation of the flow chart by Smith et al. (1991).
The framework is reflected throughout the module, in that you can identify
the stages with the focus of the units of learning in this module. For
instance, the stage of problem formulation is dealt with in Unit 2, data
collection in Unit 3, evaluation of data in Unit 5, data analysis and
interpretation in Unit 6 and dissemination in Unit 7.
Before a brief description of what systematic review represent, it will be
useful to have an overview of what doing a literature review involves. At
this it may have the effect of providing some reassurance as to what is
required.
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Activity 1.9
45 minutes
Read the article by Mason ‘Doing a research literature review’. in the
Resource section. Make notes of the key issues.
Commentary
Mason has provided a comprehensive introduction to doing a literature
review. Your reading should have giving further clarity to the concepts that
were presented earlier in this unit. Some of the ideas and processes are
merely presented in greater depth and breadth in the units of study in this
module.
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Systematic review
Since the early 1990s systematic reviews have become part of the everyday
language of researchers, practitioners and service providers. The drive
towards evidence-based practice has necessitated the search and review of
the research studies, both published and unpublished, in order to inform
practice. The NHS Research and Development programmes and the drive
towards evidence-based medicine, nursing, and health care has meant that
we as professional practitioners have to understand the methods of
systematic reviews and also be in a position to critically evaluate reviews.
Systematic reviews are not the same as the traditional review of the
literature. Systematic literature reviews are grounded on some practical
premises in view of the fact that so much information is published. (Mulrow,
1994)
Should you wish to know more about systematic reviews, I would suggest
you read Droogan and Cullum’s article listed in the bibliography.
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Section summary
This section of the Unit considered what is meant by a literature review.
Definitions were introduced. The aims and scope of the literature review
were described. When doing primary research, the purpose and value of the
literature review was illustrated with reference to the design of studies.
This was followed by an outline of a framework for doing literature reviews.
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References
Blaxter, L., Hughes, C. and Tight, M. (1996) How to research. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Bowling, A. (1997) Research Methods in Health. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Burns, N. and Grove S. K. (1997) The Practice of Nursing Research.
Conduct, Critique, and Utilization. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders
Company.
Cooper, H. (1982) Scientific guidelines for conducting integrative research
reviews. Review of Educational Research, 52 291–302.
Creswell, J. W. (1994) Research Design: qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Department of Health (1994) A Wider Strategy for Research and
Development relating to the Personal Social Services. (The Smith Report).
London: H.M.S.O.
Droogan, J. and Cullum, N. (1998) Systematic reviews in nursing.
International Journal of Nursing Studies 35 13–22.
Fink, A. (1998) Conducting Research Literature Reviews. Thousand Oaks:
Sage Publications.
Harper, M. and Hartman, N. (1997) Research paradigms. In: Smith, P. ed.
Research Mindedness for Practice. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
Hart, C. (1998) Doing a literature review. London: Sage Publications.
Mason, C. (1993) Doing a research literature review. Nurse Researcher 1(1)
43–55.
Mulrow, C. D. (1994) Systematic Reviews: Rationale for Systematic
Reviews. The British Medical Journal 309(6954) 597–599.
Parahoo, K. (1997) Nursing Research: Principles. Process and Issues.
London: Macmillan.
Polgar, S. and Thomas, S. A. (1995) Introduction to Research in the Health
Sciences. 3rd ed. Melbourne: Churchill Livingstone.
Rudestam, K. E. and Newton, R. R. (1992) Surviving your dissertation.
London: Sage Publications.
Smith, J. T., Smith, M. C. and Stullenbarger, E. (1991) Decision points in
the integrative research review process: A flow-chart approach. Medical
Reference Quarterly 10(2) 47–72.
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