T h e Narrated Self and Characterization:
Paul Auster s Literary Personae
A N N E M A R I T K. B E R G E
Introduction
P a u l A u s t e r ' s The New York Trilogy, p u b l i s h e d in the p e r i o d 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 7 ,
has
been
read
as a typical
example
of postmodern
literature.
One
i m p o r t a n t feature is the t h e m e o f c o m p l e x identity, a n d t h e novels c a n b e
r e a d as a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f identity p r o b l e m s in the p o s t m o d e r n a g e , where
t h e idea o f the a u t o n o m o u s subject has given w a y to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
s u b j e c t a n d identity characterized b y instability a n d c o m p l e x i t y .
The
trilogy's s h o r t novels all d e p i c t characters that in different w a y s a n d o n
varying levels struggle t o find m e a n i n g in w h a t they d o , a n d w h o are
f o r c e d t o e x p l o r e their identities d u r i n g their q u e s t s , in c o n f r o n t a t i o n with
t h e a n t a g o n i s t s o f t h e stories. D a n i e l Q u i n n , w h o h a s lost his family, tries
t o return t o life t h r o u g h a h u n t for a m y s t e r i o u s linguist. B l u e e n c o u n t e r s
his o w n self w h e n s h a d o w i n g the secretive B l a c k . T h e n a m e l e s s narrator o f
t h e last novel finds h i m s e l f e n t r a p p e d in the life o f his c h i l d h o o d friend
The Book of
Illusions f r o m 2 0 0 2 , A u s t e r returns to this t h e m e . T h e m a i n character here
finds h i m s e l f i n a state o f half-life m u c h like D a n i e l Q u i n n , b u t h e is able
to find n e w m e a n i n g t o his life a n d s o l u t i o n s t o his p r o b l e m s in his
e n c o u n t e r w i t h the story o f a n o t h e r m a n ' s crisis.
a n d d o p p e l g a n g e r F a n s h a w e . I n his m o r e recent novel,
A n interesting a s p e c t in the s t u d y o f characters in A u s t e r ' s w o r k s is
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f n a r r a t i o n for creating identity as well as for d e p i c t i o n o f
literary character. I n studies o f the m o d e r n self, t h e n a r r a t e d self has
b e c o m e a central theory. I will s u g g e s t that t h e characters' self-perception
relies o n their c o n c e p t o f their narratives. C h a r a c t e r s in a literary text exist
t h r o u g h n a r r a t i o n , b u t in p o s t m o d e r n literature, m i m e s i s is t o n e d d o w n ,
a n d their narratives a r e often f r a g m e n t e d , c o n t r a d i c t o r y a n d c h a l l e n g e the
readers' ability t o perceive the characters as p e r s o n a e . I will try t o p o i n t at
101
T h e Narrated Self and Characterization
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f narratives for the characterization
in these
novels,
a p p l y i n g narrative theory t o analyze t h e function o f narration.
Identity and narration
Alasdair M a c l n t y r e introduces a theory o f the narrated self in his w o r k o f
m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y , After
Virtue
f r o m 1 9 8 1 . In his d i s c u s s i o n o f m o r a l
p h i l o s o p h y ' s s t a n d i n g today, h e explains the " c o n c e p t o f selfhood,
a
c o n c e p t o f a self w h o s e u n i t y resides in the u n i t y o f a narrative w h i c h links
birth t o life to d e a t h as a narrative b e g i n n i n g to m i d d l e to e n d " ( 2 0 5 ) . H e
tries to " s h o w h o w natural it is t o t h i n k o f the self in a narrative m o d e "
( 2 0 6 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , M a c l n t y r e links the effect o f t h e failure o f these
narratives to m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s a n d the obliteration o f self: " W h e n s o m e o n e
c o m p l a i n s [...] that his or her life is m e a n i n g l e s s , h e or she is often a n d
characteristically c o m p l a i n i n g that the narrative o f their life has b e c o m e
unintelligible t o t h e m , that it lacks a n y p o i n t , a n y m o v e m e n t towards a
c l i m a x o r a telos" ( 2 1 7 ) . T h e necessity o f others t o correct a n d a d j u s t the
narrative o f o n e ' s o w n life is also e m p h a s i z e d :
The other aspect of narrative selfhood is correlative: I am not only
accountable, I am one who can always ask others for an account, who
can put others to the question. I am part of their story, as they are part
of mine. T h e narrative of any one life is part of an interlocking set of
narratives. Moreover this asking for and giving of accounts itself plays
an important part in constituting narratives. (218)
S o c i o l o g i s t A n t h o n y G i d d e n s claims that a p e r s o n ' s identity c a n b e f o u n d
" i n the c a p a c i t y to keep a particular
narrative
going" ( 1 9 9 1 , 5 4 ) . B u t these
narratives are b y n o m e a n s u n a m b i g u o u s ; the potential facts t o select f r o m
for s u c h a story are exceedingly n u m e r o u s , leaving the q u e s t i o n o f identity
rather a m b i g u o u s ( 5 5 ) . T h i s m u l t i p l i c i t y o f p o s s i b l e stories s u g g e s t s the
difficulty e n c o u n t e r e d w h e n w r i t i n g a b i o g r a p h y , or a n a u t o b i o g r a p h y .
G i d d e n s also states, " t h e b i o g r a p h y the individual reflexively h o l d s in
m i n d is o n l y o n e 'story' a m o n g m a n y other potential stories that c o u l d b e
t o l d a b o u t her d e v e l o p m e n t as a self' ( 5 5 ) . A b i o g r a p h y c h a n g e s a c c o r d i n g
t o the choices o f t h e p e r s o n w h o writes it.
A narrated structure is often perceived as m o r e real t h a n f r a g m e n t s ,
s i n c e it conveys c o n n e c t i o n s that create m e a n i n g . D o n a l d E . P o l k i n g h o r n e
bases s o m e o f his theories o n M a c l n t y r e ' s a r g u m e n t , a n d sees narrative as
102
Anne Marit K. Berge
essential t o t h e experience o f b e i n g h u m a n , a r g u i n g in his w o r k o n
p s y c h o l o g y a n d "narrative k n o w i n g " that
[H]uman beings exist in three realms — the material realm, the
organic realm, and the realm of meaning. T h e realm of meaning is
structured according to linguistic forms, and one o f the most
important forms for creating meaning in human existence is the
narrative. T h e narrative attends to the temporal dimension of
human existence and configures events into a unity. T h e events
become meaningful in relarion to the theme or point of the
narrative. Narratives organize events into wholes that have
beginnings, middles and ends. (Polkinghorne 1988, 183)
I f o n e applies this t o the narrated self, it is possible to suggest that the selfidentities that are b a s e d o n a strong narrative m u s t b e seen as m o r e real than
t h o s e with less d e v e l o p e d biographies, a n d s u c h a conflict plays a m a j o r role
for t h e progression o f the characters o f Auster's novels in their struggle with
conflicting identities. T h i s is particularly a p p a r e n t in t h e trilogy.
T h e s t r u c t u r e d , logical, c o h e r e n t story n e e d e d for t h e narratives o f
identity, c a n b e v i e w e d in light o f literary theory. T h e plots o f stories are
t h e basis o f t h e history o f p o e t i c s f r o m Aristotle o n w a r d s . A n e l e m e n t o f
p l o t is always r e q u i r e d t o structure a story: b e g i n n i n g , s e q u e n c e a n d e n d , a
s e n s e o f t i m e a n d causality. Peter B r o o k s states t h a t for a n y t h i n g t o b e
narratable, it m u s t " i n s o m e s e n s e b e p l o t t e d , d i s p l a y a design a n d l o g i c "
( 1 9 8 4 , 5 ) . " P l o t is [...] a c o n s t a n t o f all written a n d oral narrative
[...]
P l o t is t h e p r i n c i p l e o f i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s a n d i n t e n t i o n " ( 5 ) . T h e fact
t h a t w e structure o u r c o n c e p t i o n s o f identity a n d p e r s o n a l i t y in t h e f o r m
o f a n a r r a t e d story m a k e s t h e relation between n a r r a t i o n a n d fiction m o r e
a m b i g u o u s . T h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a character b a s e d o n its narration in a text
m i g h t t h u s b e closer to h o w w e perceive ourselves a n d o t h e r real p e o p l e
t h a n w h a t is c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d in narratology.
A c c o r d i n g t o theories o f p s y c h o l o g y a n d s o c i o l o g y , a feeling
of
m e a n i n g c a n b e s t r e n g t h e n e d t h r o u g h h a v i n g a secure identity, a s e n s e o f
basic trust, a c h i e v e d especially t h r o u g h m e a n i n g f u l relations with others,
a n d b y s u s t a i n i n g a c o h e r e n t b i o g r a p h i c a l narrative. O n e c a n say t h a t in
o r d e r t o b u i l d a n identity, o n e needs t o b e able t o tell o n e ' s story. T h i s
requires ability t o see c o n n e c t i o n s , relations b e t w e e n different e l e m e n t s , t o
s t r u c t u r e details a n d u n d e r s t a n d causality. S u c h a n ability o r t e n d e n c y is
closely related t o o u r general n e e d to d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s , even if b a s e d o n
i n a d e q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n , to s m o o t h o u t inconsistencies a n d to m a k e all
details create a rational w h o l e . T h i s p r o c e s s is closely related t o storytelling
103
T h e Narrated Self and Characterization
a n d reading, w h i c h are activities where these skills a p p l y to a very high
degree. B r o o k s explains h o w w e perceive p l o t as a m i n i m u m o f causality
and
temporality.
Only
suggested
connections
will
still
function
c o n n e c t i o n s for the readers, since readers ordinarily fill in the
as
bone
structure o f i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d ( 1 9 8 4 , 1 1 3 , 1 7 7 , 3 1 5 ) .
T h r o u g h o u t The New
York Trilogy, p l a y with identities is a central
aspect in order to u n d e r s t a n d the q u e s t for m e a n i n g , w h i c h is usually seen
as the m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h e m e in the novels. E a c h m a i n character tries to
re-define himself, related to the encounters with others w h o challenge t h e
character's previous view o f himself. T h e p a l i m p s e s t identity a n d
the
a s s u m e d roles a n d m a s k s that replace a u t o n o m o u s
the
identity, a n d
i m p o r t a n c e o f narration for a c o n c e p t o f self, are here e x p l o r e d t h r o u g h
literary texts. T h e i n c o m p l e t e narratives o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s are l i n k e d to
other, parallel identities, in s u c h a w a y that t h e structures o f these fill in
t h e m i s s i n g parts in t h o s e o f the m a i n characters. T h e three novels are
literally p a c k e d with cross-references to parallel identities, w i t h i n each
novel as well as b e t w e e n the w o r k s (see S p r i n g e r 2 0 0 1 a ) .
The
confusion
of
identity
experienced
by
Daniel
Quinn,
the
p r o t a g o n i s t o f City of Glass, is c a u s e d b y his g r i e f after l o s i n g his wife a n d
s o n . T r a n s i t i o n a l m o m e n t s like a p e r s o n a l crisis can often lead to a c h a n g e
in o n e ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f self-identity ( G i d d e n s 1 9 9 1 , 1 4 3 ) . C r i s e s as an
important
factor
in A u s t e r ' s w o r k s have been
S p r i n g e r ( 2 0 0 1 b ) . In The Book of Illusions,
treated extensively
by
Z i m m e r notes a q u o t e f r o m
C h a t e a u b r i a n d ' s b o o k that H e c t o r M a n n has u n d e r l i n e d , w h i c h s e e m s to
p o i n t directly at the key to u n d e r s t a n d i n g b o t h characters in t e r m s o f
crises: " T h e b o o k fell o p e n s o m e w h e r e in the m i d d l e , a n d I s a w that o n e
o f the sentences h a d been u n d e r l i n e d faintly in pencil. Les moments de crise
produisent
un redoublement
de vie chez les hommes. M o m e n t s o f crisis
p r o d u c e a r e d o u b l e d vitality in m e n " ( 2 3 8 ) . T r a n s i t i o n a l m o m e n t s a c q u i r e
t h e f o r m o f peripeteia, climax, e n d , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y possibility o f n e w
b e g i n n i n g in the b i o g r a p h i c a l narratives o f the characters, t h u s a t t a i n i n g a
narratological function b e y o n d psychological effect.
As M a c l n t y r e has explained, the u n i t y o f self is d e t e r m i n e d b y the
u n i t y o f its narrative, a n d for Q u i n n , the fragments o f his characters'
stories take this p l a c e , since they are the o n l y f o r m o f narrative he is
e x p o s e d to in his isolation. T h i s leads to a c o m p l e x i t y o f characterization
in
the novel.
Since
storytelling
is s u c h
a powerful
element
in
the
s u s t e n a n c e o f identity, Q u i n n is d r a w n to his fictional characters rather
t h a n to e x p e r i e n c i n g his real self. H e fluctuates b e t w e e n three separate
104
Anne Marit K. Berge
identities as the story b e g i n s , the m o r e fictitious o f t h e m e x p e r i e n c e d as
t h e m o r e real to h i m , a n d as the p l o t b e g i n s to d e v e l o p , h e involves
h i m s e l f in even m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d role p l a y a n d m a s q u e r a d e in o r d e r to
solve the m y s t e r y o f his " c a s e " . Q u i n n
writes his n o t very a m b i t i o u s
detective novels u n d e r the n a m e W i l l i a m W i l s o n , a p s e u d o n y m n a m e d
after the narrator o f an E d g a r Allan P o e short story a b o u t d o p p e l g a n g e r s .
W i l s o n is also the n a m e o f a centre-field player o n t h e M e t s baseball t e a m .
H e h a s n o life story, for Q u i n n
never i n v e n t e d o n e for h i m .
Quinn's
detective narrator, " p r i v a t e e y e " M a x W o r k , is o n the other h a n d
a
character h e strongly identifies with. H e is his " p r i v a t e I " as well as t h e
m a i n literary character o f his w o r k s . W o r k w a s the o n e " w h o
gave
p u r p o s e " ( 6 ) . " I f h e lived n o w in the w o r l d at all, it w a s o n l y t h r o u g h
[...]
M a x W o r k " ( 9 ) . H e is an identity b o r n f r o m t h e telling o f stories. N o b o d y
is there to tell or listen to Q u i n n ' s story a n y m o r e , while W o r k ' s s t o r y h a s
an a u d i e n c e , s h o w n in t h e scene w i t h t h e r e a d i n g girl o n the b e n c h . T h u s
t h e W o r k identity feels stronger a n d m o r e real to Q u i n n t h a n his o w n self,
" i t reassured h i m to p r e t e n d to b e W o r k as h e was w r i t i n g his b o o k s , to
k n o w that h e h a d it in h i m to b e W o r k if he ever c h o s e to b e , even if o n l y
in his m i n d " (9). It is t h r o u g h this identification that Q u i n n is a b l e to
react to the m y s t e r i o u s
t e l e p h o n e r e q u e s t for
"Paul Auster,"
private
detective. H e starts to p u r s u e the S t i l l m a n case a n d initiates a c h a n g e in
his life. L o s i n g his o w n identity is t h e u l t i m a t e c o n s e q u e n c e o f this roleplay, however, as h e loses m o r e a n d m o r e o f Q u i n n while he b e c o m e s t h e
detective, a n d also since h e gets lost c o n c e r n i n g t h e case. P o s i n g as " P a u l
A u s t e r " h e has n o k n o w l e d g e o f a n y story, " m e m o r i e s or fears, [...] d r e a m s
or j o y s " ( 6 1 ) , a n d feeling secure in this identity is difficult, b e c a u s e there is
n o m e a n i n g b e n e a t h it, n o b i o g r a p h i c a l narrative to reflect. W h e n
he
discovers that A u s t e r is an a u t h o r like himself, the picture is t o r n , a n d
Quinn
m o v e s a n o t h e r step t o w a r d s selflessness. T h e last o f
Quinn's
m u l t i p l e roles, the b u m he is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h r o u g h his ascetic p r o j e c t ,
h a s a s t r o n g r e s e m b l a n c e to o l d S t i l l m a n o n his strolls a r o u n d t h e N e w
Y o r k streets collecting j u n k . H e a d o p t s S t i l l m a n ' s b i o g r a p h i c a l story, a n d
replaces it for his o w n self, w h e n the i n n e r identification as the g o o d
detective falls apart. W h e n the S t i l l m a n case that h a d b e e n his m o t i v a t i o n
a n d g o a l for s o l o n g has lost all its i m p o r t a n c e , Q u i n n is d e p i c t e d as a
totally d i s s o l v e d self, o n l y living to express w o r d s , c o n t i n u i n g S t i l l m a n ' s
p r o j e c t o f recreating l a n g u a g e ; his self is c o m p l e t e l y engulfed at this p o i n t .
C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n in this novel c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d in J a m e s P h e l a n ' s
t e r m s o f foregrounding
the synthetic. A c c o r d i n g to P h e l a n , the three b a s i c
105
T h e Narrated Self and Characrerization
c o n s t i t u e n t s o f m i m e t i c , synthetic a n d t h e m a t i c d i m e n s i o n s (qualities o f a
character seen in isolation f r o m the w o r k ) create a literary character. T h e
synthetic is w h a t he calls the "artificial" c o m p o n e n t , w h a t m a k e s the
reader aware o f the linguistic construct ( 1 9 8 9 , 2 - 3 ) . T h e d e p i c t i o n
of
Q u i n n starts o u t as m i m e s i s ; he is d e s c r i b e d as a realistic p e r s o n with
certain characteristics or qualities. Phelan explains the mimetic
dimension
as the " r e a l i s m " o f a character, "this p e r s o n , " the e l e m e n t s that m a k e the
readers believe in the characters as p e o p l e . T h e m i m e t i c d i m e n s i o n is n o t
always
developed,
especially
in
D i m e n s i o n s can b e c o m e junctions
modern
and
postmodern
literature.
i f they are significant for the text's p l o t
or p r o g r e s s i o n ( 9 ) . Q u i n n ' s attributes o f interpretative skills, loneliness
a n d seclusion are part o f w h a t m a k e s readers c o n s i d e r h i m a p o s s i b l e a n d
realistic p e r s o n , a n d in the c o u r s e o f the novel's p r o g r e s s i o n , the reader
believes in his downfall b e c a u s e it is highly related to his qualities a n d
situation. T h e progression
o f the novel
becomes possible because
of
Q u i n n ' s character attributes o f insecure identity; they b e c o m e m i m e t i c
f u n c t i o n as well. T h i s m i m e t i c function is necessary to m a k e the reader
believe the b e g i n n i n g o f the plot.
Moreover,
of
thematic
functions (the significance o f a character as a representative entity o f
t h e m e s in a text) o f the character Q u i n n . T h e y are necessary for the
novel's p r o g r e s s i o n ; Q u i n n ' s decision to follow S t i l l m a n is d e p e n d e n t o n
his h a v i n g s u c h qualities. T h e a b s u r d i t y o f the " P a u l A u s t e r " identity,
w h i c h is s o similar to the real a u t h o r ' s biographical facts, is another
e x a m p l e o f f o r e g r o u n d i n g the synthetic d i m e n s i o n o f the characters. T h e
f u n c t i o n s o f a character relate to the p r o g r e s s i o n , w h i c h in t u r n consists o f
narration: causality a n d temporality. W h e n these e l e m e n t s are scarce, as
w h e n the synthetic function is p r o n o u n c e d , it p o i n t s directly at t h e
identity crises o f the characters, t h r o u g h the b r e a k d o w n o f their narrated
selves. L i t e r a t u r e a p p l y i n g s u c h devices e m p h a s i z e s the reader's awareness
o f the novel b e i n g a construct, a n d the characterization's objective to
e x p l o r e a t h e m e rather t h a n describe a realistic p e r s o n . It is interesting,
however, to see that it is this f o r e g r o u n d i n g o f the synthetic d i m e n s i o n o f
t h e literary characters that m a k e s it p o s s i b l e to describe the c o m p l e x i t y o f
identity related to p o s t m o d e r n ideas, very different f r o m
more
c o n v e n t i o n a l literature a p p l y i n g m i m e s i s as the m a i n device o f
characterization.
postmodern
106
these
identity
attributes
also
lead
conflicts,
and
accordingly
to
the
novel's
turn
themes
into
Anne Marit K. Berge
T h e very i d e a o f narration i m p l i e s a narrator to tell t h e stories;
a c c o r d i n g l y the c h o i c e o f narrative t e c h n i q u e is i m p o r t a n t for t h e reader's
p e r c e p t i o n o f the different characters, as "characters are c o n s t r u c t e d b y the
r e a d e r " ( R i m m o n - K e n a n 1 9 8 3 , 1 1 9 ) . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f City of Glass,
o n e can identify a n extra-heterodiegetic
narrator ( G e n e t t e 1 9 7 2 , 2 4 8 ) w h o
d o e s n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e actual story, b u t uses external focalization
or
perspective to relate t h e events f r o m w i t h i n , h a v i n g access to the m a i n
character's m i n d , as well as all other necessary i n f o r m a t i o n available. In
t h e use o f we in t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h , " W e k n o w , for e x a m p l e , that h e
w a s thirty-five years o l d " ( 3 ) , the narrator s e e m s to i n c l u d e the narratee in
his a c c o u n t o f t h e situation. In the c o u r s e o f the first p a g e s , t h e narrator
p a s s e s m a n y j u d g m e n t s o n Q u i n n ' s character, e x p l a i n i n g to t h e reader
a b o u t his past, his current activities a n d preferences. T h e narrator has
access to a n y characters' t h o u g h t s f r o m w i t h i n , w h i c h is a p p a r e n t in three
identical p a s s a g e s referring to Q u i n n ' s d r e a m s : " I n his d r e a m , w h i c h he
later forgot, h e f o u n d h i m s e l f [ . . . ] " ( 9 , 7 2 , 1 0 6 ) . I n spite o f these traces o f
external focalization, however, m o s t o f the novel is n a r r a t e d t h r o u g h an
internal focalizer, f r o m w i t h i n Q u i n n . A p a r t f r o m t h e use o f the third
p e r s o n p r o n o u n s , this c o m e s very close to a first p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n , a n d
l i m i t s the access o f i n f o r m a t i o n to t h e focalizing character's p e r c e p t i o n s ,
t h o u g h t s a n d feelings. T h i s is h o w Q u i n n ' s narrative is p r e s e n t e d to t h e
reader; every other character is perceived t h r o u g h h i m , a n d t h e reader m a y
o n l y find o u t facts that are also k n o w n b y Q u i n n . O n l y in t h e very last
p a g e s o f the novel d o w e realize t h a t the u s e o f this narrative t e c h n i q u e has
been a g a m e . T h e " I " o f a narrator a p p e a r s , revealing his detective-like
w o r k o f trying to reconstruct Q u i n n ' s life a n d the S t i l l m a n case. In this
s e n s e , the n a r r a t i n g " I " is also a detective, a p p e a r i n g to use Q u i n n ' s n o t e s
a n d the talks w i t h A u s t e r to retrace Q u i n n ' s story.
The
narrative
technique
is
important
to
achieve
the
reader's
p e r c e p t i o n o f Q u i n n ' s d i s a p p e a r a n c e . T h e visual a n d t e m p o r a l perspective
is m o v e d a w a y f r o m Q u i n n as the focalizer c h a n g e s to external a g a i n .
W h e n the n a r r a t i n g " I " a p p e a r s , the use o f " w e " is s u d d e n l y t u r n e d to
m e a n h i m a n d A u s t e r , his friend, a n d the narrator is a homodiegetic
one, a
character in the story. H o w e v e r , f r o m a t h e m a t i c perspective, this is an
i m p r a c t i c a l c o n s t r u c t . T h e story o f Q u i n n is the m o s t i m p o r t a n t , it is his
m i n d w e as readers are trying to p e n e t r a t e in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d his
narrative, a n d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f the " I " is h o w its use creates
a n a d d i t i o n a l effect o f d i s t a n c e to Q u i n n a n d accentuates his narrative
f a d i n g o u t o f the actual story.
107
T h e Narrated Self and Characterization
Similarly to City of Glass, the narrator o f Ghosts is seemingly extraheterodiegetic, outside the story. T h e focalization is internal, inside the
events, f r o m within B l u e t h r o u g h m o s t o f the novel, a n d s o m e t i m e s the
narrator follows his perspective very closely, c o i n c i d i n g direcdy with Blue's
thoughts. H o w e v e r , in certain passages, particularly in the b e g i n n i n g a n d at
the end, there is an ironic distance to the m a i n character, a n d everything is
seen t h r o u g h an external focalizer, having access to k n o w l e d g e b e y o n d the
characters' thoughts. T h i s focalizer is placed close to the narrating situation,
here f r o m an u n k n o w n future, l o o k i n g m o r e than thirty years backwards in
time. T h e narrator places the b e g i n n i n g o f the plot very accurately in 1 9 4 7 ,
a n d here the distance in t i m e is clear: "Little does B l u e k n o w , o f course, that
the case will g o o n for years" ( 1 3 6 ) . T h e reader is also p o s i t i o n e d as distant
f r o m the events t h r o u g h the addressing o f a narrate, " w h o are w e to b l a m e
h i m " ( 1 5 7 ) . T h e narrator never uses the focalization o f other characters.
E v e n if the narrator does not see Black's perspective, w e get evidence that h e
has k n o w l e d g e o f the truth a b o u t h i m a n d W h i t e ( 1 6 3 ) , as w h e n he
m e n t i o n s that reading slowly w o u l d give B l u e the full understanding o f the
case. T h e s e passages with external focalization give the impression that the
narrator w a n t s to tell this story to underline a p o i n t , a n d that o b t a i n i n g the
realism o f a detective novel is not the p u r p o s e . T h e narrator gives a s t r o n g
sense o f structuring, interpretation a n d control in relating the facts in the
beginning, for instance when he states h o w it all begins with W h i t e walking
in t h r o u g h the door. T h e narrator gives his view o n w h a t is i m p o r t a n t , a n d
the selection o f facts is apparently very deliberate, keeping m o s t o f it to a
m i n i m u m . T h e narrator's position is still n o t neutral; he evaluates Blue's
actions a n d t h o u g h t s from the outside, in a w a y that only a narrator f r o m a
distance in t i m e a n d place can d o : " T o b e fair to B l u e " ( 1 3 5 ) , h e says a b o u t
Blue's lack o f critical questions in the beginning. S o m e t i m e s he passes
j u d g i n g c o m m e n t s as if he were a typical " o m n i s c i e n t " , all-knowing narrator
f r o m the early 1 8 , h century novels: " F o r B l u e is a solid character o n the
w h o l e [...] T h i s is perhaps his greatest talent" ( 1 5 7 ) .
T h e narrative " I " c o m e s in at the very e n d o f Ghosts, just like in the
first novel, underlining that the uncertainties o f facts are strong, since this
h a p p e n e d such a l o n g t i m e ago. B u t here the narrator seems to give u p
control o f his
fictionalized
character; since the story is over, " [ a ] n y t h i n g is
possible [...] I m y s e l f prefer to think that he w e n t far away, b o a r d i n g a train
that m o r n i n g a n d g o i n g o u t west to start a new life. [...]
In m y secret
d r e a m s I like to think o f B l u e b o o k i n g passage o n s o m e ship a n d sailing to
C h i n a " ( 1 9 5 - 1 9 6 ) . T h e narrator chooses to let g o o f B l u e , a character he
108
Anne Marit K. Berge
h a s created, a n d the creative p o w e r a n d control that the a u t h o r normally
h a s , pretending to k n o w as little as the reader: " F r o m this m o m e n t o n , w e
k n o w n o t h i n g " ( 1 9 6 ) . B l a c k / W h i t e writes Blue's story, a n d thus his life
b e c o m e s the narrative o f the isolated m a n d o i n g n o t h i n g b u t w a t c h i n g in
t h e w i n d o w . T h e external focalizer o f these two novels functions as an
illustration a n d thematization o f the difficulty o f penetrating t h e m i n d o f
others as well as a m e a n s o f structuring the f r a g m e n t e d parts o f the
characters' lives as coherent narratives, p o i n t i n g at causality a n d temporality.
The
narrative
technique
stresses
the
foregrounded
synthetic
d i m e n s i o n o f the characters in Ghosts, m a y b e even m o r e s o t h a n in the
o t h e r two novels. T h e focalization is external a n d the narrator overt to a
stronger degree t h a n in t h e others, a n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e setting
w o r k s as an invitation to r e a d t h e story as a h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n . T h e use
of
present
tense
in
the
main
narrative
also
points
to
depicting
a
hypothetical s i t u a t i o n m o r e t h a n t h e relating o f a story, a n d this applies to
t h e w h o l e text except f r o m the retrospective parts, w h e n B l u e thinks a b o u t
t h e stories o f others o r his o w n p a s t o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f the narrated t i m e .
T h e pretence o f u n c e r t a i n t y is also s h o w n at the novel's closure: " L e t it b e
C h i n a , t h e n " ( 1 9 6 ) , a n d in the a b o v e m e n t i o n e d q u o t e : " I m y s e l f prefer to
t h i n k that h e w e n t far a w a y " ( 1 9 5 ) . U n l i k e t h e narrator o f City of Glass
w h o expresses helplessness in f i n d i n g o u t Q u i n n ' s fate, the narrator here
deliberately
shows
his
control,
through
ironically
displaying
i g n o r a n c e . T h e d i s t a n c e creates a certain o p a c i t y o f B l u e ' s
alleged
narrative,
b l u r r i n g his identity.
The
minor
characters
of
Ghosts
also
have
a
mainly
synthetic
d i m e n s i o n , b u t even if they p l a y very small parts, t h e t h e m a t i c d i m e n s i o n
is still i m p o r t a n t , as they a d d to the issue o f f r a g m e n t e d identity. All
n a m e s in this story are colors — it is n o t p s y c h o l o g y t h a t is i m p o r t a n t , b u t
t h e m a t i c c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d t h e m o r e h y p o t h e t i c a l a s p e c t o f the w h o l e
story: n o t to focus o n realistic p l o t a n d characters, b u t o n the s k e t c h i n g
o u t o f a s i t u a t i o n to d e m o n s t r a t e an idea. T h e characters are n o t p r o v i d e d
with m u c h o f a b i o g r a p h y ; their stories are o n l y h i n t e d at. A v o i d i n g
conventional
aspects
realism
o f the
novel.
foregrounds
The
the p h i l o s o p h i c a l
u s e o f narration
as
and
metaphysical
identity c r e a t i o n
in
characterization is here s t r i p p e d d o w n to a m i n i m u m o f fact.
T h e narrative t e c h n i q u e o f The Locked Room is different f r o m the other
two. E v e n if there is a narrator-protagonist relating his o w n story, h e is
p l a c e d in an extradiegetic writing situation, a b o v e the actual diegetic or story
level, seven years after the events o f the m a i n plot start: " S e v e n years a g o this
109
T h e Narrated Self and Characterization
N o v e m b e r , I received a letter f r o m a w o m a n n a m e d S o p h i e F a n s h a w e "
( 1 9 9 ) . S i n c e the narrator is h o m o d i e g e t i c , telling his story in the
first
p e r s o n , focalization a n d voice is m a i n l y his. " [ M ] y struggle to r e m e m b e r
things as they really were, I see n o w " ( 2 0 9 ) shows h o w there is a m a r k e d
difference in t i m e a n d experience between the narrator's writing situation
w h e n all is over, a n d when the story starts seven years earlier, a l t h o u g h he is
never quite clear as to what insight he has achieved. T h e
narrator's
extradiegetic level is concerned with the narration itself outside the actual
events depicted, creating a distance in t i m e , a n d this is s h o w n t h r o u g h
various c o m m e n t s o n his part a b o u t his failing j u d g m e n t s at the actual
events: " I u n d e r s t a n d n o w h o w badly I was deceiving m y s e l f ( 2 4 2 ) . T h e
retrospect o f the narrator's story creates s o m e distance to the material;
however, s o m e o f the events, especially the final scene, are told w i t h o u t signs
o f this hindsight, as if n o t h i n g h a d h a p p e n e d afterwards. T h e effect o n the
novel is that the reader perceives this as an end, a n d links the tearing o f the
n o t e b o o k scene to the closure o f the narration as a w h o l e as well as the
'answer' to thematic questions raised. T h e characterization thus a p p r o a c h e s
closure, a n d achieves completeness o f structure. U n l i k e the other two stories
o f the trilogy, where the narrative technique creates a distance to the
narrated events as if stepping back, however o b s c u r e d or o p a q u e the view
b e c o m e s , this closure is different since it shows the character's reaction a t the
t i m e , a n d as s u c h it b e c o m e s crucial to o u r perception o f Fanshawe's
obliteration, a n d the narrator's return to a new life.
The
internal
focalizer,
which
would
ordinarily
be
the
same
t h r o u g h o u t a text written in the first p e r s o n , is also s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s .
A u s t e r observes in an interview that "certain sections o f it are actually
written in the third p e r s o n " ( 1 9 9 7 , 3 1 7 ) , w h e r e the narrator describes the
events as f r o m a n external focalizer seeing F a n s h a w e f r o m the o u t s i d e . T h e
m a i n parts o f the d i s c o u r s e circle a r o u n d F a n s h a w e ' s narrative, trying to
p e n e t r a t e his secret inner self, while the narrator reveals that his o w n self
also b e c o m e s o p a q u e for h i m . In this way, F a n s h a w e is as present in the
text as the narrator is. H i s invisibility at the e n d , b e h i n d the d o o r , a g a i n
a d d s to the i d e a that he o n l y exists as an idea in the narrator's m i n d . All
t h e three novels s h o w various degrees o f b l u r r i n g the characterization for
t h e reader, t h r o u g h the c h o i c e o f narrative t e c h n i q u e s that create d i s t a n c e .
110
Anne Marit K. Berge
Reflexive Identity
T h e actual narrative s i t u a t i o n is c o n n e c t e d to the reflexivity o f the self:
A u s t e r p o i n t s to t h e fact that "[a] story [...] p o s i t s the existence o f o t h e r s "
( 1 9 8 2 , 1 5 2 ) . In his novels, there is always a p l a y b e t w e e n reader a n d
writer, b o t h w i t h i n t h e novels a n d as overt c o m m e n t s to the reader o n the
actual
reading
situation.
Auster
claims
in
an
interview
with
Finn
S k å r d e r u d t h a t " a b o o k d o e s n o t exist unless it is read. It is always a
relationship. W r i t i n g is a n act o f l o v e " ( 2 0 0 2 , 7 9 , m y t r a n s l a t i o n ) . B u t as
an o p p o s i t i o n or c o n t r a d i c t i o n to this, there is the fact that w r i t i n g is d o n e
in solitude, w h i c h is necessary to create art, b u t p r o b l e m a t i c for selfidentity. T h i s conflict between the creation o f art a n d the n e e d
for
c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o n t e x t is especially s h o w n in Ghosts, w h e r e B l a c k hires
B l u e to e n s u r e his o w n existence.
T h e r e are m a n y references to the silent, solitary artist in A u s t e r ' s
works,
and
also
the disappearing
artist
can
b e said
to b e a
motif
e x e m p l i f i e d in Q u i n n , H e c t o r M a n n a n d F a n s h a w e . S o l i t u d e is necessary
a n d liberating, b u t i f u s e d destructively, it m i g h t a p p r o a c h s o l i p s i s m a n d
involve t h e n e g a t i o n o f self-reflexivity. A narrated S e l f n e e d s the a u d i e n c e
o f a n O t h e r . T h e typical p o s t m o d e r n identity conflicts o f m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s
a n d existential d o u b t arise f r o m the difficult b a l a n c i n g act o f k e e p i n g o n e ' s
self-image intact i n a c o n t e x t o f n u m e r o u s choices. T h i s c a n b e seen in
relation to t h e w r i t i n g s o f J a c q u e s L a c a n , w h o is also m e n t i o n e d b y A u s t e r
in interviews as h a v i n g influenced the w r i t i n g o f The Invention
of
Solitude.
A u s t e r observes t h a t " L a c a n calls it the 'mirror-stage,' [...] w e can o n l y see
ourselves b e c a u s e s o m e o n e else has seen us first. In other w o r d s , w e learn
our solitude from others"
(Auster
1 9 9 7 , 3 1 4 - 3 1 5 ) . L a c a n states
that
f o r m a t i o n o f t h e self o n l y h a p p e n s t h r o u g h a n a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f the
O t h e r : " I a m led, therefore, to regard the function o f t h e m i r r o r - s t a g e as a
particular case o f t h e function o f the imago, w h i c h is to establish a relation
between t h e o r g a n i s m a n d its reality — or, as they say, b e t w e e n the
Innenwelt a n d t h e Umwelf
( 1 9 6 6 , 4 ) . L a c a n speaks a b o u t this t h e o r y in
t e r m s o f infants a n d a n i m a l s , b u t there are also general a p p l i c a t i o n s for
this effect. M i r r o r i m a g e s can b e seen as a w a y to define o n e ' s self as
d i v i d e d f r o m t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s , as roles in society, to realize w h o o n e is
t h r o u g h seeing o n e s e l f in the reflection o f others.
In Ghosts, the m a i n character's w o r l d has s o far c o n s i s t e d o f s i m p l e ,
c o n c r e t e t h i n g s , while n o w he begins to speculate,
to see truths as they are
c o n v e y e d in a m i r r o r , that is, reflecting b a c k o n himself. B l u e
only
111
T h e Narrated Self and Characterization
b e c o m e s aware o f the m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s o f his existence t h r o u g h realizing
t h a t he is the mirror i m a g e o f B l a c k . T h e A l g o n q u i n bar scene where
B l a c k tells B l u e h e is a private detective w a t c h i n g s o m e o n e , d e s c r i b i n g
B l u e ' s situation to the last detail, is an a b s u r d e p i s o d e , b u t it is also a clue
to the roles they p l a y in each other's lives. " M y j o b is to w a t c h s o m e o n e , "
B l a c k tells B l u e , a n d the irony here is that B l u e needs B l a c k to act o u t the
p a r t o f watcher in o r d e r to see t h e s i t u a t i o n , as i f h e were really w a t c h i n g
h i m s e l f t h r o u g h t h e mirror. B l a c k tries to enlighten B l u e further: " I t h i n k
h e ' s writing a b o u t himself. T h e story o f his life. T h a t ' s the o n l y possible
a n s w e r [...] h e needs [...] m y eye l o o k i n g at h i m [...] to p r o v e he's alive"
( 1 8 1 ) . B l a c k uses B l u e ' s reports as a reference f r o m the o u t s i d e a n d can
therefore see h i m s e l f in the "reflection," while B l u e at this p o i n t loses
h i m s e l f in his solitary o b s e r v a t i o n s that h e c a n n o t m a k e a n y sense of.
T h e m i d d l e story c o u l d b e read as a n exploration o f the f o r m i n g o f a
reflexive self, w h e r e t h e p l o t functions
o n a m e t a p h o r i c a l level as a
d e s c r i p t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n o f self a n d the mirror stage that o c c u r s in all
infants' lives their first 6 - 1 8 m o n t h s . Ghosts is set at the actual birth d a t e o f
P a u l Auster; W h i t e c o m e s to B l u e ' s office o n 3 F e b
1947, and
the
d e v e l o p i n g identity-plot is necessary for B l u e to discover t h e O t h e r to
f o r m a self. T h e separation o f the self f r o m the other is illustrated b y
B l u e ' s killing Black. A t the e n d o f the short novel, the narrator c o m m e n t s
o n his o w n p l a c e m e n t in t i m e : " F o r w e m u s t r e m e m b e r that all this t o o k
place more than
thirty years a g o , b a c k
in the d a y s o f o u r
earliest
c h i l d h o o d " ( 1 9 5 ) , i m p l y i n g that t h e w r i t i n g situation takes p l a c e m u c h
later. T h e successful narration o f self is d e p e n d e n t o n t h e O t h e r in the
function
of
audience.
Black
needs
Blue
to
write
his
continuous
b i o g r a p h i c a l narrative, literally s p e a k i n g , since he is s e q u e s t e r e d f r o m all
o t h e r c o n t a c t w i t h real life, to keep his last link with life as h e writes his
b o o k . T h e s o l i t u d e o f the writer treated b y A u s t e r in " T h e B o o k
M e m o r y " ( 1 9 8 2 ) is thereby e x e m p l i f i e d a n d p r o b l e m a t i z e d in
of
Black's
project. B l a c k needs the solitude to b e a b l e to write, b u t that also m e a n s
t h a t he has n o life apart f r o m his writing. W h e n he talks to B l u e d i s g u i s e d
as the b u m J i m m y R o s e , he tells B l u e that " [ w ] r i t i n g is a solitary business.
It takes over y o u r life" ( 1 7 5 ) . A t t h e final c o n f r o n t a t i o n , B l a c k explains:
. . . I've needed you from the beginning. If it hadn't been for you, I
couldn't have done it.
Needed me for whar?
112
Anne Marit K. Berge
T o remind me of what I was supposed to be doing. Every time I
looked up, you were there, watching me, following me, always in
sight, boring into me with your eyes. You were the whole world to
me, Blue, and I turned you into my death. You're the one thing
that doesn't change, the one thing that turns everything inside out.
(194)
It is q u i t e a p p a r e n t h o w this illustrates the role o f the O t h e r as a m i r r o r
reflection o f oneself. B l u e loses the feeling o f c o n t r o l o f his w o r l d w h e n he
realizes that h e has b e e n lured into a s h a m , a n d that his f u n c t i o n was to b e
B l a c k ' s reflection in the mirror, or rather t h r o u g h the w i n d o w . H e h a s n o
c h o i c e b u t to try to kill h i m to b e released f r o m his e n t r a p m e n t .
R e l a t i o n s w i t h others are central n o t o n l y to the f o r m a t i o n o f identity
t h r o u g h the m i r r o r stage, b u t also to s u s t a i n i n g it in a secure way. G i d d e n s
discusses the pure
relationship,
w h i c h is d e f i n e d as " r e a s o n a b l y d u r a b l e
sexual ties, m a r r i a g e , a n d f r i e n d s h i p " ( 1 9 9 1 , 8 7 ) , s o u g h t o n l y for w h a t t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p itself can bring, a n d characterized b y its c o n t i n u o u s , reflexive
n a t u r e . It is " a k e y e n v i r o n m e n t for b u i l d i n g t h e reflexive p r o j e c t o f the
self, since it b o t h allows for a n d d e m a n d s o r g a n i z e d a n d c o n t i n u o u s selfu n d e r s t a n d i n g " ( 1 8 6 ) . H o p e a n d trust are g e n e r a t e d ( 1 8 6 ) , especially via
t h e creation o f " s h a r e d stories" ( 9 7 ) . I n A u s t e r ' s novels, the characters' l a c k
or loss o f these relationship ties are at t h e heart o f their crises, a n d for the
t w o characters w h o are able to return to a life, the n e w relationships are
i m p o r t a n t a n c h o r s in their n e w life situations. The New York Trilogy a n d
The Book of Illusions can b o t h b e seen t o e x p l o r e h o w the interplay w i t h
o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g s influences the w a y a p e r s o n defines w h o h e is.
T h e third novel o f the trilogy also deals with identity linked to others,
illustrated by the doppelganger motif. T h e nameless narrator experiences
identity confusion
related to the disappearance o f his c h i l d h o o d
friend
F a n s h a w e , in m a n y ways his double; through this encounter, the narrator
experiences a n existential crisis, resulting in the novel's quest for the truth
a b o u t Fanshawe. In contrast to City of Glass
where the h u n t leads to
disappearance, the m a i n character o f this story has to confront a n d assimilate
his d o u b l e , as hinted at in the intermediate Ghosts, where B l u e attempts at
confrontation to solve the mystery. In the course o f The Locked Room,
the
narrator-protagonist gradually takes over the life o f his c h i l d h o o d friend, b u t
the identity p r o b l e m s this causes are difficult to handle. F a n s h a w e has been
the narrator's friend since their earliest childhood, from before language,
c o n s e q u e n d y before consciousness o f a n y other life. A s a child the narrator is
strongly influenced b y Fanshawe, copying his interests a n d ways, b u t the fact
113
T h e Narrated Self and Characterization
that "I d o n ' t think I was ever entirely comfortable in his presence" (209)
shows the ambivalence o f his admiration. T h e narrator's feeling inferior to his
friend is a character attribute that becomes a very important thematic function
o f his character. T h e m a i n character's story is like a pale version o f Fanshawe's
story, a n d this is what makes his identity confusion possible.
The
power
o f the narration
strengthens
identity,
b u t here
also
i n t r o d u c e s identity p r o b l e m s , o f n o t b e i n g able t o d i s t i n g u i s h w h o is w h o .
T h e q u e s t i o n is whether these d o p p e l g a n g e r s are s u p p o s e d to b e read as
o n e or t w o characters, since they s e e m to b e m i r r o r reflections o f each
o t h e r ( S p r i n g e r 2 0 0 1 b , 1 2 7 ) , while at the s a m e t i m e they are d e s c r i b e d as
characters
with
stronger
mimetic
dimensions
than
the
other
main
characters in the trilogy, t h a t is, they s e e m to b e a little m o r e realistic than
Q u i n n or B l u e . T h i s is c a u s e d b y the use o f internal focalization t h r o u g h
t h e h o m o d i e g e t i c narrator, w h i c h leads to m o r e " r e a l i s m " o f p s y c h o l o g y ,
as w e s u p p o s e d l y read the t h o u g h t s o f a p e r s o n seen f r o m within his o w n
m i n d , instead o f focalized t h r o u g h a n external narrator as in the other two
novels.
In this novel,
the f o r e g r o u n d i n g
o f the characters'
synthetic
d i m e n s i o n s is s h o w n t h r o u g h the a m b i g u i t y o f the t w o characters, a n d is
n o t as p r o n o u n c e d as in the other two novels o f t h e trilogy. T h e issue o f
character m e r g e r is never clear, b u t it p o i n t s to the p r o b l e m s o f O t h e r a n d
Self, in the f o r m o f c o n f u s i n g t h e mirror i m a g e w i t h s o m e b o d y else.
M a c l n t y r e ' s ideas o f a narrative to express identity b e c o m e central in
order
to
understand
the
narrator's
motives.
The
plan
of
writing
F a n s h a w e ' s b i o g r a p h y a p p e a l s to h i m as a w a y to gain c o n t r o l
over
F a n s h a w e . H o w e v e r , the struggles o f w r i t i n g l e a d his t h o u g h t s to the
problem
o f describing a person
through
his b i o g r a p h i c a l
facts.
The
narration o f o n e ' s identity is essential here: a p e r s o n will listen to the story
a b o u t a n o t h e r p e r s o n , a n d use the o u t w a r d facts to create a " r e a l " story
a b o u t the p e r s o n , g i v i n g the false i m p r e s s i o n that h e k n o w s w h o
the
p e r s o n is. A u s t e r has in an interview said that it is very p r o b l e m a t i c t o
relate to t h e lives o f others since w e d o n o t k n o w e n o u g h , n o t even a b o u t
ourselves, to write a reliable b i o g r a p h y ( S k å r d e r u d 2 0 0 2 , 6 4 ) . N a r r a t i v e s o f
o t h e r s e c o n d a r y or m i n o r characters are in general i m p o r t a n t in this novel
also, as mise en abyme ( R i m m o n - K e n a n 1 9 8 3 , 9 3 ) . O n e o f these is f o u n d
in F a n s h a w e ' s n o t e b o o k : " F a n s h a w e s h o w s a particular f o n d n e s s for stories
o f this k i n d . Especially in his n o t e b o o k s , there is a c o n s t a n t retelling o f
l i t d e a n e c d o t e s , a n d b e c a u s e they are so frequent — a n d m o r e s o t o w a r d
t h e e n d — o n e begins to s u s p e c t that F a n s h a w e felt they c o u l d s o m e h o w
help
114
him
to
understand
himself
(254). This
sounds
like a
direct
Anne Marit K. Berge
r e p h r a s i n g o f the theory that narration o f i n c i d e n t s in o t h e r p e o p l e ' s lives
gives perspective to o n e ' s o w n life, as related b y M a c l n t y r e .
I n spite o f t h e allusion to Q u i n n ' s d i s a p p e a r a n c e ( 2 0 2 ) , The Locked
Room d o e s n o t treat t h e f r a g m e n t e d identity to s u c h an extent as the other
t w o novels o f the trilogy. H o w e v e r , it is a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the d o u b l e i d e n t i t y p r o b l e m s k e t c h e d o u t in Ghosts, in a story t h a t s e e m s to b e m o r e
realistic, b u t e n d s u p b e i n g j u s t as c o n f u s i n g as the other t w o . S o p h i e
F a n s h a w e is a secure p o i n t in the narrator's c h a o t i c h u n t for truth a n d
himself. H i s o b s e s s i o n that m a k e s h i m forget his c o m m i t m e n t to her is
w h a t leads h i m into t r o u b l e , in a m o r e c o m p l e x w a y t h a n in t h e t w o
p r e v i o u s novels. W h e n t h e narrator d e c i d e s to h i d e facts f r o m her, s u c h as
F a n s h a w e ' s letter, the i n t i m a c y a n d c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e relationship also
fall a p a r t a n d he loses t h e s u p p o r t h e c o u l d h a v e received t h r o u g h the
c r e a t i o n o f s h a r e d stories. A clue to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e three novels is t h e
role o f the w o m e n , w h o represent the reality the lost detectives reject. I n
Ghosts w o m e n are barely m e n t i o n e d , a n d it is o b v i o u s that B l u e d o e s n o t
g i v e " t h e future M r s B l u e " m u c h t h o u g h t . T h e m e n reject the crying,
e m o t i o n a l w o m e n , b u t thereby also the i n t i m a c y o f t h e p u r e relationship.
Fifteen years after finishing the trilogy, A u s t e r returned to t h e s a m e
s t a r t i n g p o i n t , a n d w r o t e a story related to City of Glass. T h e rebirth after
crisis o f the m a i n character in The Book of Illusions
is influenced b y his
e n c o u n t e r w i t h a m a n s u p p o s e d to h a v e d i e d m a n y d e c a d e s earlier. It is
t h e retracing o f t h e d i s a p p e a r e d
filmmaker's
e s c a p e f r o m his i d e n t i t y that
l e a d s Z i m m e r b a c k to life. T h e parallels o f different identities are also
p r e s e n t in this novel, b u t the i m p o r t a n c e o f relating to others is e x p l o r e d
m o r e extensively. T h e m a i n character o f The Book
of Illusions,
David
Z i m m e r , suffers a serious p e r s o n a l loss a n d is bereft o f his family, parallel
t o w h a t h a p p e n s to Q u i n n , b u t the story in this novel takes a different
t u r n . W h a t helps Z i m m e r o u t o f his grief is d i s c o v e r i n g the narrative o f a
m a n w h o h a s suffered a n d e x p e r i e n c e d similar losses, in a d d i t i o n
to
c r e a t i n g a m y s t e r i o u s i m a g e o f himself, that takes q u i t e a bit o f detective
w o r k to explore. I n s t e a d o f falling to pieces like Q u i n n , h e has m o r e
s u c c e s s in p u z z l i n g M a n n ' s m y s t e r y together. H e c t o r M a n n turns o u t to
b e a m o r e constructive a n d h u m a n e character t h a n S t i l l m a n w a s , w i t h
m o r e a p p a r e n t m i m e t i c d i m e n s i o n s t h a n the characters in t h e trilogy.
M a n n is recreated t h r o u g h his narrative in t h e b o o k Z i m m e r writes, b u t
o n l y after e v e r y b o d y involved, w h o c o u l d verify the story o f his life, is
d e a d . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e b o o k is t u r n e d into a " B o o k o f t h e D e a d " , or rather
115
T h e Narrated Self and Characterization
a C h a t e a u b r i a n d - l i k e Mémoires
d'outre-tomhe;
it is the b o o k that brings
M a n n to life.
The New
York
Trilogy's
extensive use o f mirrored
identities
and
characters is repeated in this novel, b u t in a different way. It is m o r e a
question o f situations than w h o l e characters that are reflected, as the
e x a m p l e o f parallels between M a n n a n d C h a t e a u b r i a n d . W e find the s a m e
relationship between Z i m m e r a n d M a n n , where incidents o f crises a n d loss
are mirrored. F o r Z i m m e r , the similarities between M a n n a n d h i m s e l f serve
as signs o f a link between t h e m . H i s identification with H e c t o r
Mann
increases as h e learns his story, a n d b o t h A l m a a n d H e c t o r have e n o r m o u s
influence o n h i m . H e a r i n g a b o u t the death o f H e c t o r a n d Frieda's s o n T a d ,
h e realizes that they have experienced a similar crisis, a n d since this is the
secret clue to w h y M a n n starts m a k i n g films again, Z i m m e r ' s interest in the
films grows. Z i m m e r ' s s e c o n d loss, that o f A l m a , is experienced as different,
because he is able to see h o w short their relationship was, plus c o n t i n u e his
w o r k ( 3 1 4 ) a n d focus o n their c o m m o n goal; to tell M a n n ' s story helps h i m
reconnect to his o w n . T h e nature o f M a n n ' s b i o g r a p h y is a mystery that
requires investigation a n d interpretation: Z i m m e r is able to retrace s o m e o f
H e c t o r ' s past life t h r o u g h the willfully o b s c u r e d facts o f the c a m o u f l a g e d
interviews, c h o o s i n g between the m a n y versions o f the M a n n story. " P u t
these contradictions together, a n d y o u w i n d u p with nothing, the portrait o f
a m a n with so m a n y personalities a n d family histories that he is r e d u c e d to a
pile o f fragments, a j i g s a w puzzle w h o s e pieces n o longer c o n n e c t " ( 8 3 ) . T h e
f r a g m e n t e d identity is in this novel not represented b y Z i m m e r himself, b u t
b y M a n n , w h o is described as having a palimpsest o f identities.
M a n n ' s n e w c h a n c e with Frieda is a n e w transitional m o m e n t for
M a n n ; at the verge o f death h e regains identity, b u t in a n e w f o r m w h i c h
enables h i m to start a n e w life. After his s e c o n d crisis, the d e a t h o f his s o n ,
h e is lured b a c k t o life a s e c o n d t i m e t h r o u g h a renewed film project, a n d
this can h a p p e n b e c a u s e F r i e d a is there to influence h i m , h e is n o t isolated
like the first t i m e . F o r Z i m m e r , t h e k n o w l e d g e o f M a n n ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
after d e v a s t a t i n g experiences helps h i m see possibilities for himself; the
stories o f M a n n create the mirror effect. Z i m m e r ' s role in H e c t o r ' s life
b e c o m e s a "witness o f the w i t n e s s " ( 2 8 0 ) . A l m a needs Z i m m e r as a witness
to v o u c h for the truth o f her w o r k , the b i o g r a p h y o f H e c t o r M a n n , since
after his d e a t h a n d the destruction o f his w o r k s , the o n l y verifiable facts
a b o u t the film m a k e r will b e those already k n o w n , the o n e s Z i m m e r has
u s e d in his b o o k . A l m a says " m y s t a t e m e n t s w o n ' t b e credible unless I
h a v e a n o t h e r p e r s o n to b a c k m e u p " ( 1 0 5 ) . W h e n every piece o f e v i d e n c e
116
Anne Marit K. Berge
is
obliterated
and
burnt
by
Frieda,
Zimmer
is left
alone
with
his
i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d gives it all u p as n o o n e w o u l d believe w h a t h e says.
O n l y as a " B o o k o f the D e a d " c a n h e tell the story, w h i c h then c o u l d
a p p e a r as fiction — a n illusion — j u s t as well as a b i o g r a p h y . P l a y i n g w i t h
t h e s e n o t i o n s a n d h o w the reader will interpret the story are p a r t o f the
r e a d i n g experience.
T h e narration o f The Book of Illusions
consists o f m u l t i p l e levels. T h e
u s e o f Z i m m e r as h o m o d i e g e t i c narrator is in itself quite s i m p l e , b u t it is his
relation o f other stories t h r o u g h a C h i n e s e b o x principle, u s i n g different
diegetic levels a n d a c o m p l e x i t y o f story a n d discourse t i m e s p a n that a d d s to
t h e plot. T h e extradiegetic level is D a v i d Z i m m e r ' s writing situation: he is
n o t yet forty at the p o i n t o f the accident in J u n e 1 9 8 5 w h i c h is the start o f
t h e diegetic level, while the extradiegetic Z i m m e r in his mid-fifties l o o k i n g
b a c k a n d describing the events m u s t b e set a r o u n d M a r c h 1 9 9 9 . T h e fact
that he at the e n d says h e will b e "following C h a t e a u b r i a n d ' s m o d e l " ( 3 1 8 ) ,
implies that h e is d e a d at the p o i n t o f publication. T h e r e are several
hypodiegetic stories, told b y Z i m m e r (all the film synopses), A l m a (relating
M a n n ' s story o n the plane), or H e c t o r M a n n (diary extract). T h u s , A l m a
also functions as narrator, as she tells the story o f H e c t o r M a n n ' s life after
his disappearance in 1 9 2 9 . Quite like the t e c h n i q u e a p p l i e d in The
Locked
Room, characters h a v e developed m i m e t i c d i m e n s i o n s ; the synthetic is n o t as
f o r e g r o u n d e d as in the sketched o u t situation described in Ghosts, giving
The Book of Illusions a m o r e traditional form. Z i m m e r is a n extrah o m o d i e g e t i c narrator, b u t is still able to keep m o r e o f a distance to the
events t h a n the narrator o f The Locked Room, p r o b a b l y because h e has h a d
the o p p o r t u n i t y to c h a n g e a n d develop an u n d e r s t a n d i n g that this narrator
lacks. As its E g y p t i a n a n d T i b e t a n m o d e l s suggest, Z i m m e r ' s " B o o k o f the
D e a d " has p r o v i d e d h i m with n o t o n l y a prescription for dealing w i t h d e a t h
a n d after-life, b u t also for h o w to live his life. Z i m m e r as narrator has,
t h r o u g h his extradiegetic position, achieved a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f his o w n
narrative that the characters in the trilogy never develop; accordingly his
identity-narrative is restored.
Conclusion: Stories of the Self
I n this article, I h a v e tried to s h o w that the struggles with
identity
f o r m a t i o n the characters g o t h r o u g h in the four novels, h a v e different
o u t c o m e s d e p e n d i n g o n h o w well t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s are a b l e to create a n d
s u s t a i n the narratives o f their o w n selves, as well as learn f r o m t h e stories
117
T h e Narrated Self and Characterizarion
o f others. T h e r e is a p r o g r e s s i o n in the w a y these four characters relate to
their troubles. Q u i n n is the e x t r e m e version. H e identifies t o o m u c h with
S t i l l m a n a n d his stories, a n d gets lost in his o b s e s s i o n ; his d i s a p p e a r a n c e
s e e m s u n a v o i d a b l e . W h e n h e tries to p u t the fragments o f his m u l t i p l e
identities together, h e e n d s u p b e i n g n o b o d y , like S t i l l m a n ' s s o n , a n d all
t h e d a n g e r s o f deprivation o f h u m a n c o n t a c t are exemplified in the turn o f
this story.
B l u e has little u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h o h e is, as well as l i m i t e d insight
into the m y s t e r y o f his case, b u t h e b e c o m e s aware o f h i m s e l f for t h e first
t i m e t h r o u g h the mirror reflection o f a narrative identical to his o w n
w h i c h leads to a process o f self-reflection. T h r o u g h c o n f r o n t a t i o n with his
problematic
antagonist, s o m e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g
s t a g n a t i o n a n d d i s s o l u t i o n as for Q u i n n .
is achieved, a n d
T h e s i t u a t i o n is
not
somewhat
similar for the n a m e l e s s narrator o f the third novel, w h o finds that the
narrative o f his c h i l d h o o d friend is so intertwined with his o w n that his
sense o f self is threatened. F a n s h a w e ' s stories tell the narrator n o t h i n g , a n d
n e e d t o b e d e s t r o y e d to free h i m ; the retracing o f his friend's story is
e n d e d b y his tearing o f the n o t e b o o k , w h i c h the narrator substitutes for
F a n s h a w e himself. F a n s h a w e exists t h r o u g h his texts, a n d d e s t r o y i n g the
n o t e b o o k enables t h e narrator to let g o o f his obsession a n d t h u s return to
t h e w o r l d o f o t h e r p e o p l e , represented b y his family. B o t h the narrator
a n d B l u e b e g i n to m o v e a w a y f r o m their isolation, a n d relate to other
p e o p l e a n d to the o u t s i d e w o r l d again.
F o r Z i m m e r , M a n n ' s stories, b o t h his b i o g r a p h y a n d his films, help
him
to return
to s o m e t h i n g .
Zimmer's
role as a reader o f
Mann's
b i o g r a p h i c a l narrative changes his view o f himself, b e c a u s e h e can identify
w i t h M a n n ' s crisis, a n d Z i m m e r is a b l e to b r e a k t h r o u g h his isolation. T h e
narrative o f a n o t h e r m a n b e c o m e s a mirror o f his o w n p r o b l e m s . T h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f relationships is s h o w n t h r o u g h Z i m m e r , w h o s e c o n t a c t
w i t h A l m a b e c o m e s an i m p o r t a n t factor in his d e v e l o p m e n t , unlike the
m a i n characters in the trilogy's first two novels, w h o fail at relationships,
a n d the narrator o f the third, w h o o n l y returns to his wife after the crisis is
over.
The
narrative
technique
playing
with
the
narrator-narratee
relationships reflects the reader's p e r c e p t i o n o f the characters as p e r s o n a e .
T h e r e s e e m s to b e a turn here in A u s t e r ' s
method,
parallel to
the
characters' d e v e l o p m e n t ; the narratives that are expressed as m o r e coherent
for the reader also a p p r o a c h solutions to these characters' identity crises.
T h e literary p l a y A u s t e r e m p l o y s in characterization, p r o v i d e s an arena in
w h i c h it is p o s s i b l e to deal with t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f narration as a m e a n s o f
118
Anne Marit K. Berge
f o r m i n g identities, while the p o s t m o d e r n t e c h n i q u e s o f narrative selfreflexivity create a p o s s i b l e literary f o r m for these ideas.
University
of Oslo
119
T h e Narrated Self and Characterization
References
Auster, Paul.
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