Specialist Certification Program
The Throwing Events
Training Design for the
Throwing Events
Specific Expansion of Training Theory Principles
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Overload. Overload is a key concept in the development of all training programs. Key principles
associated with overload are the following.
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The Overload Principle. The Overload Principle states that if adaptation is desired from
training, the training stimulus must be greater than that which the body is accustomed
to. Increases in fitness levels must be preceded by overload. Of course overload should
not be achieved indiscriminately, but through a planned, progressive process.
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The Principle of Reversibility. The Principle of Reversibility states that if the training
stimulus falls below that which the body is accustomed, a negative adaptation occurs
and fitness is lost.
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The Principle of Rest and Recovery Inclusion. The Principle of Rest and Recovery
Inclusion states that rest and recovery opportunity is necessary to the adaptive process,
and that these must be included in the training program in a planned fashion. The
inclusion of rest and recovery should not be left to chance, and a skilled coach knows
how to rest certain body systems while training others so that time spent in nontraining
status is minimized. In its simplest form, all training design is balancing overload and
rest and recovery.
The Principle of Adaptation. Producing adaptation is the goal of every training program The
Principle of Adaptation states that the body will adapt to any stresses placed upon it in a
manner that will enable it to better handle subsequent stress of the same type. The adaptation
process exhibits the following two characteristics.
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The Principle of Specificity. The Principle of Specificity states that adaptation is specific
to the stress or stimulus placed upon the body. The body will adapt in a manner that
enables it to better cope with similar stress in the future, but the ability to deal with
differing stresses remains unchanged or may diminish. For this reason, it is crucial that
the training stimulus send a clear message to the body as to what type of adaptation is
desired. If stimuli serve conflicting messages, positive adaptation will occur by chance
only. Conflicting stimuli seem to create maladaptation when sent within a timeframe of
approximately 24 hours. This implies that when conflicting stimuli must be sent, they
are best grouped in separate workout sessions, in accordance with this timeframe.
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Adaptation Time Frames. Adaptation Time Frames have a great effect on how we
design training. When the body is repeatedly subjected to stimuli of the same type,
adaptation is essentially complete within 21-28 days. After this time, adaptation is
minimal. This seems to imply changes in the training stimulus should occur periodically
in accordance with these time frames. Normally these changes take the form of periodic
shifts in training parameters. This is also the basis for the typical month long training
cycles we see in many successful training programs.
Training Parameters
Training parameters are variables we manipulate in training to produce desired adaptation. There are
four primary parameters we concern ourselves with when designing training.
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Volume
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Volume. Volume is total the amount of training done over a period of time. Volume is
typically easily measured and quantified.
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Plotting Training Volumes. Consistent accomplishment of certain training volumes is
required for high performances at any level, and establishment of these volumes should
be an immediate goal. Temporary suppression of training intensities at the onset of
training assists in achieving these volumes. Excessive training time devoted to
progressive volume increases usually results in limited progress, because it necessarily
delays the needed progression of intensity, since simultaneous volume and intensity
increases are risky. This is a generalized observation which might not be applicable to
very developmental populations.
Intensity
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Intensity. Intensity is the difficulty and degree of demand of training done. The
measurement and quantification of intensity varies greatly throughout the training
program, as certain types of training are easily quantifiable, while evaluation of others is
very subjective.
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Plotting Training Intensities. In the developmental stages of training the systematic
progression of intensity is necessary to achieve competition specific training stimuli and
prepare the athlete for competition. For this reason, intensity increases should be the
primary source of overload. Decreasing training volumes, as well as creative
manipulation of set, repetition, and recoveries in training to permit the accomplishment
of these intensity increases is a critical part of training design. This is a generalized
observation, as at certain times there may be periods of constant volume maintenance
while intensity increases, or we may find volume decreasing while intensity remains
constant. During the competitive season, in order to maintain training specificity and
prevent injury, the aggregate intensity should remain high, and volumes are usually
fluctuated to complicate the training effect.
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Density. Density refers to the training frequency of a particular training component or modality.
The manipulation of density is often useful when designing loading/unloading schemes.
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Complexity. Complexity refers to the degree of coordinative demand a training activity
requires. Complexity is related to intensity in that it is a component of intensity; complex
activities are by nature more intense than simple ones.
Variance in Training
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Variety. Variety is a necessary characteristic of training. Planned variances in training should be
employed throughout the course of the training program. Variety should be found in training to
some degree at all times, but at no time should variance be so great that the correct execution
of the activities is sacrificed. Variety is a characteristic of effective training for several reasons.
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Increased Training Complexity. Variety enhances adaptation by increasing the
complexity of the training stimulus. This forces the body to adapt in different ways,
making it inherently better at adaptation.
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Injury Prevention. Variety in the training program also helps to prevent injuries, by
avoiding consistent repetitive stresses to the musculoskeletal system.
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Alleviating Boredom. Variety in training also alleviates the monotony of training to
some degree.
Individualization of Training. The individualization of training is necessary, as no particular level
of training stimulus is effective for all athletes. Each athlete needs a certain level of training
stress sufficient to foster adaptation, yet not so excessive as to hinder adaptation and invite
injury. Training of lower intensity is safe for groups, but training of higher intensity must be
individualized. Individualization may take many forms, such as varying distances run, numbers of
sets, numbers of repetitions, amount of weight lifted, altering hurdle or box height, or exercise
choice.
Macrocyle Planning Considerations
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Period Distribution. In designing the macrocycle, much consideration should be given to the
proportional length of the preparation, competition, and transition periods. Ideally, the
preparation period will be as long as the competition period, but this is often dictated to us.
Generally speaking, a transition period of 4-6 weeks is required before undertaking the next
training macrocycle.
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Phase Distribution. Much consideration should be given to the proportional length of the
general and specific prep phases. Normally the preparation period should be divided equally
between the general and specific prep phases. Athletes with advanced training ages may not
require as much relative time in general preparatory activities.
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Single and Multiple Periodizaton. Most macrocycles use single or double periodizational
models. Single models feature one peaking (planned very high performance) period per year,
while double models feature two peaking periods per year. Normally the preparation for the
second peak involves a return to activities done earlier in the training year. If competition will
continue uninterrupted, or will be interrupted only briefly after the completion of the first
peaking period, it is unwise to return to general preparatory activities. A return to specific
preparatory activities will maintain intensity at a level that will keep the athlete safely prepared
for the intensity of competition.
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Peaking. The peaking process can take many forms. Most throws training programs keep
intensities high during the peaking period, in concert with the intense demands of competition.
While the idea of resting the athlete may be appealing, dramatic decreases in intensity result in
staleness and prepare the athlete poorly for competition. Many programs decrease the volume
or density of some or all training activities during peaking. This may increase the rest component
and enhance the peaking effect.
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Macrocycle Training Progressions. Over the course of the macrocycle, certain characteristics of
training changes as follows:
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General to Specific. Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle, training
should progress from general activities to specific activities. The general activities should
serve to address some prerequisite for specific training. If some general training activity
is not addressing some prerequisite for specific training, it could likely be eliminated
from the program.
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Simple to Complex. Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle, training
should progress from simple activities to complex activities. This is consistent with the
intensity increases we wish to produce, and the specificity of complex activities.
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Capacity to Power. Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle, training
should progress from capacity development to power development. This means that we
should develop the ability to perform large amounts of work (capacity), before
developing the ability to perform sustained efforts (power). The use of intermittent
work of any type is useful in the early stages of training to develop capacity and prepare
the athlete to exhibit power over longer timeframes.
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Specific Training Sequences
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Sequencing Speed Development. Effective speed training programs, over the course of
the preparation phase of the macrocycle, progress from a primary emphasis on
acceleration development, to absolute speed development. During the mesocycles of
training where absolute speed development is prioritized, acceleration development is
constantly reviewed. A good program prepares an athlete for speed with acceleration
development work, then develops new speed levels using absolute speed development
work.
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Sequencing Strength Development. Effective strength development programs, over the
course of the macrocycle, progress from a primary emphasis on general strength and
strength endurance, to power development, to absolute strength work, to reactive
strength work. This refers only to the sequencing of advanced work in each category.
Each category of work is being addressed at all times, in some manner appropriate to
the athlete’s developmental level and that point in the macrocycle. Advanced forms of
strength development are remediated until the athlete is fully prepared to undertake
the advanced forms of strength training in earnest.
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Sequencing Endurance Training. Endurance training should progress in a way that
progressively increases the acidosis the athlete is subjected to in a patient, progressive
manner. The program should progress from mildly glycolytic work to more severe
glycolytic activities. The development of glycolytic capacity before glycolytic power is a
key concern. Mild to moderate glycolytic work should continuously be reviewed, as this
type of work is helpful in achieving endocrine fitness and stimulating the body’s
recovery processes. It should be noted that the glycolytic loading the athlete is
subjected to need not always take the form of run training.
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Sequencing Flexibility Training. Flexibility training of all types is normally administered
fairly consistently throughout the macrocycle. Certain specific types of flexibility work
might be included at times when flexibility losses are possible due to the type of training
undertaken.
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Sequencing Coordination Training.
Coordination training activities should be
sequenced from general to specific, with periodic increases in complexity. General
agility, mobility, balance work, and simple technical skills are addressed early, and more
demanding technical skills are addressed later.
Mesocyle Planning Considerations
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Mesocycle Length. Most mesocycles are 4 weeks in length, but some may extend as long as 6
weeks. Each mesocycle should include one extended planned rest and recovery opportunity,
and possibly more for longer mesocycles.
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Thematic Training. Each mesocycle should be designed with some theme to address specific
needs. It should fit logically into some progression toward a goal.
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Rest and Recovery. Each mesocycle should have a period of time, usually one microcycle,
consisting of reduced training demand that functions as a rest and recovery opportunity.
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Mesocycle Construction. Most mesocycle arrangements are of a block or rotational theme.
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Block Schemes. Block schemes are constructed of several mesocycles, each of which
has a particular theme. The themes are logically sequenced with correct training
sequences and training prerequisites in order. The chosen theme does not exclusively
identify the types of training done, but identifies the mesocycle’s primary goals and
commonalities of the various training types.
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Rotational Schemes. Rotational schemes contain mesocycles that are composed of
themed microcycles. These themes reoccur in each mesocycle, usually in the same
sequence. Themes are continually addressed in a way appropriate to that particular
point in the macrocycle.
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Combination Schemes. Some programs combine elements of block and rotational
schemes, or use different schemes at various points in the training plan.
Bleeding Phases. Bleeding phases are short periods of time that are used to make smooth
transitions between mesocycles when the themes of these mesocycles greatly differ. The
training in these periods can be used to introduce different training activities and concepts.
Microcycle Planning Considerations
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Gross Planning Concerns. There are two major concerns design of the microcycle.
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Compatible Training. The effective construction of each individual session is a critical
concern. Compatible Training describes the combination of training activities that
enhance each other when combined in a session, effectively increasing the effectiveness
of the session. The grouping of certain training activities within a session, and the
exclusion of others, results from a philosophy of compatible training.
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Complimentary Training. The combination and sequencing of individual training
sessions within the microcycle to enhance the training effect is another critical concern.
Complimentary Training describes training sessions which, when sequenced in a certain
way, enhance the training effect. The sequencing of certain types of sessions in a
particular order, such as the traditional hard-easy model for example, results from a
philosophy of complimentary training.
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Rest and Recovery Inclusion. Another part of microcycle training design is including rest and
recovery. Throughout a well constructed microcycle, various body systems are rested while
alternative ones are being trained. In this way, further rest is provided, while inactivity is
minimized. Each microcycle should include one extended planned rest and recovery
opportunity. More might be needed in difficult microcycles. Most microcycles also include a
secondary rest opportunity. These usually take the form of a day off from training or an easier
training session.
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Grouping Considerations for the Session. The following considerations are often used when
grouping training units to form a session. Grouping using these and similar guidelines insures
compatibility of the units comprising the session. This list is not necessarily all-inclusive.
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Grouping by Neuromuscular Demand. Most effective training systems group units with
a session by neuromuscular demand. Training modalities with high neuromuscular
demand (such as all speed development modalities, multijumps, multithrows, as well as
Olympic, static, and ballistic lifts) are grouped together, while modalities with low
neuromuscular demand (general strength, medicine ball, tempo running, bodybuilding
lifts) are grouped together. When the ratio of high to low neuromuscular demand days
is appropriate, the chances of developing neural fatigue are minimized and speed and
power training concerns are adequately addressed. The presence of the lower
neuromuscular demand days provides contrast to the speed and power work and
stimulates the body’s recovery processes.
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Grouping by Metabolic/Energy System Demand. At times training may be organized by
energy system demands. Activities that tax the alactic acid energy system are grouped
together in certain training sessions, mild glycolytic work is grouped together into
others, as is more intense glycolytic work.
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Grouping by Duration of Power Output. Most effective training systems at times will
group activities by the period of time over which power is exerted during the execution
of a repetition. Activities with short power output timeframes are grouped together in
certain sessions, while activities with longer power output timeframes are grouped
together into other sessions. This practice is most commonly done as a subgrouping of
high neuromuscular demand activities. The density of extended, high neuromuscular
demand sessions must be low.
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Grouping by Coupling/Force Application Timeframes. At times grouping activities by
force application or coupling times is good practice. Activities with longer contact times,
force application times, or larger ranges of motion are grouped together. Activities with
brief coupling or force application timeframes can be grouped as well.
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Grouping by Technical Commonality. Technical similarities can provide a basis for the
grouping of training activities. Most commonly, the horizontal or vertical nature of force
application is the key technical feature to consider. The amplitude of movement
employed in an activity is another frequent consideration, and specific technical
elements of the event might be considered as well.
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Grouping by the Static/Dynamic Nature of the Activity. Classifying an activity
according to its static or dynamic nature can assist in technical development by
preventing motor confusion. Activities that are initiated from a resting position or
involve slower speeds of movement can be grouped together, while activities that have
a high elastic component, are ballistic in nature, and use high speeds of movement can
be assembled into other sessions.
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Grouping by the Rhythm of the Activity. Most training activities with a high technical
component have unique rhythms that may or may not be compatible with the rhythms
of other training activities. Understanding these rhythms and using wise combinations
can assist in technical development by preventing motor confusion.
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Contrasting Sessions. Contrast between various types of training is needed in good microcycle
design. Contrast distinguishes more effectively the individual training stimulus, enhancing
adaptation. A large part of complimentary training design is concerned with providing this
contrast. Key elements to contrast include the level of power output, force application
timeframes, amplitudes of movement during force application, coupling times, speeds of
movement and exercise choice.
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Sequencing Considerations for the Session. In complimentary training constructs, when a
session has been done, there are several options a coach has when planning a theme for a
subsequent day. Some of these options are listed below. This list is not necessarily all-inclusive.
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Rest. A day of rest might be applicable and is typically included at some point in each
microcycle.
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Restoration. A prescription of restoration activities could be made.
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Restorative Sessions. A training session featuring restorative units. These sessions
typically take the form of low neuromuscular demand training, and frequently have a
mild glycolytic component.
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Deeper in the Same Pool. A training session of the same theme, training those qualities
deeper can be used. Typically this construct involves back to back sessions of high
neuromuscular demand, the first being light, and the second more difficult. This is a
good way to intensify the training effect and possibly prepare the athlete for multiple
day competitions. The same construct can be used with sessions of low neuromuscular
demand. Care must be taken in this construct to provide adequate restorative
opportunities or contrast after these back to back sessions are complete.
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Shallower in the Same Pool. A training session of the same theme, training those
qualities shallower can be used. Typically this construct involves back to back sessions of
high neuromuscular demand, the first being difficult, and the second lighter. This is a
good way to intensify the training effect and possibly prepare the athlete for multiple
day competitions. The same construct can be used with sessions of low neuromuscular
demand. Care must be taken in this construct to provide adequate restorative
opportunities or contrast after these back to back sessions are complete.
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Same Theme, Different Hit. A commonly used construct involves training a particular
quality in one way, then training it in a different way in the next session. The alternative
method might involve changing exercise choice, direction of force application, or
intensity/repetition/recovery schemes.
Session Planning and Administration Considerations
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Warmups. Planning the warmup is an important part of session design. The warmup should be
specific to the demands of the day’s activities, progress to intensities near those entailed in the
session, and should feature high amplitudes of movements. Typical warm-ups last from 15-45
minutes in length, depending on the level of the athlete. Warmups can be classified in two ways.
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Ascending Warmups. Ascending warmups increase the tempo and intensity of activity
throughout the warmup, maximizing these variables at the warmup’s end with
intensities near those of the ensuing work. These warm-ups are typically used to
prepare for high intensity, high speed work of and elastic or ballistic nature.
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Descending Warmups. Descending warmups increase the tempo and intensity of work
to a point, and then decrease these variables as the warmup’s end nears. These warmups are typically used to prepare for lower intensity work or sessions with a high motor
learning component.
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Cooldown. Some cooldown activity should be planned to ease the transition of the body to a
calm state. This is often a good opportunity to include specialized training units due to the
generally fatigued state the body is likely to be experiencing at this time.
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Sequencing Training Units. Consideration should be given to the training order of the units.
After warmup, technical components should come next, followed by speed/power components,
followed by activities of a more static nature and endurance components. All of these types of
work need not be present in a session. There may be times however, when altering this order
may enhance coordination and proprioception development, if done in a safe manner.
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Pedagogical Soundness. The session should be sound from a pedagogical standpoint. It should
sequence skills in a logical learning order, and provide a learning environment that is
appropriate for learning at any point in the macrocycle.
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Monitoring Power Output. In administering the jumps training program, the coach should
constantly monitor the athlete’s power output levels during work. Power output should not
drop significantly over the course of a repetition, set, or session. The coach should manipulate
rest intervals, distances, sets, repetitions, and exercise choices to achieve the desired volume of
work without power production dropping.
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Rest and Recovery Inclusion. Rest and recovery inclusion is important during the session. In
addition to specific prescribed rest intervals during units, periodic brief rest periods between
units can enhance the quality of work.
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