What is the difference between an artisan
and an artist? Although
an accomplished artisan
works on the same skill
level as an artist, he lacks
the knowledge of composition, which is the
foundation or underlying
structure of a work of art.
An artisan can skillfully
reproduce a design, while
an artist can create the
design.
In Italy, there are studios of highly
skilled artisans whose sole job is to reproduce
existing sculptures for clients. You would think
that the act of reproducing those sculptures
would eventually turn the craftsmen into artists,
capable of creating their own designs. After
all, part of the learning process in becoming an
artist involves copying art that was created by
the masters. But an artisan copies for the sake
of copying, to faithfully reproduce the original.
An art student copies in order to understand
the parts (compositional components) that
combined to create the design of the original.
The artisan advances his technical skills through
repetition. The art student does this as well, but
also advances his design skills through analysis
of the master’s design concepts and technique.
One aspect of becoming a representational artist is developing the skills to reproduce
the subject accurately, to paint what you see.
Repetition is a basic requirement of developing
these skills: the more you paint, the faster you
progress because your perception is enhanced.
But as you learn how to paint what you see,
you also need to learn when to alter it, when to
deviate from what you see in order to create a
more cohesive whole.
This book begins with
a section on Theory which
offers examples of varied approaches to realism by masters of the past followed by
some general concepts which
aid an artist in directing the
viewer’s eye in a work of art.
The section on Composition covers the process of
creating a design based on the
artist’s overall concept. The
various compositional components (line, shape, form, color,
value range and texture) are explained in detail,
as well as the balancing of these components,
as well as the establishment of a focal point and
directional movements.
A short section on Analysis describes
how I analyze a work-in-progress, looking at
each compositional component separately in
order to determine what parts need to be
modified to achieve the desired effect.
For those who are unfamiliar with
perspective, the section on perspective covers
one-point perspective, two-point perspective
and atmospheric perspective.
The section on technique explains the
layered approach I use in oils and where the
focus is during each stage. Both landscape and
figures are illustrated.
A chronology of artists with a small
sample of their work is included for those interested in the evolution of western art.
Introduction
Lastly, you will find a Reference page of
books and websites I’ve found useful.
theory 1
The many faces of Realism
In developing a style, an artist might ask these questions: Do I want to emphasize
pattern or form? Do I like creating intricate detail or large, simplified shapes? Loosely rendered or
finely blended forms? Bright colors or muted (or a combination of both)? Here are some examples
of different approaches to representational art.
Sandro Botticelli “The Birth of Venus”
Hans Holbein “Sir Thomas More”
Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510)
created an intricately decorative design of
slightly distorted figures (long limbs and torsos with small heads, hands and feet). Edges
of shapes are clearly-defined with shallow
modeling; shadows within the figures are
kept within the middle value range, placing
the emphasis on pattern over form. Note
that the folds of cloth and strands of hair are
created for movement and not intended to
be naturalistic. The overall color scheme is
muted.
More than anything else, it is the
treatment of edges that determines the
illusion of depth: clearly-defined edges read
along picture plane (surface of the picture),
while softly blended edges break the picture
plane, creating a greater sense of depth.
Hans Holbein (1498-1543) was one
of the finest portraitists of all time. This painting shows the same clearly-defined edges as
Botticelli, resulting in a shallow depth while
emphasizing pattern, but the shadows are
deepened, the colors a bit more vibrant. In
both paintings an unnatural light is used. For
example, in the Holbein painting the dark hat
and hair merge into a single shape, while the
face is illuminated, placing greater emphasis on
the face. The artist would have seen strands of
hair and value changes in the hat of the sitter
but chose not to render them; these details were
sacrificed to emphasize mass. Theory 2
While an artist must develop the skills
to paint what he sees, he also learns concepts
which dictate that he alters what he sees in
order to create a more cohesive composition.
Michelangelo Merisi (called Caravaggio, 1571-1610) created a greater sense of
depth by placing more emphasis on light and
shadow and blending the edges of the forms to
soften them. The eye tends to focus primarily
on the pattern of light shapes, then the middle
values and finally into the shadows. With this
Throughout his long art career, Rembrandt
(1606-1669) focused on creating the illusion
of light and cast shadow. He used contrasts to
their fullest effect: heavy impasto in the lights
against thin glazes in shadows, warm colors in
the lights opposing cool shadows, clearly-defined forms against softly-rendered shapes,
Rembrandt “Hendrickje Bathing”
into the shadows. With this approach, the
Carravaggio “Deposition”
approach, the viewer’s eye reads through the
forms more easily, rather than following along
the edges of the shapes. The strong movements contribute to the drama of the scene
and are created by emphasizing curves and
diagonals over vertical and horizontal shapes.
The figures are treated like actors on a stage,
each one contributing a degree of emotional
content and movement, leading to the body
of christ which is bathed in the strongest light.
This tight, overlapping mass of figures is a very
effective way of directing the viewer’s eye.
bright colors contrasting subtle colors. When
used in concert, these concepts aid in pulling
some objects forward in space while pushing
others back, increasing the illusion of depth in
a painting. His loosely-applied brushstrokes
foreshadowed the impressionists’ approach
two centuries later.
Both Caravaggio and Rembrandt used
the concept of chiaroscuro (light and shadow),
in which form is revealed in the lights and lost
in the shadows. These deep shadows are arbitrarily created; the artist could actually see form
and detail in the shadows but withheld it solely
for effect.
theory 3
Renoir (1841-1919) utilizes loose
brushstrokes of roughly-blended colors to
achieve a spontaniety of form that is naturally
lost in the blending process; the tighter that
form is rendered, the more “frozen” the image
becomes. This looseness suggests movement
(while also revealing the artist’s deft touch).
Compare the treatment of the edges in this
work with Botticelli”s painting to see how easily
Edouard Manet “Olympia”
Edouard Manet (1832-1883) altered his
style radically during his lifetime. The painting
above shows his early technique of confronting
the viewer with flatly-modelled lights and sharp
value contrasts which thrust his shapes forward
in space. As he adopted the impressionists’
theories of loosely-rendered forms and roughlyblended colors, he retained the solid compositional structure that is sometimes lacking in
Pierre Renoir “La Loge”
your eye moves through the forms: gloved
hand through transparent cuff into solid, striped
garment. It is the looseness of the edges that
alows such easy movement of the eye through
forms of differing colors and values.
Edouard Manet “Reading”
other Impressionists’ quick studies. Impressionism introduced a new way of utilizing color.
Instead of using muted, tonal shadows, artists
enlivened the color scheme considerably with
blues, purples, mauves, or greens.
Theory 4
We each have our preferences for one
type of form over others, but it is good to
remember that tastes change, and one is not
“better” than another, merely different. These
differences provide us with more visual choices
to enjoy and serve as examples of the infinite
variety of viewpoints and techniques.
perceptions
I work from life, from photographs and from my imagination. I paint what I see but never
reproduce it exactly. Why? Because a painter works within a confined space: the shape of his
canvas. An artist tries to balance shapes, colors and values and create movements between them,
leading the viewer’s eye from one area of the canvas to another. Most of my compositions contain
a focal point: an object or group of objects to which I would like to draw the viewer’s attention, so
the shapes, colors and values are modified to bring more focus to that area, making it the “star” of
the show, while the other areas become a “supporting cast,” providing interest and direction but
not distraction.
The following are general perceptions that assist an artist in directing the viewer’s eye in a
painting. They are derived from natural tendencies of the eye to follow certain patterns, but are
not rules or laws and, therefore, may be used or not, depending on the artist’s particular needs.
Most are illustrated with examples of my work because, as the creator, I know what the artist was
trying to achieve. The eye will flow along a group of
shapes placed close together
In this painting, the rock in the foreground is grouped with weeds and a cowpie to
create a horizontal movement leading the eye
towards the horses. This movement is asssisted
by the strong light on the grass around the
horses. The rock/weed grouping on the left
leads the eye upwards toward the cows. The
cows are similarly grouped to direct the eye up
and to the right, then down the cow’s extended
neck, bringing the viewer’s attention back to
the horses.
This painting was assembled; that is, all
the elements were drawn from separate photos
to create the desired effect.
The eye is attracted to the strongest
value contrasts
The deep shadow of the hill contrasts
the bright whites of the sheep and goats,
thrusting them forward in space while placing
the strongest contrasts in the animals. In this
case, the 15 sheep and goats combine to form
a single horizontal unit, or mass, that becomes
the focal point.
Even if the value range is restricted and
there are no deep shadows or bright lights, this
concept applies. In whatever value range the
artist chooses, juxtaposing the strongest darks
against the strongest lights will draw the viewer’s
eye to that area.
theory 5
A textured surface slows down the eye
(in order to read the extra information)
The eye will be drawn to the
brightest colors in the painting
The transition from shadow into light is
a natural situation for contrasting muted colors
in the shadows against brighter colors in the
lights.
The focal point in this painting is the
girl hanging the basket. The strongest highlights
and brightest colors are confined to the girl’s
garments, contrasting with the warm, subdued
earth colors in the remainder of the painting.
Another approach would be to make all the
colors subdued, causing her to blend in with her
surroundings. This would place the emphasis
on the overall scene rather than on her.
In art, contrasts are employed to create
variety and awareness. By using both bright
and subdued colors to enhance one another,
an artist provides a means of comparison. The
subdued colors create a greater awareness of
just how luminous the bright colors are, while
the brighter colors show the subtlety of the
subdued colors.
Theory 6
The texture I am refering to is the
texture of paint on the rough surface of canvas.
A heavily-loaded brush or a palette knife will
lay a thick stroke of paint over the surface,
resembling but not reproducing the textures
seen in nature. The textured surfaces of Rosa
Bonheur’s cow and Claude Monet’s haystack
demonstrate the tactile quality of paint applied
thickly. Notice that Monet emphasized color
and texture while Bonheur emphasized form.
The eye will look in the direction of an
extended arm or leg, pointed finger or
turned head.
Artists have used this concept for centuries as a means of leading the viewer’s eye
toward a focal point. Used well, it can be a
powerful aid, as shown in Michelangelo’s “The
Creation of Adam.” The powerful simplicity
of his composition is a result of the massing of
shapes: the figure of Adam within the rock, and
the figure of God with the cloud of angels. The
small space left between the finger of God and
Adam’s finger was a stroke of genious typical of
Michelangelo’s power as an artist.
If one area is more clearly defined than
the surrounding areas, the eye will be
drawn to the clearly-defined area.
Here, the background is painted softly,
while the foreground is painted loosely, leaving the figures as the only clearly-defined forms.
This is useful when you want to visually separate
forms from the surrounding area.
However, directing the viewer in too
many directions simply causes confusion, which
Raphael achieved in his “Transfiguration”
shown below. His sound, underlying structure
is thwarted by individual figures looking one
way while pointing another, each clamoring for
the viewer’s attention.
I often render the forms slightly more
clearly within a focal point, while leaving
the supporting areas more loosely suggested.
Clearly-rendered forms invite the viewer to pore
over them, to examine them, which is a good
definition of the purpose of a focal point. Since
I work “loose-to-tight,” my underlying layers of
paint are intended to merely suggest the forms,
which are further refined as the painting progresses. That means I can simply leave supporting
areas at an “earlier” stage, while rendering forms
more tightly in a focal point.
The subject matter determines whether
this concept is used or not. Some subjects work
best with tightly-rendered forms throughout the
painting, while others work better with a loose,
impressionist approach.
theory 7
Isolation balances mass
In the same way that a small area of
interest can balance a larger massed shape, an
isolated object will balance an offset massed
area.
Here the child floats in a field of flowers;
a light shape surrounded by shadow. Her
physical isolation from the shapes above
reflects her mental state: a child’s focus
separated for a moment from the world of
mankind.
Combining two or more of these concepts increases the effect
In this painting, I wanted to create a composition in which the shapes were attached to
the left side if the canvas, throwing the balance off, then use a combination of three concepts to
re-align the balance. The little girl on the right (the focal point) is rendered using the brightest
colors and strongest value contrasts. She is also rendered more tightly, with the middle figure
painted more loosely and the girl in shadow rendered even looser. The combined effect of these
three concepts shifts the emphasis back to the focal point.
Theory 8
comp1
Concepts
An artist’s concept defines his individual
interpretation of a theme. It is here that an
artist’s creativity and individuality best expresses
itself. I’ve included here five examples showing
a variety of concepts derived from a common
theme: “The Last Supper”.
Notice the similarities between Da Vinci’s
version (analyzed in detail under the Structure
heading) and Poussin’s painting. In both, the
balance is symmetrical with the emphasis on
Leonardo Da Vinci
horizontal and vertical movements, resulting in
an overall feeling of quiet and calmness. The
muted light-and-shadow effect also contributes
to the serene mood. Da Vinci’s figures are
more agitated (contrasted against the serenity
of the Christ figure), but they are laid out in a
horizontal band, which contains their overall
movement. Values, colors and shapes are
carefully balanced in an effort to express some
greater ideal, a sense of order.
Nicolas Poussin
comp 2
Peter Paul Rubens
On the other hand, the Rubens,
Tintoretto and Caravaggio paintings employ
harsher contrasts of values and colors while
working with agitated shapes in an attempt to
express greater emotional content. Vertical and
horizontal shapes are minimized while curved
and diagonal movements are emphasized,
creating a feeling of action and spontaneity.
Nicolas Poussin
As you can see, it is the feeling or
mood the artist wishes to convey that
determines which type of composition is
employed.
The Caravaggio example introduces
another concept: Realism. He broke from the
tradition of the times (and was criticized for
it) by introducing commonplace objects into a
prominent position of the composition (look at
the objects on the table) and by using common
folk as models without trying to idealize them.
nude or in costume, and sketched them in various positions using chalk, charcoal or pen and
ink, then composed the scene incorporating
these studies into the composition. The
Also, his bold use of chiaroscuro (light
and shadow) was revolutionary, influencing
artists for generations to come. That is the
Oil study by Géricault
model who posed for the face-down figure
in this Géricault sketch was a young Eugène
Delacroix who would later become a dominant
force in art, leading the Romantic movement.
Michelangelo Merisi (Caravaggio)
type of fresh approach that expands possibilities in art.
Some artists even painted a small,
rough version of their overall concept in oils,
working out color scheme, value range and
major movements before beginning work on
the actual, full-sized canvas as shown here.
Much of the work by the old masters
was narrative, depicting historical scenes or
biblical themes. They hired models to pose
Théodore Géricault “Raft of the Medusa”
A figure study for “Raft of the Medusa”
This traditional approach continues
today under the movement Classical Realism,
whose proponents trace their training in an
unbroken chain back to Gerome.
comp 3
Structure
The following paragraph, by John
Canaday, in his book What is Art? gives a good
description of structure in a work of art in his
analysis of Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper.
“Now, plenty of other pictures have
been constructed just as carefully as the Last
Supper, but it would be hard to find another in
which the construction is so clear and simple
yet so unobtrusive and expressive. Let us insist
that the compositional structure of the Last
Supper does much more than hold together a
picture of great size. It is itself an expressive
factor and (with the picture in its present ruinous condition) the strongest one. The facial
types and expressions that Leonardo developed
with such care are now so blurred they are
only half-decipherable, and the original color
harmonies have faded, thus modifying the
psychological force that Leonardo intended
them to have. Yet the picture still says what
Leonardo wanted it to say because the overall
composition remains clear.”
The basic purpose of structure in
a work of art is to hold together or unify
the compositional components: lines,
comp 4
shapes, colors, value range, etc. It must
also integrate with the overall concept of
the picture; if done well, the viewer will
not be consciously aware of the underlying structure in a composition.
Canaday shows us two diagrams
outlining the structure of the Last Supper. The
first shows the perspective lines of the room
converging at Christ’s head (the focal point of
the composition) and a circular halo surrounding
the Christ figure. Note also that the head is at
the apex of two overlapping triangles.
Placing the focal point at the top of a triangular
structure became a commonly-used device in
religious art.
This second illustration focuses on the
horizontal band of figures, whose strong (agitated) movements provide a counterbalance to
the symmetrical structure. Da Vinci is depicting
the reaction of the disciples to Christ’s revelation that one of them will betray him. Christ’s
calmness is expressed by the triangle shape;
the disciples’ surprise and agitation is expressed
with curves and diagonals.
The Da Vinci and Degas paintings
involve the interaction of multiple figures.
Sometimes though, the subject is simpler, like
this portrait by Rembrandt, in which the large
shape of the figure is slightly offset to the left,
leaving extra space in front of the figure. I use
the word “space” because Rembrandt has
Were all of Da Vinci’s compositions this
complex? No. But the impact of this work of
art on the viewer is due to its underlying structure as much as his skills at creating and
rendering the figures.
Edgar Degas composed this family
portrait with the foreknowledge that the husband
and father on the right was estranged from his
wife and children. He positioned the man with
his back to us and placed vertical shapes (desk
created form in an atmospheric space by
emphasizing light and shadow.
leg, chair leg and wall decoration) between
the man and his family to physically show the
family’s psychological separation.
Structurally, the pose utilizes one of the
most useful movements in art: the “s” curve.
The first diagram shows this movement created
by the relaxed stance of the body and emphasized by the part in his cloak. The second
comp 5
diagram follows the play of light on the figure
which helps direct our eye up the arm to the
head. The major directional movement in
Rosa Bonhuer’s painting of cows pulling a plow
is based on a single “S” curve. The strong
(minor movements that lead the eye away from
the focal point, provide a contrasting balance)
are an integral part of the underlying structure
in any work of art and are explained in more
detail under the Compositional Components
heading.
perspective lines of the plowed field tend to pull
the eye toward the left side of the painting, but
the artist holds our attention on the focal point
(the center group of cows) by placing in them
the strongest value contrasts (the white cow is
the lightest shape in the painting).
The “s” curve creates a soft, gentle
flow. If the artist wishes to create a harsher
movement, angles are emphasized rather
than curves. A subject full of tension requires a composition that assists in
creating that mood. The concept of Théodore Géricault’s huge painting “Raft of the
Medusa” focuses on the moment that survivors
of a shipwreck spot a rescue ship (barely seen
on the horizon in the final version). He massed
the overlapping figures together within a structure based on two intersecting triangles, both
of which are tilted. The left triangular shape is
The second diagram shows how the
secondary or “minor” movements assist in
leading the eye toward the focal point.
Major directional movements, secondary
(minor) movements and counter-movements
comp 6
subdued and supportive; that is, the figures,
angled mast and sail merge into a shadowy
shape that pulls the eye upward and to the left.
The larger triangular shape on the right contains
reinforcing the major directional movements,
sometimes counterbalancing them by creating a
small movement in the opposite direction.
The few horizontal lines in the painting
the major directional movement, thrusting upward to the right (thus the tension between the
two opposing forces), culminating in the figure
at the top trying to signal the ship. The curved
secondary movements shown in blue in the
diagram on the right assist in the flow, moving
our eye from one area to another, sometimes
have been minimized to the extent that they are
merely references and there are no vertical lines
at all, resulting in a dynamic composition.
Underlying structure is worked out prior
to the start of a painting or in the first layer (see
section on Technique).
comp 7
Movements
As seen in the previous pages, directional
movements contribute greatly to the mood in
a work of art. If the artist’s concept involves
drama, he may add harsh contrasting values to
massed shapes, heightening the overall effect.
In Rubens’ depiction of the lowering of Christ
from the cross, all heads are turned to Christ’s
body, the focal point of the composition. However, his figure is a part of a diagonal directional
movement thrusting upward to the right (white
line in diagram). It is arrested by the figure at
the top who is looking down and grasping the
arm of Christ, thus bringing our attention back
down to Christ’s figure. The white cloth combines with Christ’s body to form this primary
directional movement.
Secondary movements (shown in
yellow) assist in leading the eye toward the
focal point. They add thrust and interest to a
painting, but they cannot be made too strong,
or they will compete with, rather than complement, the major directional movements.
Underlying Structure
Directional Movements
Counter-movements (shown in red) run
opposite (counter) to the primary direction,
providing balance and diversity. They are secondary movements that take the viewer out for
a short stroll to see interesting shapes.
As you can see, it is the manipulation
of shapes, values and colors that creates these
movements. Whether they are dramatic or
subtle, directional movements in a composition
are used to lead the viewer’s eye where the
artist wants it to go.
All of the compositional components
must be used in concert to achieve these movements, which is why it takes so long to for an
artist to mature. If a color is too bright or the
wrong value, a shape is too clearly defined, or
brush strokes are applied the wrong direction,
any of these can alter movements, leading the
viewer in directions the artist didn’t intend or
become “eye catchers.”
The phrase “eye catchers” refers to
small areas in a work of art that stand out too
much. They occur in the work of developing
artists who are still learning technique and
composition, but disappear as an artist’s skill
in controlling the compositional components
matures.
Although Rubens’ painting contains
figures, it is easy to translate his concept into
say, a tree with strong light on the trunk with
branches and boughs providing the secondary
and counter-movements.
comp 8
focal point
The focal point is the part of the subject that attracted the artist in the first place.
It is the reason he chose that subject and
the part of the composition that he would
like the viewer to notice first, and last: the
star of the show. It can be a single shape,
a group of shapes or an atmospheric effect
encompassing a shape or group of shapes.
Once the focal point of the subject has been
identified, an underlying structure is created
that supports the mood the artist would like
to impart, including the major directional
movements.
The larger, cream-colored iceberg in
Edwin Church’s painting is contrasted against
the ochre-colored sails of a ship. This is an
example of contrasts providing a focal point
with colors, values and shapes (small shape of
the ship showing the scale of the large iceberg
shape).
Yet John Turner was interested more
in the atmospheric effect than the buildings
The amount of attention the focal
point attracts can be regulated by how it is
treated in relation to its supporting shapes.
For example, the artist could place the
brightest colors and strongest value contrasts
(darks and lights) within the focal point to
attract the viewer’s eye more dramatically.
Or the focal point may be treated with
the same clarity as any other object in the
composition if the artist wishes the viewer’s
attention to be spread throughout the scene.
(This is more common in landscapes where
an artist is trying to capture an overall feeling).
in the scene below. Thus, objects in the foreground are shown in greater contrast, while
the focal point, the cathedral, is enveloped in
haze. Since we have no detail to look at in the
focal point, we tend to dwell more on the sense
of atmosphere and softness that pervades the
painting. In this way, Turner creates a mood
based on atmosphere.
In the Thomas Eakins’ painting
above, the figure (focal point) rowing the
scull is looking at us, drawing our attention,
yet all the other objects in the painting are
treated with equal clarity, even distant objects
which would be muted if he chose to render
atmosphere on a hazy day. The result is a
crystal-clear moment frozen in time.
comp 9
compositional
components
The compositional components are
the basic elements with which an artist works.
They are: line, shape, form, color, values and
texture. The process of analyzing a painting
requires looking at each of these elements separately to see if it is fulfilling its proper function
in contributing to the overall concept, or if it is
detracting from it.
line
is the basic component of art
and comes in many forms: descriptive lines, silhouette lines,
contour lines, cross-hatch lines. Grab a pencil
or brush and start drawing and you’re working with line. With the type of realism I use in
painting and drawing, I emphasize form over
line, but a series of lines (think of a pin-striped
suit with folds) can reinforce the sense of form.
If you draw a smooth line of consistent
width, darkness and color, the eye will follow
along it quickly, because there is nothing to slow
it down, to ”catch the eye;” but draw a varied
line by altering the weight (darkness), width,
Notice Rembrandt’s line width
constantly varies
Contour lines
that are
crosshatched
color or edge, and the viewer’s eye will slow
down to read the added information. In the
Rembrandt sketch (below, left) the line width
and darkness constantly varies, sometimes
loosely describing the form, sometimes merging
with other lines to create shadows. Remember
the phrase “variety is the spice of life”? Well,
in art, variety is an essential ingredient.
Silhouette lines describe the outside
edge of a shape. Some artists complete an
entire drawing using only silhouette lines, varying the width and darkness of the line to create
a shallow sense of depth.
Silhouette
lines
Contour lines assist greatly in describing the form, and are composed of closelyspaced parallel lines which follow the contour
of the form.
Cross-hatch lines are a series of intersecting lines which allow the artist to create
tones visually with lines without use of blending
or smudging. The Durer drawing above shows
how a curved cross-hatch describes the
forms well while also creating small directional
movements. I use this concept in painting, but
with blended strokes.
comp 10
shapes
are the building
blocks of art.
The relationship
between a group of shapes and their relative
proportions establishes the basic structure of a
composition.
The eye tends to read larger shapes
first, then move to smaller ones. The relationship of small shapes to the large ones, of detail
to mass, establishes the major balance of a
composition, although some artists override the
shapes by placing emphasis on light and shadow
(chiaroscuro).
Reducing the amount of visual detail
in a work of art places attention on its large,
underlying shapes. But detail is created from
what? Small shapes! An artist makes constant
choices as to how much detail he will place in
his work of art and how those details will affect
his overall concept. So ask yourself what feeling you want to impart to the viewer. What
attracts you to the subject you’ve chosen?
Which part of your subject do you want to
focus on? Answering these questions helps
to clarify your overall concept, which, in turn,
allows you to make better choices of which
shapes to emphasize.
It’s important to remember that the clarity of the edges of shapes determines the type
of realism achieved (see section on Theory).
Clearly defined edges create a shallow depth, as
the viewer’s eye follows along the edge of the
shape. Blended edges, or edges that become
lost in shadow, increase the sense of form and
illusion of depth, breaking the picture plane and
allowing the eye to move more readily from
one shape to another rather than reading along
the edge. The handling of edges of shapes and
their relationship with the illusion of depth in
art is a slow concept to develop in a student’s
consciousness. As I analyze a student’s work,
this is the most frequent adjustment that must
be made.
Artists find it useful to reduce the complex shapes found in nature to basic geometric
shapes: rectangles, squares, circles, ovals and
triangles. Converted to forms, these become
cubes, cylinders, spheres, and cones. So a
person’s neck is first seen and drawn as a
cylinder, then modified to more closely
resemble a neck (see Botticelli’s study above).
form
Shapes are twodimensional but
form is threedimensional.
There are no shapes in nature, only forms.
Nature is three-dimensional. To create the
illusion of, say, a tree on canvas, we first draw
lines creating shapes, then use value changes to
suggest forms.
Remember: value changes create
form. That is why a black-and-white drawing
or photograph looks realistic. Color adds to
the sense of realism, of course: brown bark,
green leaves, blue sky, etc. But early painting
techniques show the relationship of color to
values very well: paintings were fully modeled in
black-and-white, then color was applied using
transparent glazes.
Learning to render form in both drawing and painting takes up the major portion of
a student’s early studies. This is the reason so
much time is spent drawing from life: to perfect
our skills at rendering form. It is also a life-long
(and really enjoyable learning process.
comp 11
value range
The value range is the gradation from
black to white. I’ve noticed when teaching oil
painting that, for most students, an accurate
perception of the value range develops very
slowly. When a student is having difficulty in
an area of a painting, it is almost always due
to the fact that the value of the color has been
rendered incorrectly. There is a natural tendency when working with color to focus on its
hue and not read the value of the color accurately.
I paint and draw using the full value
range, from the darkest darks I can make to
the lightest lights, which increases the impact
of the painting. However, some artists use a
restricted value range, working only with
light-to-middle values as a part of their personal
style. Also, some subjects require a restricted
value range in order to accurately portray
them, such as this foggy day painted by Sisley.
figures easily becomes over-dramatic, like
actors emoting on stage. But this painting
by Eakins shows its potential to bring intense
focus to the focal point of the composition.
color
In painting, the three primary colors are
red, yellow and blue.
Primary Colors
As mentioned in the Form heading, we
use value changes to render form, making an
object look three-dimensional. But strong value
changes are also the key ingredient of chiaroscuro, the use of light and shadow. With
this concept, the edges of forms frequently
become lost in shadow, with a spotlight effect
placed upon the focal point. Developed fully
by Caravaggio (see section on Theory), this
approach greatly affects the mood in a work
of art, creating a sense of drama. Strong light
and shadow combined with wildly-gesturing
comp 12
Secondary Colors
Mixing any two of these will result in a
secondary color: red + yellow makes orange,
red + blue makes purple, and blue + yellow
makes green. Complimentary colors are
opposites on the color wheel: red/green, blue/
orange and purple/yellow. We don’t see
these bright colors in nature, though, do we?
(Of course, nature uses light while we’re using
paint). In order to reproduce nature’s colors
using oils, we mix combinations of these three
colors with white to create the correct value
and hue.
Color intensity can be used to draw the
eye to the focal point (see section on Theory),
by contrasting bright colors against subdued
colors. So how do you subdue overly-bright
colors? By adding the third color. Here are
some examples:
Pthalo Blue and Cadmium Yellow Light
make a bright green which can be subdued by
adding a touch of Cadmium Red Light.
Cadmium Red Light and Cadmium
Yellow Light make a bright orange, subdued by
adding a little Pthalo Blue.
Pthalo Blue and Alizarin Crimson make
a bright (and dark) purple, subdued by adding
a touch of Cadmium Yellow Light or Yellow
Ochre. See the pattern?
Occasionally, a student will complain of
getting “muddy” colors. The cause is using too
much of the third color: a bright green toned
down with red becomes muddy, or too grayish,
if too much of the red is added.
Of course, we have access to more than
the three primary colors. The bright green example using Pthalo Blue mixed with Cadmium
Yellow Light could have been subdued with
Burnt Sienna, a reddish brown, rather than the
bright Cadmium Red. The earth colors: Burnt
Umber, Burnt Sienna, Yellow Ochre are all
good modifying hues for toning down colors
that are too bright.
I use these nine colors in the Talens Rembrandt
brand, which I prefer for their
buttery consistency:
Try this: add a bit of white to cadmium
red light to make a bright pink (the amount
of white will determine the value, or degree
of lightness, of your color), then add a touch
of cadmium yellow light and you have a light,
bright orange. To subdue or mute that orange,
just add a tiny bit of blue (I use pthalo blue).
This is the combination I used for flesh
tones in the example at top right.
Cadmium Yellow Light
Cadmium Red Light
Alizarin Crimson or Permanent Madder Deep
Pthalo Blue
Ultramarine Blue
Yellow Ochre
Burnt Sienna
Burnt Umber
Zinc White
To mix green (say, for foliage), start
with cadmium yellow light mixed with a little
pthalo blue, and add white to determine the
value you wish. You’ve made a very bright
green which can be subdued by adding what
color? Red. A touch of cadmium red light will
subdue or tone down the green.
For those new to painting, Ultramarine
is a dark, reddish blue, while Pthalo is a dark,
greenish blue.
Remember, white determines the value
and the third color regulates the intensity. For
darker values, of course, you don’t add white.
Using Alizarin Crimson (a very dark, cool red),
instead of Cadmium Red Light, will allow you
to work in the darker value range.
Cadmium Red Light has a lot of yellow
in it and has a light value. Alizarin Crimson is a
cool, dark, intense red that is no longer carried
by Talens, who makes the Rembrandt oils, but
Permanent Madder Deep is the same color.
The reason I don’t buy a light blue is
that Pthalo Blue with white added is the same
color as Cerulean Blue (a light blue), perfect for
blue skies and all variations of bright green.
comp 13
Even white comes in varieties: Zinc,
Titanium or Lead (Lead White has been phased
out because of its toxicity). I use Zinc, thoughwhen I switch occasionally to Titanium, the
difference seems negligible to me. Those nine
colors are the only ones I use, but the infinite
variety of colors available in an art supply store
allows each artist to select those which fit his
needs.
Most instructors warn against adding
black to colors to modify them or tone down
the intensity. The reason for this is that the
color black, when added to another color such
as red, yellow or blue, will quickly “muddy”
it. The color black can be used effectively, but
Burnt Umber mixed with Pthalo Blue or Ultramarine Blue creates a rich dark which suits my
needs.
us at a glance who the artist was.
In theory, warm colors tend to come
forward in space, while cool colors recede. This
is useful when rendering landscapes to increase
the sense of depth. Even in shallow space, like
a figure in a room, using warm colors in the
lights and cool colors in the shadows is an effective use of color.
These concepts are not absolute, however; an experienced artist uses them when
they serve his purpose, but not constantly. I
painted this baroque well in a courtyard which
was made of warm ochre-colored stones. The
top of the courtyard is bathed in a warm light
An artist develops a preference for
certain color combinations which becomes a
part of his style. Picasso had his “blue period”,
and Van Gogh’s distinctive colors combined
with heavy impasto and unblended strokes tell
with the bottom of the well resting in cool
shadows. It was a natural subject for the
“warm lights and cool shadows” theory but
because of the warm-colored stones, I reversed
it in the bottom part of the painting, using cool
lights and warm shadows. An artist uses theories until they no longer serve their purpose,
then alters them.
In an “arbitrary color relationship,”
the artist changes the local color of an object
to whatever suits his color scheme. This Van
comp 14
Texture
Gogh self-portrait shows a color shift towards
the red/green (complimentary colors) that fit
his color theories.
Texture can refer to subject matter:
the texture of bark on a tree, an old weathered
wall or board; or the medium: a dry-brush
technique or glaze revealing the texture of the
canvas, or heavy impasto of paint.
Vincent Van Gogh developed a surface
texture by juxtaposing unblended brush strokes,
combining them to create strong directional
movements which best expressed the emotion
he was trying to convey. This is a good lesson:
The use of a palette knife to achieve tex-
ture through thick layers of paint scraped over
each other is effective in creating a very
“painterly”, loose result. When used sparingly
and combined with areas that are painted with
a brush, a great variety of surface texture is
possible while still creating realistic forms. The
example above is a detail of the Courbet painting below (look in the lower left corner of the
painting).
the technique should support the artist’s needs
or concept; if not, it becomes a distraction.
I’ve always admired Rembrandt’s painting technique of contrasting heavy impasto in
the lights against thin glazes in the shadows. It
is extremely effective in creating the illusion of
depth, and the type of realistic form he wished
to convey. He was able to achieve something
very difficult: to replace the local texture with
a few broad brush strokes which re-created the
sense of realism that he saw. To me, this is
implementing technique at the highest level.
The ability to achieve texture directly,
comp 15
with a few brush
strokes, is a sign of
maturity in the development of an artist’s technique.
may be defined
as a grouping of
several smaller
objects or shapes to compose a single larger
unit. The colors and values of the separate
parts are minimized to place emphasis on the
larger shape.
mass
A foggy day illustrates mass well: we
are able to see some detail in shapes that are
closer to us, but as they recede in space, we
see less and less detail, until we read only the
silhouette shape.
The concept of mass is an important
tool in art, helping the artist to subjugate portions of his subject matter to a supporting role
(minimizing detail), or for emphasizing certain
movements. In Whistler’s painting of his
mother, the detail in her dress (highlights, folds
and shadows) and the form of the chair has
been minimized to emphasize the silhouette of
comp 16
the dress, with the baseboard, chair and dress
massing into one large dark shape which is
balanced against the greys of the painting.
The massing of the light shapes in Manet’s “Olympia” is especially effective,
creating a large, dynamic shape full of movement contrasted against a subtle, dark background. If he had painted all the detail, colors
persp 1
1-point perspective
The horizon line is the first to be placed
in the composition. It is placed parallel to the
top and bottom sides of the canvas unless the
artist chooses to tip the angle in which we view
the subject (which happens in aerial photographs taken from a plane). It represents the
eye level of the viewer and, of course, the artist.
If the artist depicted the inside of a
room that was 8 feet high, and he wanted the
Horizon line (Eye level)
Vanishing point
viewer to see it as though he were standing
within the room, he would place the vanishing
point rather high, approximately 2/3 up from
the bottom. If he wanted the viewer to see the
same room from a sitting position, he would
place the horizon line a bit below center.
Horizon line (Eye level)
is lowered
Vanishing point
In the first example, the room is seen
as though the viewer was standing slightly to
the right of center. In the second example, the
vanishing point is moved left of center, showing us the room from that angle. Any object in
the room - windows, doors, furniture, etc. - that
persp 2
sits parallel to the walls utilizes this single
vanishing point.
However, if an object is askew, like the
table in Thomas Eakins’ study for his painting
of chess players (above), all of its surfaces will
have its own vanishing point on the same
horizon line. Note Eakins placed his horizon
line high so that we view the scene as though
we are standing in the room.
How would you draw tiles or a series of
posts receding in 1-point perspective? If you
need accuracy, it must be laid out on a sheet of
paper and transferred to the canvas, because a
design must be drawn outside and abutting the
canvas.
In the illustration below, the tan shape
represents a 20” x 24” canvas with the blue
horizon line placed a bit below center. Remember, the placement of the horizon line determines
the angle of your view; if you didn’t want to
view the posts from such a great height, you
would lower the horizon line.
A grid was drawn abutting the bottom
of the canvas and adjacent to the right side.
The grid is a plan view, meaning you are looking straight down on the pattern. The brown
dots represent the tops of 5 posts.
To create the perspective,
1. I drew lines from the grid intersections to the vanishing point.
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2. The light green line was drawn from
the left corner of the grid to the point where
the horizon line ends at the right side of the
canvas (coinciding with the right side of the
grid).
3. Where this green line intersects
with the gray lines that were drawn in step 1,
horizontal lines are drawn indicating the depth
of the grid squares in perspective.
4. I placed the posts along an intersection line of the grid pattern but they could be
placed anywhere within the grid. The height
of the front post is actual size in relation to the
grid: for example, if the post height was equal
to the width of 2 grid squares (as it is in this
case), that would be the height of the first post.
When viewing objects in nature, the
horizon line is the first line to be located, and
its positioning on the canvas is based on the
artist’s relationship to the objects. If he is
looking down on the objects, the horizon line is
positioned higher; if the objects are above him,
the horizon line is placed lower.
Eakins used 1-point perspective in
laying out his study of oarsmen below, and
placed them against a bridge abutment laid out
in 2-point perspective. Of course they share a
common horizon line.
0
Grid
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f
persp 3
2-point perspective
The photo on the right is a typical example of what an artist encounters as he tries
to reproduce buildings. If the artist is situated
where he sees two walls, he will need to find
the position of the horizon line and then locate
two vanishing points, one for each wall. The
height of the horizon line is found by extending two lines (line A and line B, for example)
until they intersect. Frequently, one of the
vanishing points will extend a good distance
away from the end of the wall, as does the right
one in this case. I find it useful to tack a small
nail through one end of a straight stick and use
the vanishing point as a pivot point to draw the
lines.
Notice in the photo on the right, the
camera has distorted the vertcal lines. If an artist wished, it’s possible to find a third vanishing
point where these vertical lines merge (3-point
perspective which might be applicable in rendering skyscrapers), but the normal procedure
is to straighten all verticals so that they are parallel to the vertcal sides of the canvas, as shown
below.
An artist’s personality determines how
accurately he draws the perpective in his work
Line A
Vanishing
point
Line B
persp 4
of art. Some artists meticulously lay out perpective studies of their concept and transfer
them to the canvas, as Thomas Eakins did. It
is more common in art though, for an artist to
roughly render perspective: locate the horizon
line and draw perspective lines freehand. This
is really dictated by an artist’s personal style;
a loose, suggestive painting style requires less
accuracy, but if you want to draw every brick in
a wall, you’ve no alternative but to lay out the
perspective accurately.
atmospheric perspective
Also called aerial perspective, these
concepts assist the artist in creating the illusion
of depth in a painting. Three components are
used to create this effect: values, colors and
mass.
Values
In order to produce the sense of depth
in a painting that we see in nature, an artist
uses darker shadows in the foreground, then
gradually lightens those he wishes to recede
in space, with the shadows in the most distant
object being the lightest.
Also, the top of a mountain is clearer
than its base (atmosphere gets thicker toward
the earth). On a hazy day, notice that receding foothills get progressively lighter as they go
back in space with each hill being clearer and
exhibiting more contrast at the top and softer
and lighter at its base.
Color
Warm colors come forward in space,
cool colors recede. Colors with a lot of yellow
- oranges, yellow-greens, yellow ochre, burnt sienna - all tend to come forward in space. Light
purples, blue-grays or alizarin chrimson (a cool
red) tend to recede. But this effect is tied to
light values; these same colors in middle or dark
value range do not recede as much because
they are more intense, and intense colors come
forward.
I frequently place the foreground in
shadow, setting the lighter, briighter, warm colors back a bit in space, as in the painting below.
Instead of making the foreground shadows warm
persp 5
to bring them foreward in space
according to our concept, I made
the foreground shadows cool,
the middle ground warm and
reverted back to cool colors for
the background. Within that cool
foreground, I painted the horses
in warm colors.
So the concept of “warm
colors come foreward in space
while cool colors recede” can be
manipulated to suit the artist’s
wishes as can all concepts in art.
Mass
As shapes recede, they
tend to mass. We are able to see
detail in shapes that are close to us, like the
textured walls in the image on the top right, but
in the more distant shapes we see their overall
form without being able to see their parts; in
a word, they mass. This is especially evident
on a foggy or hazy day where all we are able to
see of distant objects is their silhouette.
Tied to this is the clarity of edges.
Atmosphere softens edges, making them less
distinct the farther away they are. It would not
serve your purpose to minimize detail, massing the shapes, and then create a crisp edge
around those shapes. The effects would contradict each other.
All of these concepts are based on tendencies of how we read objects in an
persp 6
atmospheric environment. On a clear day, they
are less evident.
There are also situations when an artist
deliberately alters these effects in order to place
more emphasis on the focal point. In the painting below, cool blues and touches of Alizarin
Chrimson (a cool red) were used in the foreground water while yellows and reds warmed
the environment of the island and distant hills,
a color scheme that worked better for this
particular subject.
Remember, like the tendencies covered
in the section on Theory, these concepts are
meant to assist in creating the illusion of depth.
They are not rules. Use them until they no longer
serve your purpose, then make alterations.
tech 1
overview
Once I have chosen a subject to paint,
I select which shapes are essential to recreate
the subject and which can be eliminated or
modified. If an element is a distraction, causes
confusion in reading the space or doesn’t fit
with the mood or feeling I wish to create in the
painting, it must be modified or omitted. Rather
than doing thumbnail sketches, I do all this in
my mind before beginning the painting. After
brushing in the first lines, I just sit and look
at the shapes and how they interact before
proceeding. These are simplified lines and
intended to broadly suggest scale, proportion
and overall balance. If they need much modification, I rub out or lighten the first lines so that
they don’t distract since drawing in too many
lines of equal weight causes confusion.
I look at the subject long enough to
notice the natural movements that occur and
potential movements that I can create by massing shapes or distorting them slightly. An artist
is free to make whatever changes he wishes,
of course. By adjusting values, shapes, color
intensity, clarity of edges and textures, the artist
recreates the images in his subject to achieve
greater unity, directing the viewer’s attention to
where he wants.
I begin with construction lines and
roughed-in shapes in the first layer, establishing
a flat version of my compositional concept and
emphasizing the balance and proportion of the
larger underlying shapes. This compositional
concept is based on the mood or feeling that
I want to create, a result of the subjects which
initially inspired me. Some objects are eliminated in this process while others are retained.
For example, the shape of a tree’s
branches are easily altered. By changing their
direction slightly or making them thicker or
thinner, the balance is slightly shifted and subtle
movements can be set up which lead the eye
toward a focal point (or counter-movements
may be established to provide variety and
interest). Finer adjustments cannot be made
until well into the painting, but modifications in
the larger shapes are decided upon in the first
stage.
tech 2
The layered approach in oil painting
allows me to divide the creative process into
separate stages. Here is a brief description of
what I focus on in each layer.
1st Layer - emphasis on composition
A. Roughly sketch the pattern of the
larger shapes in the composition.
B. Cover the canvas completely with a
thin layer of paint, blocking-in
the shapes in flat tones. Establish the focal point and major movements.
C. Allow the oils to dry overnight.
2nd Layer - emphasis on form
A. Redraw the shapes more accurately, focusing on the relationship of the smaller shapes to the larger ones.
B. Roughly develop the form within each shape, thinning the paints with Liquin and blending them wet-in-
wet.
C. Use slightly darker values of each color than is actually in the subject.
D. Adjust values and shapes as necessary to emphasize movements leading to focal point.
E. Allow the oils to dry overnight.
3rd Layer - emphasis on color and texture (I finally get to paint what I see!)
A. Re-paint middle and light values with heavier impasto using dry-brush technique to achieve desired texture.
B. Use lighter values and brighter colors within focal point area.
C. It is only in this last layer that you are able to accurately modify the colors, values and edges of shapes, creating the forms as you see them.
Let me repeat this because of its
importance!
It is only in this last layer that you are able to accurately modify the colors, values and edges of shapes, creating the forms as you see them.
Large-to-small should be written
LARGE-TO-SMALL because of its importance
in composition. This phrase, in fact, is the
key to composition. It must be an embedded
thought in the mind of an artist.
An art lesson from school serves as
an example of its application. The instructor
wrinkled up a piece of tin foil, partially opened
The lesson: the small parts are always
subjected to the whole.
Before beginning a rendering, an artist
looks at the subject long enough to discover the
pattern and movements within it and decides
which to keep, which to exaggerate and which
to eliminate. In this way, by slightly adjusting
values, colors or shapes, along with softening
it up, tacked it to the wall and told us to draw
it. The light in the room revealed hundreds of
small facets in the tin foil. How was this an
example of the phrase “large-to-small”?
Because the hundreds of small facets combined
to create pattern, movements and overall form.
or accentuating edges, an artist changes the
form of the subject to suit his needs and to
better express his overall concept.
These elements - pattern, movements
and overall form - make up the LARGE and are
to be discovered first, then kept in mind when
rendering the SMALL, or individual parts. If
the artist fails to do this - to continually check
to see if the overall form is being respected - he
will fail to render the form properly.
The overall sense of form
that defines the character of
my subject is the first thing I try to capture. It is also the
last thing I check to see if
I’ve retained it.
tech 3
analysis
In writing, we are able to convey our
thoughts and moods, tell a story or inspire
people through the use of words. Words are
made up of letters: a, b, c, etc. Letters are the
building blocks of the words which convey our
thoughts.
The building blocks in
art are lines, shapes, values,
colors and textures. It is the
various combinations of these
compositional components that
conveys, or doesn’t convey, the
artist’s impression to the viewer.
In looking at a workin-progress analytically, these
components are looked at separately to see if they are contributing to, or detracting from the
overall concept. The ability to
analyze a work of art in this way
is acquired through practice: the
more you look, the more you
see.
What that means is that students don’t
see what needs to be altered in their works-inprogress because they have not yet developed
the habit of looking carefully. They
don’t really look at the shapes, values, colors
and textures in their subject (there are no lines
in nature), nor do they really see them in their
artwork as it develops.
Fortunately, the habit of looking carefully,
of analyzing, is one that anyone can acquire, but
it must be a conscious effort in the beginning.
tech 4
Shape is one component that needs
careful attention in realistic art. For those who
draw and paint the human figure and work
with portraits, shapes are constantly refined
as the work progresses. Since all shapes in
the human body are curved or
diagonal, not perfectly vertical
or horizontal, a convenient reference exists for an artist: the
edges of his paper or canvas
are vertcal and horizontal
(unless he is working on a
circular or oval canvas). When
looking at the subject, he can
compare its shapes with an
imaginary vertical or horizontal
line. If he’s having trouble visualizing such a line, holding up
his brush or pencil vertically or
horizontally allows him to see
the subject’s shape in relation
to it. With practice, an artist
is eventually able to see more
closely any shape’s relationship to vertical and horizontal
without such an aide.
Similarly, the overall proportion of a
figure’s parts to one another can be ascertained
with a pencil or brush as a rough measuring
device. Held consistently at arm’s length, it
can provide a rough measure of the vertical
distance between the eyes and the mouth in
comarison with the horizontal distance from
the outside of one eye to the other, as an
example.
It is common for students to attempt to
render the smaller shapes with accuracy too
soon, before checking them in relation to the
whole. As a result, the drawing is out of proportion. The order of importance when rendering shapes in art is large-to-small, which is
a reminder to check scale and position before
rendering tightly.
This means the artist first checks to see
if the roughly-drawn shape of an eye is in the
right position and the right scale in relation to
the overall size of the head before refining its
shape, for example. I speak from experience.
having once spent a day accurately rendering
a pair of hands with interlocking fingers, only
to notice later they were too small and located
too high, making the forearms appear too
short. Had I checked the position and scale of
the shapes first, the painting would have proceeded smoothly. I find that by starting loosely
when rendering the figure, and staying loose
as long as possible, I feel free to move shapes
around and re-scale them, gradually tightening
the form as I go. I call this approach looseto-tight. Prolonging this loose stage provides
more opportunity to notice shapes that need to
be adjusted before tightening up and rendering
them more accurately.
In the middle stage, I suggested a cast
shadow behind the figure but decided to remove it in order to place more emphasis on the
dark shape of the hair.
Notice that the small shapes - mouth,
nose, eyes - were not refined untill the fourth
image. Also, the dark shape of the hair as it
falls across the back gradually lightens, keeping
the strongest value contrasts to the area of the
head.
For some reason, the most difficult
component to visualize is the value range. We
tend to focus on color changes rather than the
value changes that are essential in describing
form. But as you can see in these images, it
is possible to create a realistic image without
color.
In this case, the color was applied with
transparent glazes after the modeling was
done in gray tones and allowed to dry. The
glazes could have been applied in a richer color
scheme, but I chose a tonal range with just a
hint of color.
The series of images at the bottom of
these pages shows a painting that was begun
over an umber ground, painted in the first
stages with grays using Burnt Umber and
Ultramarine Blue.
Notice in the first two images there is
little attempt to render the forms accurately.
The emphasis is on position of the larger
shapes, overall proportion and establishing the
value range.
tech 5
example 1
When viewing his subject, an artist is
presented with an incredible amount of information: colors, textures, shapes and values,
and he must determine which components to
emphasize and which to simplify or omit.
Why doesn’t an artist just paint exactly
what he sees? Because it doesn’t serve his purpose to do so. Nature is randomly arranged,
with no particular order in terms of colors,
shapes, textures and values. If an artist were to
simply reproduce nature, the viewer’s eye when
looking at his canvas would also be directed
randomly, which is not what the artist wants.
An artist begins by drawing lines, creating and balancing the larger shapes within
the context of the canvas, and establishing a
color scheme and value range that imparts the
intended feeling.
Here, the figure was reclining on a
white wicker lounge with a late afternoon
light enveloping all the forms around her. My
concept was to emphasize the light, contrasting
the cool colors in the figure and lounge against
warm colors in the light. The form of the
lounge would fade into the atmosphere of the
surrounding light.
The division of space and rough balance
was sketched with an umber tone on the white
canvas. The second illustration shows the
tech 6
first layer completely covered with blocked-in
shapes, rough color scheme and value range
established. In the early stages of a painting,
these components are in a state of flux, with
the emphasis temporarily shifting as each is
modified.
The shapes are flatly conceived with no
suggestion of form (volume) as yet. This allows
me to see and analyze them without the distraction of seeing form or detail. My analysis of the
shapes told me that the head needed to be rendered smaller and moved slightly to the right to
allow room for the curve of the lounge, which
was moved left, closer to the canvas edge.
The next illustration shows the head
re-drawn with values blocked-in, beginning the
process of describing form.
Although I draw with a dark line (usually
Pthalo blue mixed with burnt umber), I immediately rough-in adjacent colors and values, then
blend the edges slightly to convert the lines into
shapes and forms. Some of my students fail
to take this step at this early stage, resulting in
shapes (and even brush strokes) with hard, crisp
edges that later have to be softened and blended to make them read properly in space (hard
edges read on the surface plane while blended
edges recede).
I almost always begin with the head
or hands because I feel better as the painting
progresses when these shapes are rendered a
bit more accurately. But I also began lightening
the background in the upper left of the canvas
to establish the full value range. I like to put in
my lightest and darkest values fairly early, giving
me a guide when rendering all other values in
relation to them.
modified one last time to create the forms and
intended mood as clearly as possible. This is
the stage where it all comes together (hopefully)
to the best of my ability at the time.
Initially, art students have difficulty analyzing their own work; that is, they can’t yet see
which compositional component needs to be
altered to achieve the desired effect. But with
practice, everyone can gradually develop the
ability to visualize them separately: looking only
at the shapes, then only at the values, colors,
brush strokes, etc. It takes practice to recognize the movements that occur as a result of
the interaction of compositional components,
but they cannot be controlled until they are
recognized, so developing this ability is a crucial
step in becoming an experienced artist. Indeed,
it is the artist’s ability to analyze his own work
objectively that enables him to determine when
it is finished.
So, next I put in the dark of the hair,
the light and shadow on the hands, arms and
pillow, then the shadow tone of the dress, as
shown in the illustration above.
With all of the shadow values established, I rendered the feet, and then I was ready
for the final layer.
In this layer, all the components shapes, colors, values and textures - are
How does an artist know when a painting is finished? When he looks at the shapes,
colors, values and textures and finds that they
all work together to create the impression he
wishes to impart to the viewer. If he looks at
the same work of art several years later and
notices areas that would have worked better
if they had been altered, it is a sign that his
perception has increased, that he is now able
to see with a more knowledgeable eye. Thus an
artist’s perception evolves through experience.
tech 7
example 2
This size of this canvas was 24” x 36”. It took
about an hour and a half
to sketch in the shapes and
block in the values in the first
layer.
I begin a painting
by drawing on the canvas,
using a medium-size round
brush with oils diluted in
turpentine. Pthalo blue and
burnt umber mixed together
provide a rather neutral
color which I like as a tone
for drawing. My intention is
to define the largest shapes,
using a just few lines. If the
rendering is too far off, it is
possible to “erase” a line by
simply rubbing it while still
wet with a paper towel or
rag, then redrawing, as illustrated in the head of
the first example below.
Gessoed canvas is a very bright white,
so I always cover the canvas with a thin layer
of oils so that none of the white gesso shows
through. It’s possible to simply cover the gesso
with a single tone of a medium value color,
like an earth tone, which would take away the
bright white, but I don’t usually do that. I take
the opportunity of using the first layer to rough
in my composition, completely covering the
white gesso.
tech 8
I block-in the larger
shapes with a 1” flat synthetic
sable brush, using a simplified
value range, and establishing
a basic color scheme. By
blocking-in the values very
simply and treating the
shapes flatly, I can see more
clearly if the shapes balance.
I thin the colors of
the first layer with Liquin,
while also adding white so it
doesn’t become transparent.
This gives me a thin, opaque
coating.
The idea structurally is
to work from thin to thick,
with the first layer being the
thinnest, the next layer being
thicker, and building up the
thickness gradually, layer by layer. You would
not want to paint the first layer thickly then go
over it with thinner layers because this would
cause the paint to crack with age.
The four images below show the progress of the first layer, which I set aside to dry
overnight. Adding Liquin to the oils speeds up
the drying process slightly. If the painting were
started in the morning, it would be possible to
start the second layer in the afternoon if the
artist wished. I rarely do this, though, because I
always have several canvases at different stages
waiting to be worked on.
I began the second layer by applying
a thin coat of Liquin to the dark shadows of
the head so that I could see the depth of the
shadow and degree of the darkness more accurately. I had used burnt umber with pthalo blue
to create the darks, and earth colors “sink in” a
bit when they dry, making it impossible to see
their true value. Many artists spray on Damar
retouch varnish to bring back the original tones,
but I use Liquin.
I mixed Cadmium Red Light with white,
then added Cadmium Yellow Light to create
a color that represented the middle-value skin
tones. I almost always start the skin tones using
these two colors because I like their brightness.
To tone them down as the values change going into the shadows, a touch of Pthalo Blue is
added. At this point, I didn’t use Liquin to thin
the paints, preferring a thicker impasto. This
began the process of rendering form from the
flat shapes.
The images above show the form of the
head roughed-in and give a good comparison
of those roughed-in forms with the original
flat shapes of the hand and shoulder. Rendering form requires a minimum of three values:
lights, middle values and shadows. These value
changes create new shapes which, if rendered
accurately, resemble the model, creating a likeness.
I mixed pthalo blue and burnt umber
with yellow ochre to lay in the rather flat value
of the background as shown in the photo
above, using the 1” flat brush again. The
amount of ochre added determined the value I
was after.
The image below shows the rough
development of the folds of cloth, ti leaves and
lower hand. I apply the paint loosely in this
second stage, with minimal blending.
I rarely paint portraits because my idea
enjoyment in painting comes from creating
form in space, and I like the freedom of altering
the shapes to create my own version of realism,
so that is where I place my focus.
tech 9
In this painting I worked down from the
head to the feet in developing the forms, but I
have no specific regimen: I start with whichever
part of the form interests me.
The third layer is the most fun for me,
because this is when I finally get to paint form
the way I see it. I rarely use Liquin at this stage,
preferring a heavier impasto effect. Using a
dry-brush technique lets me emphasize the texture of the canvas as well as the thickness of the
paint.
The concept of the dry-brush approach
is to apply paint without thinning it, dragging
the thick paint across the rough surface of the
canvas and previous layers of paint, which must
be dry. Those previous colors were of a slightly
darker value than what I want on the final layer
and the colors were subdued. In this layer, I
use brighter colors than what I see in nature so
that they “pop” a bit, or really come forward in
space. As I drag on these light, bright colors, I
scumble the edges, allowing some of the muted
colors of the previous layer to show through.
The muted and bright colors enhance one
another in the same way that complimentary
colors enhance each other.
I don’t pre-mix the colors thoroughly
on the palette. In flesh tones, I mix a touch of
Cadmium Red Light with quite a bit of white
to make an extremely bright, light pink, then
place this wherever I want the lightest lights to
be. Then I add a little more of the red to the
mix, dropping the value, and add a little yellow
to warm it. These extremely bright, light colors
are laid on by just touching the brush to the
tech 10
surface lightly and dragging a short distance.
This process applies the paint to the surface
ridges of the canvas, emphasizing the textured
surface.
In looking at the different stages of this
painting, notice that it is begun very loosely,
changing from line to shapes to form, then
modifying the form to create the desired texture
in the final layer. This loose-to-tight approach
allows me to leave the painting at any of the
various degrees of tightness along the way.
tech 11
example 3
In this painting, about 40” x 48” in
size, I wanted the castle’s presence to dominate
the compositional space the way it dominates
the hillside in the maritime port of Belvedere,
Calabria, in southern Italy. I filled the width of
the canvas with the castle shape, and placed
the castle high on the canvas, leaving room in
the lower foreground for a horizontal vineyard.
That helped set the castle back in space.
I began the second day by drawing the
pattern of the left turret. It was a circular column, which is represented in perspective with
a series of ovals.
I started sketching the pattern of arches
from the center line working outward in each
direction. This meant counting the number
The image above shows the first layer
covered, with the shapes conceived rather
flatly. I always thin the paints with Liquin in
this first layer as I structurally create a painting
from thin to thick; the first layer is the thinnest,
the second layer using thicker paint, and the
final layer using a heavier impasto effect.
tech 12
I don’t put in the natural texture or
color at this stage. I am simply focusing on
the large, simple shapes and working with the
smaller shapes in relation to them, using values
that are a little darker than I actually see on the
object.
I get these values by looking at the shadows that actually exist in the structure. Later
I’ll put a lighter color and value that will more
accurately represent the color and value of the
stonework.
of arches on the tower and drawing a series
of small rectangles, larger in the center and
tapering both height and width as they near
the outer edges. Some artists would do this
mechanically on paper using the rules of perspective for perfect accuracy. I simply like the
challenge of trying to do it freehand, but that
also means I’m always a little off.
Since I draw with a brush using a dark
value of Burnt Umber and Pthalo Blue, I use
this tone to block in the shadows, helping me
visualize the form. It took about 2 hours to
draw in this pattern, establishing the basic form
of the first turret.
After sketching the turret, I modified the
shapes of the rest of the castle and blocked-in
the shadows of the foreground.
In developing the sky and clouds, I bring
a lot of colors into the second layer - all 3 of
the primary colors - blue, yellow and red mixed
I like the process of drawing, both on
canvas and on paper. Sometimes I render the
objects very loosely and keep the looseness as
I change the shapes to forms. When rendering
heads, hands or oval shapes like this, however,
I draw it as accurately as I can, then later
roughen it up a bit when I apply the textured
effect in the last layer.
tech 13
with enough white to achieve the value. In the
lighter areas of the clouds, I started with a bit
of Cadmium Red Light and Cadmium Yellow
Light mixed with a lot of white. This gave it
the warm cast that I wanted. Usually in the
sky though, I use Alizarin Crimson as my red
because the coolness is appropriate for shapes
that sit back in space. In this case I wanted the
cloud colors to be really warm and bright.
Oils have an interesting characteristic:
the thicker the layer, the more brilliant the
color. This is one of the reasons I like the
layered approach to oil painting and working
dark to light, because I can gradually build up
the values so that in my final layer, I’m applying only a slightly lighter value than the previous layer. If I apply the last layer thickly - a lot
of white mixed in with a small amount of color
- then I can achieve a brilliance that I can’t get
otherwise.
Just as a side note, the early morning
light and late afternoon light tend to bring out
stronger colors in clouds ... all colors tend to be
stronger. Also, the low angle of the light reveals forms more clearly. When I take photos
to use as a reference, I prefer this early light or
a late light.
I started developing the light pattern
in the stones of the turret on the right using
Cadmium Red Light, Yellow Ochre and Burnt
variation, slightly darkening the shadows of
the stones. See image above, where all the
shadows are glazed in. With a glaze, you can
slightly alter the colors and the values at the
same time that you establish a texture.
A glaze is a transparent stain, meaning
no white is added which would have made it
opaque. The opacity of the glaze was determined by the amount of pigment in relation to
the medium. I use Liquin as the medium rather
than mixing my own glazes. The turret was a
good candidate for a glaze because I had the
drawing sketched in, and I wanted to darken
the values while adding color, without affecting
the shapes. The underlying layer to be glazed
must be dry.
I applied the glaze over the turret a little
darker than I actually wanted (with a half-inch
flat brush).
When you apply a stain, the brush
strokes are visible, so you can either leave them
visible or you can rub in the stain while it’s still
damp (before it becomes tacky) with a cloth or
paper towel, which pushes the glaze into the
recessed areas of canvas, takes away the brush
strokes, and emphasizes the texture of the
canvas. So with the stain, you have complete
control over the values, the colors and even the
textures.
Umber, as shown above. For the shadows
of the base of the turret, I made a glaze of
Burnt Umber and Pthalo Blue, mixing in some
Cadmium Red Light in some areas for color
tech 14
A glaze is also a good way of modifying
the warmth and coolness of an area. In this
painting, I was working with warm lights and
cool shadows, so as I developed the form in the
right turret, I added ochres, reds, yellows and
white in the lights using thicker paint; but in
In the image below, I’ve moved over to
the drawbridge area, using a liner (also called
a rigger) brush to render the lights. I apply the
lights using an impasto, or thick paint, for contrast with the thinly glazed shadows.
Glaze
the shadows I used a glaze that was towards the
blue side with some reds in it.
Below the left turret, the shadowy area
was very cool, almost purplish, so I started that
area by bringing in a bluish brown glaze which
made the shadowy area very cool. I followed
that by painting in the texture in a middle value
using warm, reddish tones to contrast the
purples.
The image below shows the castle
shape fully established.
In the vineyard, I created a color and
value that represented the local color of the
leaves and created the pattern of movement all
the way across (see image on next page) before
I developed the light and shadow effect.
So, I establish a pattern first, then
rough-in the volumes (or forms), and finally
render light and shadow. I tried to create a
shape that was typical of the movements within
the pattern of leaves and also the vines and the
vertical sticks that hold everything in place.
I drew in the pattern of holes in the
column, then began the textured stone effect
using warm reddish lights. This is the stage
where colors, values and textures are combined
to closely re-create the weathered feeling of the
stonework.
I use the concept of revealing form in
the lights while subduing or merely suggesting form in the shadows. So I spend most of
the time rendering the lights. The shadows
are treated more loosely, with less attention to
detail.
tech 15
The castle shape provided somewhat
of a challenge because of its strong rectangular form. Its blocky shape makes a very static
kind of movement. The vineyard gave me an
opportunity to bring in, through the use of light
and shadow, a movement that would counter
the blocky feeling of the castle.
This brings up a good point. You can
use light and shadow to create a whole different set of movements than the architectural
shapes would suggest. For example, a strong
light coming through a window creates an
angular pattern on a wall which sets up a
different movement than the architectural
shapes that make up the structure.
I glazed over the pattern of the vineyard
with Pthalo Blue, Burnt Umber and Cadmium
Red Light, darkening and putting a texture into
the leaves. It was at this point that I needed
to decide how much information I wanted to
put into the leaves and how much attention I
wanted to give to the vineyard.
The amount of detail I include, the
color changes and the value changes, determines how much time the viewer’s eye spends
tech 16
on that part of the painting. So the question arose at this point: how much did I want
the viewer to dwell on that as opposed to the
castle?
The glazing suggested the form for the
darker values, then I went over the top edges of
the vineyard (the silhouette shape) with a highlight in places to bring it forward in space. This
highlight also created a greater sense of form.
In the last stage of developing the form,
I always use a light, bright color that represents
the highlights on the form. This cannot be put
in until the middle values are developed in the
structure. The highlights are what make the
form come forward in space, or not, depending
on how much and how strong of a highlight you
put on it.
So on the areas that I want to really
come forward and to create a greater sense
of depth, I use a much stronger, purer, lighter
color so I have the greatest contrast where I
want the form to come forward in space.
Timing for Belvedere castle painting ...
45 minutes - drawing inital layout with brush
90 minutes - covering canvas with first layer
2 hours - sketch in detail of turret
4 hours - glazed in shadows in castle, vineyard, foreground and
brought light and color into sky and clouds
7 hours - texture and detail in castle
3 hours - vineyard and foreground
3 hours - vineyard and glazing
7 hours - texture of castle, highlights, weeds
5 hours - detail of left turret, vineyard and shape of ruins between castle and
vineyard; also put light in clouds and landscape in right background
3 hours - redefining edges of the vineyard leaves, glazing
tech 17
The Northern Renaissance
Centered in Germany and the Netherlands, 15th-16th Centuries
The northern European tradition of Gothic Art was greatly affected by the technical and
philosophical advancements of the Renaissance in Italy. While less concerned with studies of
anatomy and linear perspective, northern artists were masters of technique, and their works are
marvels of exquisite detail.
The great artists who inspired the Northern Renaissance included Robert Campin, Jan van
Eyck (and his brother Hubert, about whom little is known) and Rogier van der Weyden. As Italy
moved into the High Renaissance, the north retained a distinct Gothic influence.
Yet masters like Dürer, Bosch, Bruegel and Holbein were the equal of the greatest artists of
the south. In the mid-16th century, as in the south, the Northern Renaissance eventually gave
way to a highly stylized Mannerism.
The High Renaissance
Centered in Italy, Early 16th Century
The High Renaissance was the culmination of the artistic revolution of the Early
Renaissance, and one of the great explosions of creative genius in history. It is notable for three
of the greatest artists in history: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael.
Also active at this time were such masters as Giovanni Bellini, Giorgione and Titian.
By about the 1520’s, High Renaissance art had become exaggerated into the style known as
Mannerism.
Mannerism
Europe, Mid to Late 16th Century
      
Mannerism, the artistic style which gained popularity in the period following the High
Renaissance, takes as its ideals the work of Raphael and Michelangelo Buonarroti. It is considered
to be a period of technical accomplishment but of formulaic, theatrical and overly stylized work.
Mannerist Art is characterized by a complex composition, with muscular and elongated
figures in complex poses.
The Baroque Era
Europe, 17th Century
Baroque Art emerged in Europe around 1600, as a reaction against the intricate and
formulaic Mannerist style which dominated the Late Renaissance. Baroque Art is less complex,
more realistic and more emotionally affecting than Mannerism. This movement was encouraged
by the Catholic Church, the most important patron of the arts at that time, as a return to tradition
and spirituality.
One of the great periods of art history, Baroque Art was developed by Caravaggio, Annibale
Carracci, and Gianlorenzo Bernini, among others. This was also the age of Rubens, Rembrandt,
Velázquez, Vermeer. and Nicolas Poussin.
movements 1
Rococo Art
Europe, 1715 to 1774
The Rococo style succeeded Baroque Art in Europe. It was centered in France, and is
generally associated with the reign of King Louis XV (1715-1774). It is a light, elaborate and
decorative style of art. Quintessentially Rococo artists include Watteau, Fragonard, François
Boucher, and Tiepolo. Rococo was eventually replaced by Neoclassicism, which was the popular
style of the American and French revolutions.
Neoclassical Art
Mid-18th Century to Early-19th Century
Neoclassical Art is a severe, unemotional form of art harkening back to the style of ancient
Greece and Rome. Its rigidity was a reaction to the overbred Rococo style and the emotional
Baroque style. The rise of Neoclassical Art was part of a general revival of classical thought, which
was of some importance in the American and French revolutions.
Important Neoclassicists include the architects Robert Adam and Robert Smirke, the sculptors
Antonio Canova, Bertel Thorvaldsen, and Jean-Antoine Houdon, and painters Anton Raphael
Mengs, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, and Jacques-Louis David.
Around 1800, Romanticism emerged as a reaction to Neoclassicism. It did not really replace
the Neoclassical style so much as act as a counterbalancing influence, and many artists were
influenced by both styles to some degree.   Neoclassical Art was also a substantial direct influence on
19th-century Academic Art.
Academic Art
Academic Art is the painting and sculpture produced under the influence of the European
Academies, where many artists received their formal training. It is characterized by its highly
finished style, its use of historical or mythological subject matter, and its moralistic tone. Neoclassical
Art was closely associated with the Academies. The term “Academic Art” is associated particularly
with the French Academy and its influence on the Salons in the 19th century.
Artists such as Bouguereau and Jean-Leon Gerome epitomize this style.
Romanticism
Late 18th Century to Mid 19th Century
Romanticism might best be described as anti-Classicism. A reaction against Neoclassicism,
it is a deeply-felt style which is individualistic, beautiful, exotic, and emotionally wrought. Although
Romanticism and Neoclassicism were philosophically opposed, they were the dominant European
styles for generations, and many artists were affected to a greater or lesser degree by both.
Artists might work in both styles at different times or even mix the styles, creating an intellectually
Romantic work using a Neoclassical visual style, for example.
Great artists closely associated with Romanticism include Eugene Delacroix, J.M.W. Turner,
Caspar David Friedrich, John Constable, Thomas Gainsborough, Francisco de Goya, Joseph
Mallord William Turner, and William Blake.  
In the U.S., the leading Romantic movement was the Hudson River School of dramatic landscape
painting. Obvious successors of Romanticism include the Pre-Raphaelite movement and the Symbolists.
But Impressionism and much of 20th century art is also firmly rooted in the Romantic tradition.
movements 2
Victorian Classicism
Britain, Mid to Late 19th Century
Victorian Classicism was a British style of historical painting inspired by the art and
architecture of Classical Greece and Rome. In the 19th century, an increasing number of
Europeans made the “Grand Tour” to Mediterranean lands. There was a great popular interest
in the region’s ancient ruins and exotic cultures, and this interest fuelled the rise of Classicism in
Britain, and Orientalism, which was mostly centered in continental Europe. The Classicists were
closely associated with the Pre-Raphaelites, many artists being influenced by both styles to one
degree or another. Both movements were highly romantic and were inspired by similar historical
and mythological themes -- the key distinction being that the Classicists embodied the rigid
Academic standards of painting, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was initially formed as a
rebellion against those same standards.
Lawrence Alma-Tadema and Frederick Leighton were the leading Classicists, and indeed in
their lifetimes were considered by many to be the finest painters of their generation.
Realism
Mid-19th Century
Realism is an approach to art in which subjects are portrayed in as straightforward manner
as possible, without idealizing them and without following the rules of formal theory. The
earliest Realist work began to appear in the 18th century, as a reaction against the excesses of
Romanticism and Neoclassicism. This is evident in John Singleton Copley’s paintings and some
of the works of Goya. But the great Realist era was the mid-19th century, as artists became
disillusioned with the Salon system and the influence of the Academies.
Realism came closest to being an organized movement in France, inspiring artists such as
Corot and Millet, and engendering the Barbizon School of landscape painting.   Besides Copley,
American Realists included Thomas Eakins, and Henry Ossawa Tanner, both of whom also
received formal training in France. French Realism was a guiding influence on the philosophy of
the Impressionists.  
The Ashcan School, the American Scene Painters, and, much later, the Contemporary
Realist movement are all following the American Realist tradition.
The Barbizon School
France, Mid-19th Century
The Barbizon School was a group of landscape artists working in the region of the French
town of Barbizon. They rejected the Academic tradition, abandoning theory in an attempt to
achieve a truer representation of the countryside, and are considered to be part of the French
Realist movement.
Theodore Rousseau (not to be confused with native artist Henri Rousseau) is the best-known
member of the group. Other prominent members included Charles-Francois Daubigny and
Constant Troyon. Realist painters Camille Corot and Jean-Francois Millet are also sometimes
loosely associated with this school. The Barbizon School artists are often considered to have been
forerunners of the Impressionists, who took a similar philosophical approach to their art.
movements 3
Impressionism
Centered in France, 1860’s to 1880’s
Impressionism is a light, spontaneous manner of painting which began in France as a
reaction against the formalism of the dominant Academic style. The naturalistic and down-toearth treatment of its subjects has its roots in the French Realism of Corot and others. The
movement’s name came from Monet’s early work, Impression: Sunrise, which was singled out for
criticism by Louis Leroy on its exhibition.
The hallmark of the style is the attempt to capture the subjective impression of light in a
scene.
The core of the earliest Impressionist group was made up of Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste
Renoir, and Alfred Sisley. Others associated with this period were Camille Pissarro, Edgar Degas,
Gustave Caillebotte, Frederic Bazille, Edouard Manet, and Mary Cassatt.
The Hudson River School
America, 1835 to 1870
The Hudson River School was a group of painters, led by Thomas Cole, who painted
awesomely Romantic images of America’s wilderness, in the Hudson River Valley and also in the
newly opened West. The use of light effects, to dramatically portray such elements as mist and
sunsets, developed into a sub-specialty known as Luminism.
In addition to Cole, the best-known practioners of this style were Albert Bierstadt and
Frederic Edwin Church.
movements 4
Chronology of artists
This is a list of representative artists whose works I particularly admire. They are presented
chronologically (as much as possible) to give a sense of the age in which they lived.
Northern Renaissance
Jan van Eyck
1395-1441 Flemish
Albrecht Durer
1471-1528 German
Hans Holbein the Younger
1497-1543 German
High Renaissance
Sandro Botticelli (Alessandro Filipepi)
1444-1510 Italian
Leonardo da Vinci
1452-1519 Italian
Michelangelo Buonarroti 1475-1564 Italian
Giorgione
1478-1510 Italian
Raphael
1483-1520 Italian
Titian
1485-1576 Italian
Baroque
Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi) (born in Caravaggio)
1571-1610 Italian
Annibale Carracci
1560-1609 Italian
Peter Paul Rubens
1577-1640 Flemish
chrono1
Baroque
(cont)
Rembrandt van Rijn
1606-1669 Dutch
Jan Vermeer
1632-1675 Dutch
Diego Velasquez
1599-1660 Spanish
Nicolas Poussin
1594-1665 French
Realism
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot
1796-1875 French
Rosa Bonheur
1822-1849 French
Romanticism
Théodore Géricault
1791-1824 French
Eugène Delacroix
1798-1863 French
Jmw Turner
1775-1851 English
John Constable
1776-1837 English
Academic
Paul Delaroche
1797-1856 French
Jean-Leon Gerome 1824-1904 French
James McNeil Whistler
1834-1903 American
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Neo-Classicism
Jacques-Louis David
1748-1825 French
Jean-August-Dominique Ingres
1780-1867 French
Studied under David
Impressionism
Claude Monet
1840-1926 French
Pierre-Auguste Renoir
1841-1919 French
Camille Pissaro
1830-1903 French
Studied under Corot
Alfred Sisley
1839-1899 French
Studied under Corot
Edouard Manet
1832-1883 French
Hudson River School
Fredrich Edwin Church
1826-1900 American
Albert Bierstadt
1830-1902 American
American Realism
Thomas Eakins
1844-1916 American
Studied under Gerome
Andrew Wyeth
1917-Now American
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Drawing Lessons from the Great Masters
Robert Beverly Hale
Copyright © 1964 Watson-Guptill Publications
ISBN 0-8230-1400-2
Curator of American Painting and Sculpture,
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Instructor of Drawing and Lecturer on Anatomy,
the Art Students League of New York
Adjunct Professor of Drawing,
Columbia University
Painting begins with drawing, and this excellent book leads you through the process of
seeing and constructing form using examples from the masters. If you’re serious about becoming
an artist, this book is essential.
Techniques of the World’s Great Painters
Consultant Editor: Waldemar Januszczak
Copyright © 1980 QED Publishing Limited
32 Kingly Court, London W1
ISBN 0-89009-368-7
This book shows actual-size details from the masters’ works with accompanying text that
outlines their process in stages. If you wish to expand your technique or try a different approach,
this gives you lots of options. Browsing through these pages also gives you an overview of the
evolution of western art.
What is Art?
An Introduction to Painting, Sculpture and Architecture by John Canaday
Copyright © 1983 Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
Distributed by Random House, Inc., New York
ISBN 0-394-50320-1
ISBN 0-394-32450-1 (Paperback) (which of course comes apart after heavy use)
Written from an art critic’s viewpoint, this is a well-written book that helps open your eyes
when looking at art. An advanced book, not for beginners. But if you are willing to wade through
it, you would gain an in-depth knowledge of how art at the highest level is created. If you like this
book, Canaday also wrote “Mainstreams of Modern Art”, the textbook we used at the Museum
Art School in Portland, Oregon.
A Treasury of Impressionism
Nathaniel Harris
Copyright © 1979 The Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited
ISBN 0-517-26864-7
Covers the lives and art of the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists. A good way to
compare the different styles of the Impressionists. Their color concepts changed art radically and
influence us even today. In my own painting, I combine some of their concepts with the solid form
and realism found in previous masters.
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