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RunningHead:ProjectII
Running Through the Years: Exploring Erikson’s Model of Adult Development and the Motivation of the Long Distance Runner Laurie Beland 1
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Atthecoreofmydesiretobecomeacounseloristhebeliefthatpeopleare
capableofchangethroughouttheirentirelife.Thisoptimisticviewpointisone
groundedintheunderstandingthattheprocessoftransformingourselvesisinfact
difficult,andsometimespainfullyso.Aschildren,itseemsthatchangecameeasier,
ourbrainsandbodiesmoremalleableandlesspronetobecoming“stuck”inpast
mistakesandfailures.Astheyearsprogress,webecomeadultswhohavesurviveda
hostofchallenges,insultsandinjuries‐bothphysicalandemotional.Inorderto
remainhealthyinbothrespects,weturntoavarietyofremedies,includingself‐help
books,counseling,spirituality,familyandfriends‐justtonameafew.
Inourpursuitofwellness,mostofusacknowledgealinkbetweenphysicaland
emotionalhealth.ThisinterconnectionhaslongbeenrecognizedbyEastern
medicinepractitionersandhasbeengainingincreasingacceptanceintheWest.Itis
notuncommonforacounselortorecommendphysicalexerciseasawayof
alleviatingdepression,lighteninganxiety,orbolsteringself‐esteem‐andresearch
supportsitsefficacy.Asalongdistancerunnerforthepast20years,Ihave
experiencedfirst‐handthepowerfulinteractionbetweenphysicalandemotional
health,andhaveusedexercise‐specificallyrunning‐asameansofcopingwithjust
abouteverythinglifehasthrownatme‐frommoreseriousissuessuchasillnessand
divorcetomoreeverydaychallengessuchasjob‐relatedstress.
Throughoutmyrunningyears,Ihaveoftenthoughtabouttheunderlyingreasons
thatdriveapersontorunlongdistances.Thebenefitsdescribedabovecanbe
gainedfromaprogramofregularphysicalactivitywithsessionslastingonlythirty
minutesorevenless‐afactagainupheldbymanyresearchstudies(Netz&Wu,
2008;Penedo&Dahn,2005,DiLorenzoetal.,2005).Whenexaminingmyownas
wellasothers’reasonsforparticipationindistancerunning,Ihavenoticedthatthey
sometimesseemtoreflectchronologicalage.Inotherwords,asrunnersage,the
“why”behindtheirrunningseemstoshift.
Throughoutthelectures,readingsanddiscussionsinthiscourse,wehavelooked
atseveraltheoriesofhumandevelopment,seekingtounderstandtheforcesthat
shapeusintothehumanbeingsweeventuallybecome.Iwasparticularlydrawnto
developmentalpsychologistErikErikson,sincehesupportsmyoptimisticviewthat
wecancontinuetogrowthroughoutouradultyears.Erikson’stheoryisoneof
dynamicpersonalitydevelopmentcomprisedofeightstages,eachroughly
correlatedtoachronologicalagerange.Erikson’slaterwork,since1960,focused
moreonthreestagesofadulthood:young(age20‐40),middle(age40‐65),andlate
(age65andolder)(Zock,2004).AsIreadabouttheconcernsandtasksassociated
witheachofthesestages,Ibegantoseeaconnectiontothereasonsunderlying
participationindistancerunning.Idecidedtoinvestigatethepossibilityofa
relationshipbetweenErikson’stheoryofadultdevelopmentandthereasonswhy
runnerschoosetoparticipateinthissportthatinvolvestime‐consumingtraining,a
highlevelofcommitmentandphysicaldiscomfort.Thisisanimportanttopictome
sinceittakestheconceptsofatheoristwhoIadmireandseekstofindconnections
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betweenhisideasandtheeverydayconcernsandchallengesofmyselfandpeople
aroundme.
Inordertoprovideamoresolidfoundationformyexplorationofthis
relationship,IreadmoreofErikson’sworkspecificallyrelatedtothethreephasesof
adultdevelopment.Eriksonbelievesthatateachstage,anindividualisfacedwith
certaintasks,orchallengesthatmustbedealtwithand/orresolvedbeforebeing
capableofmovingontothenextphase.Duringthefirststageofadultdevelopment
(Stage6,referredtoasIntimacyvs.Isolation)thechallengesrevolvearounda
concernwithfindingcompanionshipandlove.Hereweseekmutuallysatisfying
relationships,primarilythroughromanticpartnersandfriends.Eriksonassertsthat
itisonlyafterareasonablesenseofidentityisachievedthatanindividualiscapable
ofhavingtrueintimacywithanyone,includingoneself.Whenthissenseofidentity
isobtained,theindividualcanbecomeengagedintestingthatidentitythrough
encounterswithothers.Itisonlywhenapersonhasafirmsenseofhisorherown
selfthatitbecomespossibletofusewithothersthroughsexualpartners,life
partners,friendsandcolleagues.Inessence,Eriksonissimplysayingthatweneed
toknowourselvesbeforewecantrulybondwithothers.Thecapacitytoloveis
acquired;theindividualiscapableofenteringintointimaterelationshipswithout
fearoflosinghisorherownidentity.Additionally,theindividualisabletobealone
withoutfeelingisolated‐againduetoastrongsenseofself.(Zock,2004).
MiddleAdulthood(Stage7)isreferredtoasGenerativityversusStagnation.By
“generativity”,Eriksonwasreferringtonotonlyprocreation,butalsoproductivity
andcreativity.AccordingtoErikson,everyindividualhastheneedtobegenerative
insomesense:tocareforsomethingorsomeone.Withoutthis,afeelingof
stagnationandarejectiveattitudetowardstheworldwillprevail(Erikson,1980).In
thesemiddleadultyears,Eriksonobservedthatwetendtobeoccupiedwithfinding
creativeandmeaningfulworkaswellaswithissuessurroundingthefamily.During
thisstage,adultsoftenseekwaystotransmittheirvaluesontothenextgeneration.
Wefindoutletsforthiscreativedrivethroughtaskssuchasparenting,teaching,
mentoring,coachingandleading(Sigelman&Rider,2008).Astudyconductedby
Vaillant(1977)providedsupportforthenotionthatthoseintheir40’sbecome
increasinglyinterestedinpassingonsomethingofvalue,eithertotheirown
childrenortoyoungerpeopleintheworkplaceorotherenvironments.Vaillant’s
studyrevealedthatindividualsinthisstageexperienceself‐growth,becomingmore
caringandself‐awareastheyapproachtheir50’s,withafewexperiencingwhat
couldbelabeleda“mid‐lifecrisis”(Sigelman&Rider,2008).
Adultsinmidlifemaybeaskingthequestion,“HaveIleftmymark?”,andtendto
seekwaystoexpressthemselvesactivelyandcreativelyintheirsearchforasenseof
meaningintheirlife.Adultswhoareachievingasenseofgenerativitytendtobe
caringpeople,committedparents,productiveworkersandmentorsaswellas
leadersintheircommunity(Erikson,1980).In“BigFive”terms,generativeadults
tendtobemoreagreeable,opentonewexperiences,lowinneuroticism,andin
generalmoresatisfiedwiththeirlives.Thisstageoflifecanbeoneofgreat
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psychosocialgrowthforbothmenandwomen:afindingthatagainreflects
Erikson’sstandthatweremaincapableofchangethroughoutlife(Sigelman&Rider,
2008).
LateAdulthood(Stage8)isdescribedasIntegrityversusDespair.Here,the
individualmustbecomeconvincedthatlifeingeneralisworthliving,and
specificallythatthelifeonehasled,includingallitsnegativeaspects,hasbeengood.
Theindividualseekstoaccepthisorherlifeastheoneandonlymeaningfullifeone
couldhaveled(Bradley,1997).Throughthisacceptanceofone’sownlife,onealso
acknowledgesthatthelifestylesofotherpeopleandculturesmaybeasgoodas
one’sown.Thisstageoflifealsobringswithitacertaindetachment:deathis
acceptedasthenaturalendingofthelifecycle,somethingthatbelongstolifeitself,
andthereforeisnottobefeared.Theoppositeofreachingthislevelisafeelingof
despair:thesensethatlifehasbeenwithoutmeaning.Ithasbeenshownthatthe
fearexpressedmostbyoldpeopleisthatlifehasgonebywithouttheirgetting
consciouscontroloverit,andthatitisnowtoolatetochange.Howeverwhena
senseofintegrityisachieved,wisdomemerges(Zock,2004).
Mychallengeinthisprojectwastodesignamethodofgaininginsightintoa
runner’smotivationinawaythatelicitedapossibleconnectiontothestages
describedabove.Idecidedtocreateasurveyofitemsreflectiveofarangeof
motivatingfactorsunderlyingparticipationindistancerunning,withthesurvey
itemswordedinawaythatalsomirroredErikson’sideasaboutadultdevelopment.
Tothisend,Ilookedtoseveralsources,includingTheInventoryofPsychosocial
Balance(IPB).TheIPBwasdevelopedbyConstantinople(1969)asaneffortto
translateErikson’stheoreticalobservationsintoempiricaloperationssuitablefor
researchandclinicalapplications.Somerepresentativeitemsfromthisscale
include:Intimacy(Stage6)‐“Ihaveexperiencedsomeveryclosefriendships”;
Generativity(Stage7)‐“Iderivepleasureinwatchingachildmasteranewskill”and
“Planningforfuturegenerationsisveryimportanttome”;EgoIntegrity(Stage8)‐
“Lifehasbeengoodtome”.TheIPBprovidedaframeworkasIbeganto
conceptualizequestionsthatwouldinvestigateapossiblelinkbetweentherunner’s
thoughtsandactionsandErikson’stheory.
AnothervaluablesourceinthemakingofthesurveywasthePsychosocialTask
DevelopmentInventory(PTDI)basedupontheworkofDonHamachek(2011).
Hamachek’swork,describedasan“adaptationofErikErikson’sPsychosocial
DevelopmentalTasks”,isaself‐helptoolwhosegoalistohelpapersondiscover
theirstrengthsandweaknessesintheareasoftrust,autonomy,initiative,industry
andidentity(2011).ThePTDIdescribedtheimplicitattitudeassociatedwitheach
stageofdevelopment,providingmewithmorefuelforthecreationofthesurvey.
AccordingtothePTDI,theunderlyingperspectiveofindividualsineachofthethree
adultstagesofdevelopmentisasfollows:
Stage6:ImplicitAttitude:
1. I’mokayandothersaretoo.
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2. Otherscangenerallybetrusted.
3. Lifecanbedifficult,butthroughmutualinterdependencewecanmakeit.
Stage7:ImplicitAttitude:
1. WhatcanIgivetoothers?
2. HowcanIpassalongwhatIhavelearned?
3. Ienjoybeingcreativeandproductive.
Stage8:ImplicitAttitude:
1. Ihavemuchtobethankfulfor.
2. Iamincontrolofmylife.
3. IacceptmyselfforwhoIam,andIacceptothersforwhotheyare.
Oncemysurveywascomplete(acopyisattached),Idecidedthatthebestwayto
administeritwasthroughanonlineservicecalledSurveyMonkey.Thiswould
enablerespondentstocompletethequestionnaireattheirleisure,intheprivacyof
theirownhomeandwithtotalanonymity.Findingsubjectswaseasy,asIbelongtoa
runningclubcomprisedofadultsrepresentingawidevarietyofages.Sincethisisa
localclub,participantsreflectthelargercommunityingeneral:predominantly
Caucasian,middletoupper‐middleclassprofessionals.Theclub(namedthe
AmazingFeetRunningClub)describesitselfinthefollowingwayonitswebsite:
“Theclubhasevolvedfromprimarilya"fitness"promotingorganization,to
onewhosemembershaveafairlywiderangeofinterests.Whilepromoting
fitnessandmaximizingqualityoflifeisstillthefoundationoftheAmazing
FeetRunningClub,manymembersareavidmarathonrunners,triathletes,as
wellasultramarathoners.”
Thewebsitegoesontosaythat“theclubhasabout100membersthatarepretty
evenlysplitbetweenmenandwoman.Almostallofthemembersresideinthe
Morris,SomersetandUnionCountyarea.Membersrangeinagefromthe20'switha
fairlylargecontingentofmastersrunners(over40)”.
Thesurveywassentthroughamassemail,withaintroductorymessage
explainingthereasonforthesurveyandrequestingvoluntaryparticipation.Acopy
ofthisemailmessageisattachedattheendofthispaper.Resultswerereceived
throughtheSurveyMonkeywebsite.
Results
Atotalofthirty‐sevenpeoplerespondedtothesurvey.Oftherespondents,
twenty‐onewerefemaleandsixteenweremale.Withregardtoagegroups,sixwere
inthe20‐40agerange;twenty‐sevenwereinthe40‐65agerange;withthefewest
(four)participantsinthe65andoldercategory.Fromthesurveysselectedfor
analysis,Italliedthetotalnumberofresponsesfromeachpossibleselection
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(rangingfrom“StronglyDisagree”to“StronglyAgree”).Achartillustratingthese
resultsisattached.
IntheYoungAdultcategory,exactlyhalfoftheresponseswereindicativeofa
positivecorrelationtotheunderlyingchallengesandattitudesofthisstageas
describedbyErikson.Resultsrevealedthat31%oftheresponseswereconsidered
tobecontrarytoadultsatthisstage,while19%oftheresponseswere“neutral”.
Ofthesubjectsinthe40‐65agerange(Stage7),36%oftheresponseswerein
accordancewithErikson’stheory,while38%werenot.Neutralresponses
accountedfor22%ofthetotalcollected.Stage8subjects(those65andolder)
revealedthefollowingresults:77%oftheiranswerswereindicativeofEriksonian
theory,withonly8%indicatingoppositiontothoseconcepts.Neutralresponses
madeup13%oftheanswersinthisagegrouping.
Ingeneral,therespondentsinStage6andStage8revealedthestrongest
connectiontoErikson’sconceptsregardingadultdevelopment.Thoseinthe
youngergroupdoappeartobedrivenbythesocialaspectsofrunning;andalsosee
thesportasonerequiringmutualinterdependence.Forthisgroup,competitionis
important;howevermostareacceptingofothersandseekopportunitiestomake
connectionswithotherrunners.Answersfromtheseindividualsalsoreflectthe
notionthatrelationshipsaresomethingthatonegivesto,andthatthissometimes
requirescompromiseand/orsacrifice.Alloftheseconceptsareindicativeofhaving
successfullydealtwiththeconflictsassociatedwiththisstageofadultdevelopment.
Forexample,theseindividualsarecomfortablerunningaloneaswellaswithothers,
perhapsreflectingthecomfortthatgoesalongtheemergenceofthestrongsenseof
selfdescribedbyEriksonassovitalinthisstage.
RunnersinStage8revealedthehighestpercentageofanswersthatjibewith
Eriksonianconceptsrelatedtoadultsinthisagerange.Itisinterestingtonotethat
theyalsogavethemostdefinitiveanswers,exhibitingtheleastamountofneutral
answers.Also,theygavethehighestpercentageof“StronglyAgree”responses.One
possibleexplanationisthatasweage,wenotonlyhaveaclearerunderstandingof
whoweare,wealsobecomemoresureofourconvictionsandlesshesitanttosay
exactlyhowwefeel.Thestrugglesassociatedwithearlieryearshavebeenresolved;
inessencewebecomecomfortableinourownskinandlessconcernedwithwhat
othersmightthink.ThisdovetailsnicelywithErikson,whoupholdsthatifwe
successfullyresolvetheissuesassociatedwitheachstageoflife,“thefruitofthat
struggleiswisdom”(Goleman,1988).
Overall,Stage8participantsseemtoreflectthenotionthattheyaresatisfiedwith
theirlives,havecontroloverwhathappenstothem,andarenoteasilypushed
around.Theserunnersdonotblameothersoroutsideforcesfortheirfate,andare
verycontentwithwhotheyareasathletes.Thereisalsojoytakeninreminiscing
overpastexperiences,whichareseenaspartofthenaturalunfoldingofalifethat
hashappenedexactlyasitshould.
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Thoseintheirmiddleadultyears(Stage7)providedthemostevendistributionof
responses,withalmostthesamepercentageofanswersreflectingclassicStage7
concernsasthosethatwereundemonstrativeoftheseissues.Whenlookingat
specificcontent,Inoticedthatthebiggestareaofdivisionwasrelatedtoitems
reflectinggenerativity.Therewasamarkeddifferenceinthisarea,withsome
runnersexpressingthedesiretocoachothers,orbecomeinvolvedinracesfora
specialcause.However,therewasalsoanfairlyevenpercentageofrunnerswhose
motivationhadlittleornothingtodowitheithermentoringorsocialconcerns.
Perhapsforthosewithfamiliesrunningisnotrequiredasanavenuetocarefor
otherpeople,sincethisneedismetthroughparenting.Forthisgroupofrunners,
participationinthesportmaybeanopportunitytoaddressmorepersonalneeds,
suchasachanceforsolitudeorsocializationwithotherpeoplewhoshareasimilar
passion.
Thoseinthisagerange(40‐65)mayalsobegrapplingwithsuchmid‐lifeissuesas
divorce,lossofparents,an"emptynest",ormattersrelatedtothelossofyouth.
Runnersexperiencingtheseconcernsmaybelookingtotheirsportasasourceof
strengthastheymanagethroughchallenges.Inthesecases,theindividual's
motivationmaybemorereflectiveofsuchStage6issuesasdiscoveringapositive
senseofself,findingopportunitiesforsocializationorfindingalifepartner.
Ibelievethattheideasbeinginvestigatedthroughthissurveyareimportantfora
varietyofreasons.Asafuturecounselorwhoisspecificallyinterestedinworking
withadults,itprovidesinsightintothemotivatingforcesthatdrivetheactionsof
individualsatdifferentstagesofadulthood.Thesurveyisanattempttotake
Erikson’stheoryoutofthetextbookandseehowit“walksandtalks”inthe
everydaybehaviorsofaselectgroupofpeople.Clearly,mychoiceoflongdistance
runnersstemsfrommyownpersonalexperienceandlifestyle.However,Ibelieve
thattheresultsshowhowapersoncantakeanactivity(runningoranyother)and
useitasatoolintheefforttoresolvetheconflictswefaceasadultsanddescribed
byErikson.
Discoveringapossiblelinkbetweenaspecificendeavorsuchaslongdistance
runningandbroaderdevelopmentaltasksopensupopportunitiesformoreclient‐
focused,individualizedtreatmentstrategies.Forexample,aclientdealingwith
Stage6concernscanbeencouragedtofindopportunitiesforsocializationandclose
friendshipsthroughrunningclubsandraceorganizations.Aclientgrapplingwitha
senseofidentity(afoundationneededbeforeresolvingconflictsinanyotherstage)
mightbeencouragedtouserunningastimealoneforreflectionand/ormeditation.
Aclientdealingwithissuesofgenerativityvs.stagnation(Stage7)couldbesteered
towardscoaching/mentoring,orbecominginvolvedinorganizingaraceforacause
thathasapersonalmeaning.AclientdealingwithStage8issuescanusetheir
runningexperiencesasameansofintegratingtheirpastwithcurrentrealities,and
inthiswayworktowardsself‐acceptanceandgratitudeforthelifetheyhavelived.
Runnerslovetoreminisceoverpastracesandtrainingdays,sharingstoriesofboth
successandfailure.Ihaveoftennoticedinmyconversationswithotherrunnersthat
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astimegoeson,asincereappreciationforboththepositiveandnegativeaspectsof
thoseeventsdoesemerge.AlthoughthisismostreflectiveofStage8,thisparticular
qualityseemstotranscendagegroups(anotherfindingfromthissurvey),andisnot
specifictoonlythoseintheirlateradultyears.
Creating,implementingandanalyzingtheRunningThroughtheYearssurveywas
thoughtprovokinganddidrevealsomedistinctionsamongtheagegroups.
However,theproblemIseeisthatErikson’sstagesofhumandevelopmentarenot
exactlyclear‐cut,withdistinctbeginningsandendings.Itwouldbea
misinterpretationofErikson’smodeltosaythateachspecificpsychosocialissue
playsaroleinonlyonestage.Itmustbekeptinmindthateverypsychosocialissue
playsaroleineverystage.TheschemadescribedbyEriksonis“anaidtodistinguish
thevariousbasichumansituationsandproblems”(Zock,2004).Therefore,a
personmaynotresolveaspecificconflictassociatedwiththeirstageduringa
particulartimeperiod;butratherre‐visititatsomepointdowntheroad.Forthis
reason,designingatooltoassessarelationshipbetweenacertainpsychosocial
issueandanagegroupisinherentlycomplex.
Insummary,Ifoundthisprojecttobeverythought‐provoking,andsparkedmy
interestforinvestigationofotherrelatedtopics.Someotherideasthatcametomind
includerunningasaspiritualendeavor;comparingpreandpostrunpsychological
statesrelatedtodepressionand/oranxiety;orthecarry‐overofskillslearned
throughrunningintoaperson'sdailylifeincludingfamily,workandrelationships.
Onapersonalnote,runninghasalwaysbeenanopportunitytodiscovermore
aboutmyselfandthosearoundme,toformconnectionswithothersandtorejoicein
thesimplicityofthismostbasichumanmovement.Runninghastakenmeonsome
wonderfuladventures,bothaloneandwithothers,andhasallowedmeto
experiencethepeaceofcountlesstranquilmorningsasIheadoutformyearlyrun.I
wasthinkingaboutthisprojectasIwasrunninga5mileraceinCentralParkthis
pastSunday.Thiseventwastoraiseawarenessforindividualswhohavehadbrain
cancer.Someparticipantswerewearingsmallsignsonthebackoftheirshirts,
notingapersonforwhomtheywererunninginhonorormemory.About2miles
intotherace,Ilookedaheadtoseeayoungwomanwhosesignsaid,“I’mrunningfor
me.Recoveringfrombrainsurgery,April2011”.AsIpassedherItappedheronthe
shoulder,smiledandgavehera“thumbsup”sign.Shesmiledback,andIcanonly
saythatitwasoneofthose“moments”thatIwillrememberforalongtime.Itis
experiencessuchasthisthatwillkeepmerunningwellintomyStage8years.
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