NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 1 of 32
Assessment Schedule – 2012
History: Examine a significant historical situation in the context of change,
in an essay (90658)
Evidence Statement
Achievement
Achievement with Merit
Achievement with Excellence
Through the candidate’s response to
the first part of the essay question,
they have accurately described
factors that contributed to the
decision.
Through the candidate’s response to
the first part of the essay question,
they have accurately explained
factors that contributed to the
decision.
Through the candidate’s response to
the first part of the essay question,
they have accurately and
perceptively explained factors that
contributed to the decision.
(See content guidelines for
examples of relevant historical
information that could be included in
the candidate’s answer).
(See content guidelines for
examples of relevant historical
information that could be included in
the candidate’s answer).
(See content guidelines for
examples of relevant historical
information that could be included in
the candidate’s answer).
Through the candidate’s response to
the second part of the essay
question, they have accurately
described the consequences of the
decision.
Through the candidate’s response to
the second part of the essay
question, they have evaluated the
consequences of the decision.
Through the breadth, depth and/or
range of ideas in the candidate’s
response to the second part of the
question, they have
comprehensively evaluated the
consequences of the decision.
(See content guidelines for
examples of relevant historical
information that could be included in
the candidate’s answer).
(See content guidelines for
examples of relevant historical
information that could be included in
the candidate’s answer).
The candidate has structured and
organised their information using an
appropriate essay format:
The candidate has structured and
organised their information using an
appropriate essay format:
• introductory paragraph
• introductory paragraph
• relevant, structured and logically
sequenced paragraphs
• relevant, structured and logically
sequenced paragraphs
• conclusion.
• conclusion.
The candidate has provided an
argument.
IE, the candidate has stated a view
and supported it with relevant and
accurate evidence (probably most
obvious in the evaluative part of their
essay).
(See content guidelines for
examples of relevant historical
information that could be included in
the candidate’s answer).
The candidate has structured and
organised their information using an
appropriate and effective essay
format:
• introductory paragraph
• relevant, structured and logically
sequenced paragraphs
• conclusion.
The candidate has provided a
convincing argument.
IE, the candidate has a clearly
articulated view and has supported it
with sound reasoning and relevant,
accurate, and significant evidence
(probably most obvious in the
evaluative part of their essay).
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 2 of 32
Topic One: England 1558 – 1667
Topic One: Essay (a)
Describe the main features of the English rural and urban economies in 1558.
Evaluate the impact of changes in these economies on the lives of English people between 1558 and 1667.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
The rural economy:
• England was an agrarian nation and the rural economy was predominant
• The majority of the population (90—95%) was tied to the land and living in farms and a network of small towns
and villages. This proportion did not differ greatly even by the end of the period
• Rural land provided wealth in rents, profits and wages and was the most important employer. There was mixed
farming of corn (grain — mostly wheat and barley) and grazing, with meat consumption growing. Labour use was
intensive and seasonally conditioned (milking, sowing and harvesting). Wood was coppiced or grown in
standards – its maintenance was essential because of the universality of its uses. Mining was a minor, if
important, activity
• The rural economy operated only a little above subsistence — the majority of the population lived with little in
reserve so that when harvests failed there were years of poverty and illness
• Food, fuel, clothing, and shelter were all provided by local labour and resources. All agricultural production was
for local consumption with any (generally small) surplus sold in local markets. The dangers and risks of
transporting goods inhibited trading outside the local region
• Agricultural production provided the foundation for virtually all other economic activities:
- The agricultural economy was a source of demand for urban services and industrial goods
- Towns had important functions as finishers as well as consumers of agricultural products. Some of the larger
towns had multiple specialist market areas for fish, meat, horses, cloth, etc.
- Industry was largely a myriad of small-scale crafts that employed rural workers at the times when labour
demands on farms were less intense. Even the most important industrial trade product (cloth) was based on
rural cottage production. Most products were intended for local consumption and agricultural use — scythes,
shoes, and stirrups. Most non-mineral raw materials for industry came from the agricultural economy — wool,
hides, linen flax and vegetable dyes
- Agricultural production generated capital for investment in other parts of the economy
- Most investment in industry and trade came from successful farmers and landowners
- Ownership of rural land acted as a source for status
- The rural economy affected the profits of landed wealth. Careful management of one’s estates could increase
wealth and social status. Successful farmers had the potential for upwards social mobility.
The urban economy:
• The urban economy operated in towns and cities – areas with a high concentration of population, a specialist
economic function and influence, which extended into the region surrounding it. London, with a population of
about 60 000 at the accession of Elizabeth I, was to double in size by 1603 and double again by 1650. There
were a further six cities with populations of between 7 000 and 17 000 in 1558 – Norwich, Bristol, York, Exeter,
Salisbury and Newcastle upon Tyne. Most towns grew no more rapidly than the surrounding countryside
• Many towns and cities had their own charters, which freed them from allegiance to anyone other than the
monarch and allowed them to be governed independent of the county by its own council. Councils consisted of
the mayor, aldermen and councillors generally made up of wealthy merchants and professional men. Towns
were represented in Parliament by borough MP’s who were often gentry from the surrounding countryside
• Towns and cities generally had specialist functions. They could be:
- Administrative and legal centres in which the assizes and quarter sessions normally met. These towns had a
prison, sheriffs, enforcement officers and clerks who kept the county records
- Ecclesiastical centres – there were two Archbishops and 24 Bishops in England. Each had a cathedral with its
Dean, its Canons, its choristers and its administrative and legal officials
- Commercial centres – one of the most important defining characteristics of a town was that it had a market,
serving the town itself and adjacent areas. Larger urban centres served a wider region, and may have a
specialised national or international trade in a particular product
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 3 of 32
- Other services – Most towns had lawyers, attorneys, scriveners and goldsmiths who could provide legal and
financial services, were centres of education and entertainment, and had physicians, apothecaries and
surgeons to provide medical services
- Manufacturing – towns were centres of production and consumption of food, clothing, leather goods, harness,
pottery, ironware, building, and furniture
- Employment – towns provided employment, especially for apprentices and servants to both women and men
from the surrounding rural area.
• Unsanitary and crowded conditions made towns unhealthy places in which to live. They grew by inward migration
more than by the excess of births over deaths.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
• The rural economy had a number of problems that affected the lives of people:
- The growing season was about 5 months. Low temperatures often inhibited growth. Periods of drought could
lead to famine
- Poor farming methods tended to drain the fertility of the soil. Cooperation was needed in communities to
ensure this did not happen
- There were conflicts over the use of land – three-field / open-field systems, enclosure, use of the manorial
courts – that could affect individuals and their capacity to survive
- Access to common pasture was essential to the survival of some farmers
- The clearing of forests for agriculture created timber crises for the poor – the rights of woodbote, firebote and
pannage
- The seasonal labour-intensive nature of agriculture meant communities were highly dependent on each other
at times
- Grain supplies were in high demand at times of food crises as the population expanded. This could lead to
disorder and rioting when some were starving.
• Attempts to improve agricultural production influenced the lives of people:
- Increased amounts of land were brought into production – wastelands, swamps and forests. Enclosure and
other agricultural changes did subject some agricultural workers to eviction from their tenancy, displacement or
unemployment. Candidates may debate the extent of this occurrence, but there were subsequent increases in
vagabondage, depopulation in some areas, and a drift to woodlands, fens and urban centres
- Agriculture in many areas was gradually improving with the demand for food and clothing products from a
steadily growing population. Fluctuations happened with bad harvests and plague outbreaks, but the increase
in wheat growing was beneficial to the health of the nation improving the amount of protein in people’s diets
- Interest (as evidenced in published writings) about improvements in agricultural practice was beginning. Some
specialisation occurred such as animal fattening and market gardening near urban areas
- Cheaper food created a rise in real wages stimulating a demand for industrial goods, while improved
agriculture created more raw materials for industry – wool, hides, linen, flax and vegetable dyes
- Successful entrepreneurial farmers were able to move up into the gentry class. They often bought out smaller
neighbours, left legacies of park-like estates or invested in industry and trade.
- The gradually decreasing need for labour in rural areas through the period provided people for towns, and the
New World colonies
- Good years for agriculture provided the financial surpluses for trade. By the late 17th century-England exported
more food than she imported.
• The state intervened in the economy at times. Certain goals were generally followed:
- The maintenance of order occurred by restricting internal labour mobility. The vagrancy laws were intended to
keep controls over the wandering poor. Those found without permission in any parish where they were not
legally settled were to be whipped by the parish constable and returned to their proper place of residence. The
Statute of Artificers, 1563 which required tradesmen to undergo a seven-year apprenticeship, made it very
difficult to change trades and empowered JPs to set maximum wages at Quarter Sessions. The Act of
Settlement 1662 made it even more difficult for workers to change their place of residence
- Employment was increased by stimulating industry: There were controls over the cloth industry to maintain the
quality of England's leading export. The Cockayne Project was accepted at least in part because its success
would have increased employment. The Elizabethan attempt to institute Wednesday (rather than the 'Popish'
Friday) as a day of compulsory abstinence from meat was in order to stimulate employment in the fishing
industry. Foreign experts were brought in to improve industries or create new ones
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 4 of 32
- An adequate supply of foodstuffs was maintained by regulations and commissions of enquiry on enclosure
(anti-enclosure laws had the dual goals of maintaining food supplies by preventing conversion of arable to
pasture and maintaining rural employment). There were also controls by JPs over the export of grain from local
areas during times of food shortage. Government backed grain imports from the Baltic in years of poor harvest.
The Government also generally inflicted mild punishment on food rioters who protested against the export of
food from their area during a time of shortage
- To protect the poor, Elizabethan Parliaments passed poor laws in 1572, 1576, 1597 and 1601. While providing
harsh punishment for idle vagabonds, these laws imposed obligations on families and on local government to
take care of the poor. An Act of 1604 ordered JPs to assess minimum wages for cloth workers.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 5 of 32
Topic One: Essay (b)
Describe the difficulties Elizabeth I and James I faced in obtaining the finance needed for government.
Evaluate the impact of the management of finance by each monarch on their relationship with Parliament
between 1558 and 1625.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
The Crowns means of income can be divided into:
• Ordinary Revenue
- Crown Land: The Crown owned large estates, which could generate an income in the form of rents and be
used as collateral if the monarch needed to borrow money. Land could also be sold for ready money, but
assets would thereby decline
- Revenue from Trade: The Crown had the constitutional right to regulate trade. This was done by imposing
tariffs, or customs duties, on imports and exports. The value of such duties varied according to the level of
trade. Because there was no paid bureaucracy, collection of customs duties was sometimes rented out to
customs farmers, who paid the Crown an annual sum for the right to collect duties and to pocket any surplus
over and above what they paid the Crown. Customs duties included Tonnage and Poundage on wool and wine
and impositions that were levied on a wide range of goods
- Feudal Dues: The old feudal relationship of service in return for land had been superseded by one where the
Crown obtained money in lieu of feudal obligations. These included:
- Purveyance – the right of the Royal Household to buy goods and services at below market prices.
- Wardship – When the heir to an estate was a minor or a woman, the estate was taken over by the Crown
and guardianship was sold through the Court of Wards. All profits from the estate accrued to the guardian
and the Crown until the male heir came of age or the female married
- Entry Fees – when an heir took over an estate, a fee was payable to the Crown
- Distraint of knighthood – all those with an income of £40 per year had the right to ‘take up’ knighthood.
Few did and so paid a one-off fine’ or tax when their property was valued at this level.
- Monopolies: The Crown could sell, or grant as patronage, monopolies of particular goods and services, eg
soap manufacture, importing sweet wines, the licensing of inns. Monopolies were unpopular, as they increased
prices and reduced the quality of goods and services
- Income from the Church: The Crown had a right to ‘first fruits’ and ‘tenths’. The former was the income derived
from a clergyman’s first year’s income and the latter one-tenth of his subsequent income. In some cases
bishoprics were left vacant so the Crown could collect revenue from diocesan lands.
• At the beginning of the reign, Elizabeth's ordinary revenue amounted to about £200 000 a year, made up of:
- £88 000 from the rents of Crown lands, but the Crown’s future income was being diminished by land sales
- £83 000 from customs duties, but the Book of Rates was rarely updated, because increased duties would
antagonise the governing class
- the remainder came from feudal dues such as wardship, monopolies, the sale of offices, and income from the
Church, but each of these tended to irritate the governing class in different ways.
• Extraordinary Revenue
- Taxes could be levied only with Parliament’s consent, as Parliament represented the communities that were
being taxed. However, the monarch, in times of emergency, could require a forced loan equivalent to a subsidy
from communities:
- Fifteenths and tenths were a tax on ‘movables’ (chattels, livestock and merchandise) and land. One
fifteenth of the value in rural areas and a tenth in urban areas was levied on counties
- Subsidies were worth much more and were a direct tax on an individual’s land and property at a rate of
20% on the annual value of land and 13% on the value of goods. The lack of a paid bureaucracy made tax
assessment and collection unreliable. It was customary for the governing class to underestimate their true
worth to the subsidy commissioners and there was no attempt to allow for inflation. The value of a
Parliamentary subsidy stood at £140 000 in 1559, but had fallen to £80 000 by 1603.
• The financing of government illustrates the antiquated and archaic nature of the state in Early Modern England.
The Crown was always short of money. There was no means to tap the wealth of the country. The state could not
afford a civil service, police force or army
• The Monarch was expected to rely upon regular or ‘Ordinary’ sources of revenue in all but emergencies. Only
then, could they ask Parliament to vote taxes, or ‘Extraordinary’ revenue, to meet additional costs. War was not
possible without the support of Parliament
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 6 of 32
• Throughout the period, the English financial system was not able to cope with the financial demands placed upon
it. Monarchs therefore had to devise other ways of obtaining enough money for their purposes. England was the
only country in Europe without a regular taxation system. Because most income was derived from unfixed
sources (eg court fines), a monarch was not able to budget and was vulnerable to the impact of inflation.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
Elizabeth I
• Elizabeth I and her councillors did little to change this antiquated financial system
• Elizabeth began the practice of asking for Parliamentary subsidies in peacetime as well as wartime — for
instance, in 1566 and 1571. Her first two military ventures, to Scotland in 1560 and France in 1562-3, cost £750
000 and she was not free of debt until 1574. From 1576 on it became the practice for the Lord Chancellor to spell
out to the House of Commons the need for a subsidy bill. Ten years of peace thereafter meant that by 1584 she
enjoyed a credit balance of £300,000. Delaying a subsidy bill was a tactic used on only two occasions by the
Commons to obtain an answer from Elizabeth on political issues (1566 marriage and the succession; 1587
Cope’s Bill and Book). The nineteen years of warfare from 1585 to 1604 are calculated to have cost Elizabeth
£4.5 million. Even so, when she died in 1603 she was in debt only to the tune of £350 000, and there were two
subsidies still to be collected
• Solvency was maintained by a variety of expedients:
- the sale of Crown lands (yielded about £40,000 a year in the 1590s)
- prizes taken at sea
- forced loans
- the sale of monopolies.
• War expenditure could also be met by local taxes such as:
- ship money (levied on coastal towns)
- coat and conduct money (levied on the localities to meet the costs of uniforms and getting soldiers to the ports
of embarkation)
- purveyance (the requisitioning of goods and transport below market prices)
- there is some evidence that these local taxes aroused more resentment than multiple subsidies. Both in
London and in Suffolk there were angry protests at ship money in 1596.
• Thus solvency was maintained by a series of hand-to-mouth measures, rather than practical policies such as a
realistic assessment of the land and property on which subsidies were calculated. For example, the rental income
of peers was assessed at half its true figure. England therefore remained, by continental standards, an undertaxed country
• Rapid inflation was due to growing demand for resources from an expanding population and a growing supply of
bullion from the Americas. The Marquis of Winchester, Lord Treasurer from 1558 to 1572, tried to get prices to
stabilise by reversing the debasement of the intrinsic value of coinage and reducing the amount in circulation.
However, inflation continued to decrease the value of the crown’s income and that of her subjects
• Lord Burghley, Lord Treasurer from 1572, hoped to avoid expense by restraint at home and a peaceful foreign
policy. He tried to get the best from the existing system, rather than reform it. The exchequer continued to keep
records using the ancient method of tally pegs and recording in cumbersome Roman numerals. Elizabeth
continued to allow her favourites to use the revenue from their offices to expand their personal fortunes (eg
Leicester)
• Elizabeth’s financial policies were conservative and backward-looking and were ultimately defeated by inflation
and the cost of a prolonged period of warfare against Spain and in Ireland. In the last years of her reign,
Elizabeth resorted to ‘bastard revenues’ such as monopolies, forest laws and ship money, which were seen by
the governing class as a perversion of royal rights. Despite the popularity of the Spanish war, they were
increasingly reluctant to support it financially and not all the sums that Parliament granted were actually collected.
Elizabeth understood that her financial position ultimately depended upon what her governing class in Parliament
were prepared to pay.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 7 of 32
James I
• James inherited a ramshackle revenue system with a debt up to £400 000. The customs revenue was last
revised in 1558 and reassessment of Crown lands was long overdue. He appointed competent Treasurers in
Dorset, Salisbury, and Middlesex, but all had little success in curbing James’s spending. Parliament saw no need
to vote subsidies in peacetime (four subsidies were granted in 1606 in reaction to the Gunpowder Plot and one in
1610, but no more till 1621). James’s extravagance (“a ‘foreign’ prince rewarding unworthy friends) made MP’s
unsympathetic to pleas of royal poverty
• Requisitioning officers for James’ court used purveyance regularly oversupplying the royal households with
discounted supplies and on-selling the surplus for personal profit. In 1606, the Crown’s right to impose
(Impositions) duties to regulate trade was confirmed by Bate’s case, but remained a sore point with the governing
class. The 1608 revised Book of Rates added “new impositions” that were very unpopular with merchants. Both
purveyance and impositions became on-going grievances aired by the governing class in parliament
• The Great Contract in 1610 was a major attempt at financial reform to fund government by taxation. It sought to
replace the most hated feudal dues (wardship and purveyance) with an annual Parliamentary grant based on a
property tax. It foundered because it was thought the Crown was asking too much and the gentry in Parliament
realised they would find it difficult to evade a property tax
• The Cockayne project of 1614 sponsored by the crown collapsed the woollen cloth trade bringing an economic
downturn. There were no more attempts at economic reform, and Cranfield urged retrenchment with little
success until his impeachment for corruption
• James increasingly used feudal devices like wardship, purveyance, monopolies and forest fines as the revenue
from Crown lands declined. Salisbury devised a scheme for the sale of baronet titles which raised a total of
£90,000 1611—1614. These measures were increasingly vilified. Parliament was so angry it impeached two
monopolists and passed a bill in 1624 restricting the Crown’s right to grant further monopolies
• While Parliament resented paying for a Crown increasingly unable to live on its own, the Court increasingly felt
Parliament was no longer fulfilling its role in supporting the Crown and this justified the use of extra-Parliamentary
measures to raise money such as the forced loans of 1622 and 1623. Even when a popular war with Spain was
begun, Parliament granted subsidies only on the proviso accounts and receipts were obtained to prove proper
expenditure
• Some historians argue that because Elizabeth failed to make reforms to the system or attack vested interests
and unfair practices among her officials, she was forced to sell off royal assets and left an under-resourced
monarchy dependent on parliamentary taxation and heading toward disaster. However, it is clear that James’s
own attempts at economic reform (the Great Contract and Cockayne project) were seriously flawed. His
heightened extravagance and increasing use of new impositions and unpopular feudal devices to raise funds for
the crown only provoked Parliament into initiating serious encroachments into the royal prerogative such as the
Monopolies Bill and granting subsidies on condition the expenditure was monitored.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 8 of 32
Essay question (c)
Describe how the royal court operated, including how it changed, during the reigns of Elizabeth I and
James I.
Evaluate the influence each monarch’s administration of their royal court had on their relationship with the
governing class.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
• The Royal Court was the centre of political power and culture. Great men at Court strove to gain the ear of the
monarch through political argument, competent service, intellectual or cultural brilliance, feats of great daring or
physical endurance and the beauty of their person or their wives. Their patronage of writers, actors, musicians,
theologians, and academics that might impress the monarch was also important. Royal favourites potentially
could influence crown policy and the flow of patronage. Those who obtained favour at court might gain political
office in central or local government, high military command, appointments to bishoprics, judgeships or academic
posts, royal sponsorship, or grants of money, land or titles
• The Court as centre of English public life gave lesser men opportunities to meet powerful patrons and have
themselves accepted as clients. This ‘second tier’ of courtiers aimed to gain favour from the great men with direct
access to the monarch in return for loyalty and support. They sought positions in local and regional government
and lower level positions in central government. A patron might also nominate them as MPs, gain them
commissions in the armed service, or appointment to well-paid legal positions. These lesser men, in turn, would
be cultivated by a lower level of clients, possibly from outside the Court
• The Court operated wherever the Monarch happened to be. For example, Elizabeth would often go on a
progress to the southern counties, but most of the time, she resided in one of the great royal palaces such as
Whitehall. Over a thousand people generally attended court and when it was not possible to house everyone,
some had to lodge nearby
• Everyone who was permitted to court had access to the Presence Chamber – a great hall in which the monarch
would give audience and where all entertainment such as plays, masques, balls and general socializing took
place. Access to other parts of the palace depended on status and relationship to the monarch. The Monarch
had two private rooms, the Privy Chamber and the Bedchamber (although rarely, if ever, alone in either).
Government officials and Ambassadors were entertained here
• While all the men who frequented the court were technically courtiers, the role of the traditional courtier was very
different to the role of the councillor or the politician. For example Elizabeth expected courtiers, like Robert
Dudley, to be handsome and athletic companions, flamboyant in dress and manner, who would charm her in the
courtly love tradition with flattery, gifts, music, dancing, and words of love and devotion. Married men as well as
single men played this game with the Queen. It was part of the courtly ideal and not meant to be taken to the
personal level
• Each monarch brought changes to the royal court.
• Elizabeth:
- On her accession Elizabeth was a young woman and because of religious conflict and the absence of an heir
was at great risk. She used her gender to advantage in both genuine and ‘game’ courtships, making the Court
a showpiece of personal monarchy
- She sponsored a cult of Gloriana through display at tournaments, plays and masques and use of the tradition
of courtly love
- She spread patronage widely, but not lavishly, and was careful to balance the influence of favourites and
ministers, eg Leicester v Walshingham
- She was not extravagant with rewards eg, created few peers
- She had the ability to pick and trust competent advisers, eg William Cecil.
• James
- James was more extravagant than Elizabeth in grants of wealth and titles — his position as a foreigner may
have compelled him to act this way. His early court featured a large number of Scots hungry for favour and
patronage
- James’ court was more casual and lacking in dignity. He was coarse in manners, dress and speech. Court life
became notorious for drunkenness, frivolity and immorality
- James was much more exclusive than Elizabeth. He constantly referred to the divine right of Kings
- His favourites dominated access to his person and bedchamber. They brought corruption into central
government as factions competed for positions, honours and influence
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 9 of 32
- His Ministers and Privy Council were less effective than Elizabeth’s.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
• Elizabeth
- Elizabeth was successful in developing a positive relationship with her governing class by using competition at
Court and distribution of patronage to play off one faction against another, but giving all the hope that they
might receive some favour
- The courtly game of Gloriana was an effective tool of policy for keeping male ambition in check and
maintaining a dignified and attractive court image to outsiders
- Her court was famed for its splendour and ceremony
- Her appointments to the highest levels of government remained few and well-balanced permitting continuity
and stability in government.
• James
- James promotion of the Howards and obsession with favourites such as Robert Carr and George Villiers,
created monopolies of patronage and led to bitter factional rivalry which drove natural allies of the Crown into
opposition and created problems among the governing class in Parliament
- James’s extravagance in grants of wealth and titles caused resentment among the traditional ruling class.
James’s debased and immoral court alienated ‘Godly Protestants’
- The monopoly of patronage by the elite alienated the excluded majority of governing class
- James’s promotion of the divine right of Kings caused his Court to appear to be like that of ‘tyrannical’ and
Catholic France and Spain
- It became almost impossible for anyone to have both Court office and local County prestige.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 10 of 32
Essay question (d)
Describe the changes made by Charles I in government, finance, and religion between 1629 and 1640.
Evaluate the impact these changes had on the relationship between Charles I and the English governing
class.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
Government:
• Charles intended to rule by proclamation law until ‘such as have bred this interruption shall have received their
punishment’
• The Book of Orders was issued in 1631: It was a series of instructions from Privy Council to JPs to ensure laws
and procedures were carried out (effectively a check on the efficiency of local government), especially with
regard to administration of poor relief, treatment of vagrants, repair of roads and bridges, ‘petty session’ reports,
performance of officials and training of the local militia
• Charles appointed Thomas Wentworth, Lord President of the Council of the North. Wentworth ensured royal law
was enforced under much tighter controls in the north of England
• In 1633 Wentworth went to Ireland and re-established order and respect for the crown. He rid the Irish sea of
pirates, enforced regular customs collection, brought the Irish church into line with the reforms in England and
planned further plantations of settlers to improve the Anglicisation of Ireland.
Finance:
• The Lord Treasurer, Richard Weston, attempted to cut court expenses (40% of government spending) with little
success. He did however persuade Charles to end the wars with France (1629) and Spain (1630), given that he
would not receive any further supplies from parliament
• Weston and later Bishop Juxon looked for new means of raising income:
- further new impositions
- granting new monopolies to companies to bypass the 1624 Monopolies Act
- more vigorous exploitation of wardship (increased revenue 300%)
- forest fines
- fines for gentry staying in London after being instructed to return home
- fines for eating meat during Lent
- more vigorous enforcement of recusancy fines (increased revenue 500%)
- fines for enclosure causing depopulation of the countryside
- fines for distraint of knighthood
- ship money extended from coastal to inland areas as well.
Religion:
• 1629 Arminian reforms were introduced into the English Church that reminded some of traditional Catholic
practice. Clergy were told they must wear only the authorised vestments – the surplice and hood. The
communion table was instructed to be placed permanently in the chancel, and railed off from the congregation
instead of being brought into the body of the Church during services. A prominent cross and candles were
required on the table. The congregation were to receive communion kneeling and bow at the name of Jesus
• Preaching was suppressed. In 1629 only licenced preachers could deliver sermons. Catechizing was used as a
substitute. Bishops were to check their contents. In 1633 preaching about predestination becomes a crime. In
1636 the length of sermons was restricted. People were not allowed to leave their own parish to hear a sermon
elsewhere
• In 1633 William Laud was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Gentry were ordered to increase the income of
local clergy and restore impropriated tithes or church lands
• In 1633 the Book of Sports was reissued and stated that after church people could play sport, drink in alehouses,
dance or make music
• In 1636 Bishop Juxon became Lord Treasurer
• In 1636 a papal agent was received at the royal court. Conversion to Catholicism became fashionable in court
circles
• The Court of High Commission and Bishop visitations were used to enforce moral standards and uniform
compliance with the Prayer Book. Star Chamber was used to humble peers and gentry. Punishments were
severe (eg Prynne, Bastwicke and Burton)
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 11 of 32
• Stained glass, organs and choir-stalls were installed in some churches.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
Government:
• The governing class were deprived of their accustomed leadership role of being a point of contact with the
monarch in Parliament and being able to give voice to local grievances and offer advice. The potential for raising
ones standing and reputation in their local community was therefore lost. To some, Charles’ prerogative rule was
synonymous with arbitrary rule
• Their voluntary contribution to local government – as sheriffs and JPs – was put under stress by the Book of
Orders. It added to their workload considerably and put them off-side with their neighbours, while the peremptory
tone of Privy Council instructions would have been a source of considerable irritation that was difficult to ignore
• The governing class became concerned that Strafford’s army in Ireland could be used to rigorously enforce
Charles’s Thorough policies in England as well.
Finance:
• The end of the wars with France and Spain would have reduced the financial burden of contributing to subsidies
for war supplies. It would also have removed forced billeting of soldiers and the accompanying disorder and need
for the imposition of martial law
• However the new means of raising income would have soon wiped away that sense of financial relief and added
new burdens that appeared to have little rationale apart from revenue gathering for the crown
• Some gentry used to under assessing themselves for their contribution to subsidies would have looked for
innovative ways to avoid or resist paying these new taxes and fines. Failure to pay could mean risking arrest and
seizure of property, which would only exacerbate the sense of grievance. For example, John Hampden refused
to pay his 20 shillings of ship money and was taken to court in 1635. He was ordered to pay, but the decision
was so divided that a nationwide campaign of resistance was initiated. By 1640 only one-third of ship money was
being paid and local sheriffs were being required to make good the deficit
Religion:
• It became impossible to ignore the Arminian reforms. Alterations to the service affected every parish in the
kingdom. Some welcomed the new sense of reverence and order, others were deeply offended. In response to
the changes, some church wardens reported violent opposition and riots
• Some gentry would have been incensed that their influence over the local clergy had been replaced by
centralised and excessive interference from bishops. In some cases, gentry had been patrons to clergymen and
supplemented their income because they enjoyed their particular brand of preaching. Others were so dispirited
by Laud’s attack on impropriations as a means of gentry control of the local clergy that they organised emigration
to America in search of greater religious freedom
• The Book of Sports deeply offended Puritans. Concern was raised that it would lead to riotous disorder on
Sundays
• The governing class would have been concerned at the growing influence of Arminian bishops at the highest
levels of the king’s government
• Calvinist Anglicans blamed Catholic influences at court for the increase of Arminian influence and reforms in the
English Church. Queen Henrietta Maria’s devotion to Catholicism and obvious contempt for the English Church
brought the court into disrepute. Some believed she was now the predominant influence on Charles and that he
had become a crypto-catholic
• The use of prerogative courts and Bishop visitations to enforce conformity was highly unpopular. The severity of
their punishment made popular martyrs of Prynne, Bastwick and Burton. The fact that they were gentlemen being
stigmatised and losing their ears was especially alarming to the governing class.
These issues would have engendered sharp divisions within the governing class between those who supported
Charles’ actions (or at least his right to undertake them) and those who did not.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 12 of 32
Topic One: Essay (e)
Describe the situation in Scotland and Ireland under the Stuarts, and how it changed up to 1640.
Evaluate the influence the Scottish and Irish had on the conflict between Charles I and parliament from
1640 to 1649.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
• Celtic society, law and government were in marked contrast to those in England. The Scottish highlands and
much of Ireland were organised into clans or septs, governed by chieftains who exercised considerable arbitrary
power. Custom was often more important than the common and statute law which predominated in England.
Scotland:
• The Stuart kings had limited power, which geographically, was largely confined to the central lowlands between
Glasgow and Edinburgh. Local government was dominated by the Scottish nobility and Presbyterian Church,
with extensive lands and power to administer law in the localities. A Scottish king could govern effectively only if
he did not alienate both the nobility and Church
• James had not challenged the power of the Scottish nobility in the localities, but did assert royal authority over
the Scottish Kirk (Church) by appointing Bishops, and in 1618 through the Articles of Perth extending their
authority
• Charles rarely consulted with the Scots over decisions which affected their interests eg when Charles went to
war with France and Spain in the 1620s it was a commercial disaster for Scottish merchants. Charles conscripted
Scottish manpower into his army for continental wars that were largely irrelevant to Scottish interests
• In 1625 Charles issued a revocation (repossession of crown lands that had been gifted away) on lands granted in
1540. The Scottish landed elite were alienated by this attack on their property rights
• Charles’ increased hostility and suspicion of his policies within the Kirk by increasing the powers of Bishops,
insisting on Anglican-style white surplices being worn by ministers, banning fasting without royal permission and
declaring the Kings authority over the Kirk’s in religious matters
• In 1637 Archbishop William Laud imposed a prayer book and order of service on the Kirk closely modelled on the
Anglican one. This brought Scottish fears to a head. The elite saw this as the action of an alien king, one who
had attacked their property rights and disregarded their interests and who now sought to dictate how they
worshipped and what they believed. Worse, to Scottish Presbyterian eyes, the Laudian reforms smacked of
Catholicism
• Nobility, gentry and the Kirk were united in opposition. Riots greeted the new prayer book; a large portion of the
nobility petitioned against its introduction. An alliance of the landed elite and the Presbyterian clergy was formed
and a provisional opposition government set up in Edinburgh. A National Covenant was signed in 1638 by
nobility gentry clergy and merchants — the landed and urban elite were united against ‘ungodly rule and popery’.
They protested their loyalty to the King but refused to accept the ‘innovations’ of the Liturgy. Without the support
of Scottish nobility or the Kirk, royal authority throughout Scotland ceased to exist.
Ireland:
• The country was a hotbed of racial, social, and economic rivalry, conflict and antagonisms. These focused on the
competing interests of three power groups:
(i) The alien English administration whose control in Ireland was limited to the Pale. There were rigged
parliamentary elections, confiscations of lands of those who opposed English rule, and military expeditions
(ii) The Anglo-Irish – descendants of English migrants, who had conquered, colonised and intermarried with the
native Irish and largely rejected the Anglican Church
(iii) The native Irish – Celtic clan chieftains who ruled most of Ulster (North Ireland) and the centre/west of the
country. Any attempt at assimilating the Gaelic chieftains was abandoned in favour of a policy of forceful
repression. Loyalty to the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church were treasonable. Rebellious Gaelic
chieftains were not above appealing to Catholic France and Spain for help.
• Conflict was inevitable. On one side there was the English conviction of racial superiority, the need to outlaw,
punish and suppress Roman Catholicism, and the growing awareness that there were fortunes to be made by
exploiting what was a colony with a subject population. On the other side were powerful Old English families and
Celtic clan chieftains, whose independence and religion were threatened, and who had powerful military
resources
• James I had embarked upon systematic plantations of Scottish Presbyterian settlers. This created a new political
class of landowning Protestants enabling the King to bypass the Anglo-Irish, whose allegiance to the Crown
was doubtful
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 13 of 32
• Charles’s war with Spain and France in the late 1620s reawakened English fears of the threat to their security of
Catholic troops landing in Ireland. Charles bought the loyalty of the Anglo-Irish by granting them concessions by
the king’s ‘grace’ (an end to recusancy fines and the removal of bans on Catholics in the legal profession and
appointment to public office) in return for military support. However, once the danger subsided after 1630,
persecution of Catholics resumed. It was clear the King’s promises could not be trusted
• Wentworth was sent to Ireland as Lord Deputy in 1633. His mandate from the King was to make his control over
Ireland effective by extending law and order and promoting the Church of England in Ireland. He was to reverse
the situation by which expenditure on Ireland had outstripped income from it by £20 000 a year, by bringing in
money from customs and the development of industry and trade. He had defeated his political opposition by
playing off the ‘New English’ against the ‘Old English’ The four Courts (High Commission, Wards and Livery,
Castle Chamber and the Commission for Defective Titles) pursued Laud’s church policies, regained impropriated
tithes, exacted feudal revenue, hounded political opponents and pressed the royal claim to lands. Wentworth
also had success in trebling the size of the Irish army and giving it better training and equipment, and developing
the navy as a means of protecting maritime trade.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
• Wentworth’s advocacy of Laud’s policy in Ireland secured the enmity of the New English, bolstered by the
Scottish Presbyterian settlers, and had the undesirable effect of strengthening links between the New English
and the Protestant opposition to Charles in England. Similarly the English governing class felt sympathy for the
Scottish Presbyterian cause against Charles’s imposition of the new Prayer Book and he had difficulty raising a
willing and effective English army to suppress the Covenanters
• The Scottish rebellion led to the recall and ennoblement of Wentworth (as Earl of Strafford), but his failure to put
down the Scots forced the King to call the English parliament in 1640. The English governing class feared
Strafford and saw his rule in Ireland as a blueprint for the kind of tyranny Charles would impose on them. The
English parliament therefore impeached Strafford and forced the King to have him executed
• Wentworth’s removal caused alarm in Ireland at the ‘hot’ Protestantism of the English Parliament and at its
sympathy for, and possible collusion with, the Scots. In October 1641, this instability fostered the Irish Rebellion
and forced the issue on the English governing class of whether or not the King could be trusted with command of
the armed forces. Conflict over this and Charles’s attempted coup by trying to arrest parliament’s leaders
eventually led to the outbreak of Civil War in July 1642
• After a year of indecisive fighting, the King and Parliament sought outside help to swing the balance of the
conflict in their direction. Charles negotiated the Cessation – a ceasefire – with the Irish rebels to allow him to
bring English regiments back from Ireland. Irish Catholics grants of money to the King for the civil war only
confirmed the belief of some that he was in league with popery. Irish contingents that did come to Charles I’s aid
tended to be of doubtful loyalty and too small to be effective. Meanwhile Parliament negotiated the Solemn
League and Covenant with the Scots for military aid to confront and defeat the royalist northern army at Marston
Moor. This began to swing eventual victory to Parliament, especially after the creation of the New Model Army
• In May 1646 Charles surrendered to the Scots rather than Parliament. Parliament was forced to pay the Scots for
his release to them. During the protracted negotiations with Charles that followed, he tried to play off Parliament,
the New Model Army and the Scots against each other. When he escaped to the Isle of Wight, he secretly
agreed to the Engagement in December 1647. The Scots would help Charles regain his status as king in return
for an assurance that he would introduce Presbyterianism for a trial period of three years
• The Scots invaded England on Charles I’s behalf in July 1648 to begin the Second Civil War, but they were
halted by Cromwell at Preston a month later. Prides Purge of Presbyterians in Parliament left a ‘rump’ willing to
vote for the trial and execution of the king. The Commonwealth army was then turned against the Irish to avenge
the massacres of 1641 and confirm the ascendancy of the Protestant cause. The key garrison towns of
Drogheda and Wexford were sieged and slaughtered and the royalist Ormonde defeated
• The Scots proclaimed Charles II as King, but Cromwell defeated their armies at Dunbar in 1650 and Worcester
in 1651
• The Prayer Book crisis and Bishop’s war in Scotland forced Charles into calling the Long Parliament. The Irish
massacre of 1641 coupled with the mutual distrust of Parliament and the King led to the First Civil War. Charles
I’s attempts to gain the support of the Irish severely damaged his cause while Parliament’s league with the Scots
helped them avoid defeat. The Second Civil War was only possible when Charles bought the support of the
Scots and all possibility of further royalist endeavours was crushed with Cromwell’s victories in Ireland
and Scotland.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 14 of 32
Essay question (f)
Describe the changes brought about by the Restoration Settlement that allowed the return of the monarchy
in 1660.
Evaluate the impact of Charles II’s return to the throne on the political, social and religious situation
between 1660 and 1667.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
The restoration settlement brought about changes in:
• Government: The monarch’s traditional prerogative powers such as appointment of ministers and veto over
parliament were restored. The Triennial Act, House of Lords and House of Commons in Parliament and local
autonomy of the traditional governing class in their counties returned. Prerogative courts such as Star Chamber
and the Court of High Commission were not restored. The settlement represented a return to August 1641,
making a revival of personal rule impossible. However, the balance of power between King and Parliament
remained unclear (eg, there was no machinery to implement the Triennial Act)
• Civilian Rule: Most of the New Model Army and navy were disbanded. The militia was restored under royal
control
• Amnesty for former opponents: ‘Pardon, Indemnity and Oblivion’ a general indemnity with 30 exclusions. The
amnesty was considered moderate and reasonable
• Land: Church and crown lands restored. A Commission of Sales was set up to fix compensation for owners of
ex-church land. Most royalist families retrieved their land
• Religion:
- At Breda, Charles promised liberty of Conscience, he hoped for a ‘comprehensive’ church
- An Anglican Church with King as head and including bishops and a Book of Common Prayer was restored
- Bishops were restored to the House of Lords. Church courts revived. Anglican ministers dispossessed or
ejected during the Interregnum were returned. MPs were required to take communion according to Anglican
rite. Lay domination by gentry revived.
• Finance: Prerogative taxes used in the era of personal rule remained abolished. There were unsuccessful
attempts to provide an income, e.g. the Hearth Tax. Royal finances remained insufficient for the king to live
‘of his own’.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
Political:
• With the return of Charles the traditional ruling class recaptured central and local government and re-imposed
stability and order. It was a restoration of the ancient constitution and a system of government based on cooperation between the King and the governing class
• While relations between the King and Parliament remained difficult at times, Charles being determined ‘not to go
on his travels again’ tended to compromise. Parliament could frustrate Charles policy but could not replace it with
its own policy
• Parliament still had an unrealistic idea of his needs. The unpopular Hearth Tax of 1661 faced more evasion than
subsidies had decades before. By 1665, annual royal income was between £850 000 and £1.1 million but annual
expenditure was £1.25 million
• The power of Edward Hyde, the Earl of Clarendon grew. He assisted Charles’ transition to political control and
became his chief minister. His daughter married Charles brother. He opposed Charles’ attempts to build up a
pro-court faction in parliament by dispensing royal favour. When he became linked to unpopular policies, such as
the sale of Dunkirk to the French and the unsuccessful war against the Dutch, Charles took the opportunity to
dismiss him in 1667
• The amnesty for former opponents meant that Charles II was not tainted with martyrdom or resentment from
Republicans. The restoration of land to royalists left a significant minority aggrieved, but because Charles had left
the issue to Parliament they bore the blame
• Charles accepted the Coldstream regiment as a personal bodyguard, but there was now no standing army.
Social:
• With Charles’ return fears of continuing civil war and religious extremism were quelled. Twenty years of political
and religious upheaval and unpopular military rule had ended. There was a wave of rejoicing and goodwill in
1660, with the deliberately orchestrated progress seeming to herald a return to a more normal, ordered and
stable world. The older generation looked forward to the restoration of a ‘natural ruler’, less expensive
government and traditional customs
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 15 of 32
• Charles II inherited enormous goodwill, nostalgia, and hope for a better world from English society. French taste
and elegance replaced Puritan austerity in English society. Elaborate decorative furniture, coaches and pleasure
boats became fashionable. Court life became merry and decadent with prolific drinking, gambling and the king
carousing with mistresses
• However the initial period of social harmony and satisfaction soon faded. When war with the Dutch was restarted
in 1665 the Dutch navy humiliated the English. 1665 and 1666 saw the Plague and Great Fire of London.
Disenchantment spilled over with the widespread belief that God was punishing the English. Edward Hyde (Earl
of Clarendon) the chief minister in Charles’s government was blamed, and brought down amongst bitter
recriminations by factions opposed to him.
Religious:
• The ‘Clarendon Code’ ensured the Church could act against dissent.
- Corporation Act 1661 (all those holding municipal office to take oaths of allegiance and supremacy, receive
Anglican Holy Communion)
- Act of Uniformity 1662 (all ministers to be ordained by Bishops and declare conformity to new Prayer Book and
39 Articles, at least 1 800 failed to conform and were deprived of their livings).
- Quaker Act 1662 (no more than five could meet)
- Conventicle Act 1664
- Five Mile Act 1665.
• Charles had hoped for a more comprehensive and tolerant church and was disappointed. Any deviation from
Anglican worship was seen as a threat to stability. Dissenters were driven underground by the Clarendon Code.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 16 of 32
Topic Two: New Zealand in the Nineteenth Century
Essay question (a)
Describe the developments that took place in the relationship between Māori and Pākehā in the early
contact period between 1800 and 1840.
Evaluate the extent to which these developments changed the lives of Māori in different regions of New
Zealand.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
• Initial conflict between Māori and Pākehā caused by misunderstanding, eg Boyd incident, but then much more
positive race relations as both Pākehā and Māori realised that they both had things that the other race wanted
• The developments that occurred to Māori warfare as a result of the Musket Wars and the changes that occurred
to relations between Māori and Pākehā as a result. Pākehā became crucial to survival as a source of weapons
for this new form of warfare
• The increasing involvement of the British Crown in New Zealand despite their reluctance to be involved, and the
relationship between the crown and Māori was an important development. Early Māori links with NSW
Governors; chiefs Hongi and Waikato met King George IV in 1820; Elizabeth Affair, Busby and the Declaration of
Independence; Captain Hobson as Lieutenant Governor
• If candidates were to prioritise the significance of the changing relationship, then a sound argument for Māori
conversion to Christianity could be established. As a result of a European evangelical revival, the Church
Missionary Society (Anglican) established their mission in Rangihoua in the Bay of Islands in 1814. Their initial
plan was to civilise Māori in order to evangelise them. The Methodist (or Wesleyan) mission began in Whangaroa
in 1823 and the Catholic Mission was established at Kororareka in 1838 after the arrival of the Frenchman,
Bishop Pompallier
• Conversion to Christianity was very slow to start with; but as the Missionaries became more independent and
Māori literacy boomed, Māori “converted” largely through their own agency from 1825 onwards
• Many of the changing relationships between Māori and Pākehā centred on the following industries:
- Whaling – plenty of contact as Māori worked on whaling ships and travelled to London, Sydney, and Hobart.
Ngāi Tahu also ran whaling boats. There was also plenty of inter-racial interaction for rest and recreation in the
Bay of Islands, which stimulated trade prostitution. Along the east coast from Mahia all the way to Stewart
Island there were shore-based whaling stations. Intermarriage between Pākehā whalers and Māori women was
very common
- Sealing – there was much less contact between the sealers and Māori, but there was some intermarriage,
especially in the Deep South around Stewart Island
- The Timber trade – This was concentrated largely in the far north, especially Hokianga. Māori benefited from
shipbuilding as capital was pumped into the hapū associated with the ship builders. Thomas McDonnell’s
shipyard at Te Horeke came under the mana of Te Taonui of Te Mahurehure (New Zealand Historical Atlas).
The timber industry helped connect this country to the outside world through the growth in trade with New
South Wales
- The Flax trade, which along with timber enhanced the importance of the Whangaroa and Hokianga harbours
- The musket trade
- The trade in dried heads
- Māori visiting Europe
- Traders: Most of the traders that visited New Zealand during this period did so erratically, but some Europeans
settled in New Zealand in order to be traders. Often they worked as agents of trading companies based in
Sydney. Some came under pretty tight Māori control but they were important mediators between Māori and the
outside world and were important in the development of a close relationship with Māori. Philip Tapsell at
Makatu is often cited as a good example of the changing dynamics of the relationship between Māori and
Pākehā
- Intermarriage: Many Māori women who had either permanent or temporary relationships with Pākehā men
served as important links between the cultures and the outside world.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 17 of 32
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
• The question asks candidates to identify how Māori were affected by the changing relationship with Pākehā in
different regions of the country. Candidates could argue that while Māori societies in the North of the North Island
underwent considerable change because of the impact of deep sea whalers, missionaries and traders, those
societies to the south experienced little real change. Better candidates might discuss the difference between
direct and indirect change.
• Arguments based on the significance of contact with the deep sea whalers who called for extended periods in the
Bay of Islands resulting in:
- growing lawlessness, contributing to the notion of the ‘hellhole of the Pacific’
- the introduction of sexually transmitted infections which would impact significantly on Māori fertility and
mortality
- an ability for Māori to join whaling crews and travel overseas, creating an awareness of other societies and
cultures.
• Māori agency was at work during this period as Māori took Pākehā goods and ideas and used them for their own
reasons and spread them amongst themselves. There was significant change in the lifestyles of many Māori as
they embraced aspects of European life, marrying European men and adopting and adapting their tools,
artefacts, and weapons etc for their own use. However, many Māori in certain areas at certain times suffered
from disease because of a lack of immunity • The impact of Missionary Christianity on Māori. This was a significant impact as it changed the world views of
many Māori. Initially, very few Māori converted to Christianity as Hongi Hika dominated the missionaries. (He
may have protected the missionaries in order to give the Bay of Islands a reputation for peace, which might
enhance the amount of trade that took place in the region.) In the 1830s, thousands of Māori converted to
Christianity. (Candidates are likely to discuss the views of different historians concerning this issue. Highperforming candidates will do so in a manner that focuses on the impact of Christianity on Māori rather than a
long download of historiography. Some may discuss the importance of literacy in Māori conversion). It is
important that candidates recognise the regional variances in the willingness of Māori to accept a new
belief system
• Between 1834 and 1840, CMS stations were established at Kaitaia, Thames, Whangaroa, Waikato, Matamata,
Rotorua, Tauranga, Manukau, and Poverty Bay. By 1840, the CMS had about 30 missionaries
• By 1840, many Māori had begun to develop their own versions of Christianity, which in some cases rejected
missionary interpretations of the Bible:
- Papahurihia was the first Māori prophet who drew on both Māori and Christian knowledge systems. His original
name was Pukerenga; He took the name Papahurihia when, from 1833, he criticised the teachings of the
Anglicans at Rangihoua,. After he moved to from the Hokianga, he adopted the name of Te Atua Wera.
• The growing importance of the musket and its impact on Māori warfare. The musket wars made Māori far more
dependent on Pākehā traders than they had been initially. This was a significant change as Māori had initially
had considerable control over the Pākehā traders
• The changes that occurred to Māori warfare as a result of the musket wars and the changes that occurred to
relations between Māori and Pākehā as a result. Pākehā became crucial to survival as a source of weapons for
this new form of warfare
• One significant impact were the Musket wars – 20 000 killed. A new type of warfare for the old reasons. This had
a significant impact on Māori societies. In many cases, this led to migration from traditional lands
• Pākehā involvement in inter-tribal affairs (eg Elizabeth Affair) had an impact on the Māori world as their
intervention allowed Māori at Banks Peninsula to be attacked by a taua from the north
• There was an exchange of ideas and beliefs during this period. It was a two-way process, eg Pākehā imitated
Māori medicine as well as vice versa
• Pan-tribalism developed during this period (eg the Declaration of Independence) as some Māori began to unite in
response to outside influences. This was to become much more significant in the post-Treaty period.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 18 of 32
Essay question (b)
Describe the various ways in which Pākehā attempted to achieve dominance through political and
economic mans over Māori, and particularly in the Waikato and Taranaki regions between 1860 and 1900.
Evaluate the extent to which these attempts to gain dominance has impacted on the lives of Māori by 1900.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
• In 1863, the government accepted full responsibility for native affairs and began to pass the legislation wanted by
settlers and Auckland businessmen. This led to land confiscation and purchase, more Pākehā settlement and
Pākehā political dominance
• New Zealand Loan Act 1863 – authorised the government to borrow £3 million to pay for the suppression of the
‘rebellion’; for settlement and other public purposes
• New Zealand Settlements Act 1863 – enabled confiscation or raupatu of land from so-called Māori rebels – a
breach of the Treaty of Waitangi. Around 4.73 million acres were confiscated in the Waikato, Taranaki, Bay of
Plenty, East Coast and the Hawke’s Bay. The government and some Auckland businessmen took the good,
fertile land, even if it belonged to neutral or kupapa tribes. About half of the land was later returned, but usually
not the best land and not necessarily to the actual owners
• Public Works Act 1864 – Māori lands could be acquired for roads, railways and other public works, sometimes
without compensation. Land that was taken for Māori schools was not used for schools or even returned to Māori
if it was not used
• 1864 Native Reserves Act – put all remaining Māori reserves under government control to lease out to Pākehā at
very low rental rates
• Native Lands Act 1865 – set up the Native Land Courts and was modified a bit by the Native Lands Act 1873.
The Native Land Courts were run by Pākehā judges and were to individualise Māori land and do away with
community ownership. This was a ‘divide and buy’ policy. The Act removed Crown pre-emption, which put
greater Pākehā pressure on Māori to sell. Sometimes, inexperienced chiefs signed deeds of sale before court
sittings. Up to 10 names were to be on the land title, and those listed could sell. From 1873, the courts entered
on the title deed the name of every person to whom land was awarded, but this led to fragmentation of Māori
land holdings into small uneconomic blocks. Māori had to pay the costs of surveys of land to be sold
• 1879 Native Land Amendment Act – sped up investigation of title to land and made it easier for small farmers to
get land
• 1887 Native Land Act – allowed direct purchase of Māori land by Pākehā
• 1893 Native Land Purchase and Acquisition Act – made the Crown the sole purchaser of Māori land. Any Māori
land could be defined as suitable for settlement; and if so designated, the government could purchase land at
five shillings per acre when the market rate was much higher
• 1894 Validation of Invalid Land Sales Act – meant unjust land deals of the past could be declared legal. The
notion of pre-emption was removed so anyone could buy land from Māori
• War / conflict was not so effective as a means of gaining dominance over Māori. Conflict was costly but was used
to some effect in the Waikato and Tarananki
• Gore-Browne sent troops to deal with the refusal of Wiremu Kingi to allow the sale of land at Waitara
• Conflict in Taranaki continued for an extended period – 1860-1863 and then in 1868 with the emergence of
Titokowaru
• Grey sent troops into the Waikato in an attempt to neutralise the potential challenge that Te Kīngitanga appeared
to pose to Pākehā hegemony
• Troops were also sent to Parihaka but here conflict was avoided because of the non-violent approach of Te Whiti
and his followers to land alienation.
The candidate’s response to the second part of essay question could include:
• Although the official government policy was amalgamation, the Government effectively marginalised Māori –
socially, politically, and economically. They were excluded from the ‘mainstream’ Pākehā settler society
• More settlers were placed on the land through the acquisition of Māori land than through the breaking up of great
pastoral estates. Pākehā owned 58 million out of 66 million acres by 1900
• Māori were excluded from Pākehā society and government by institutionalised racism. Māori no longer had
sufficient land to provide an economic base on which to survive, let alone thrive, in an increasingly Pākehādominated economic world
• The period of confiscation severely disrupted the economic and social life of tribes, including those who had
land returned
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 19 of 32
• Māori left with land found it difficult to develop farms as much of the land was unsuitable for farming, banks were
reluctant to lend money to Māori farmers, and many Māori were not skilled in farming for cash crops
• From the 1870s, the government mostly used legal and diplomatic means to deal with Māori, who themselves
wanted peace. However, raupatu was a considerable barrier to reconciliation
• The Native Land Courts worked to remove land from Māori possession – Māori knew them as the ‘Land Taking
Courts’. In the end, far more land passed to Pākehā through the courts and purchase than through confiscation.
This loss of land destroyed much, but not all, of the communal basis of Māori society
• Māori poverty was reflected in the terrible living conditions of many Māori communities. In some areas where
morale was low, Māori turned to alcohol. An even more serious problem was disease as Māori still had little
resistance to many European diseases. Poor conditions and lack of sanitation encouraged the spread of
diseases like whooping cough and TB. Because most Māori lived in isolated rural areas, they had little access to
doctors or medicine. The Māori population declined steadily between 1870 and 1890, and they appeared to be
bound for extinction
• Many Māori lived on the remnants of land and were dependent on Pākehā for employment in labouring jobs like
sheep shearing, which were poorly paid
• However, Māori made new attempts to maintain their culture and independence through the use of the legal
system and Parliament, petitions to Parliament and the Queen, passive resistance to the pressures of Pākehā,
stressing the original nature of the Treaty, successful economic enterprise to give some independence, runanga
and other communications among Māori, efforts to create Pākehā-style institutions for Māori, and searching for
ways to unite Māori thinking and action
• There were some attempts to be involved in Pākehā systems of government – Māori MPs – but they had little
effect in the 1870s and 1880s; appeals and petitions; and use of the court system (which was heavily biased
against Māori)
• The Treaty of Waitangi became more important to Māori after 1870 because it served as a focal point on which
to stand firm against Pākehā law and settlement. Copies were circulated, and knowledge of the Treaty spread
widely with awareness increasing about the failure of the government to meet Treaty promises, especially about
land and rangatiratanga
• There were two major petitions to the British Crown to reassert the validity and original concepts of the Treaty of
Waitangi, but these were always referred back to the settler government in New Zealand
• Prophets and prophetic movements appeared, and they gained support as a means of coping with Pākehā
culture. They gave a spiritual dimension to the political and land sale resistance, eg Hauhau or Pai Marire,
Ringatu, Parihaka
• Attempts at Kotahitanga (unity) – a variety of runanga and komiti (committees) – began to be formed all over the
North Island from the 1870s to reconcile Māori differences, defend their rights and keep the Treaty alive. There
were meetings of Wanganui tribes in the 1870s; Tūhoe formed the ‘Union of Mataatua’ to guard their land. Other
runanga were held in Rotorua, Taupo, East Coast, Kaipara and Wairarapa
• In 1881, a large assembly of Ngā Puhi proposed Māori Parliaments – these Waitangi runanga continued into the
1890s. These led two Māori Parliament movements in the 1890s – Kauhanganui and the Kotahitanga Movement
• King Tawhiao set up Kauhanganui after the failure of petitions and suggestions to the government. Its first
meeting was held in 1892 in a specially built Parliament House. A constitution set up a structure of government in
1894; all tribes were invited to participate, but it remained a Tainui institution. The constitution discussed issues
such as Māori autonomy, Treaty rights and land matters
• The Kotahitanga Movement or Te Kotahitanga o te Tiriti o Waitangi was established in 1892 at Waitangi. The first
Kotahitanga Parliament was held in the Hawke’s Bay in 1892, and meetings continued for 11 years. There was
much support for the movement, but the Kingites and Te Whiti were not interested. Kotahitanga sought to
improve race relations through fairer laws, some self-government, and a better deal over land. Kotahitanga
attempted to introduce a Māori Rights Bill into Parliament in 1894 so Māori could control their own lands and
fishing – Pākehā MPs walked out
• Separate development – marginalisation was not always negative; if Pākehā left them alone, Māori could get on
with their lives successfully. Some groups that maintained some independence and limited their contact with
Pākehā, especially involvement in land dealing and all its repercussions, tended to be better off than those who
had close relations, eg:
- In areas where confiscation and land-selling frenzies had passed and Māori communities had retained some
land, there were leaders who organised successful farming and other enterprises, and made sure that living
conditions, especially housing, were adequate; encouraged schooling; and dealt capably with Pākehā settlers
and officials.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 20 of 32
• The many attempts to ensure their rights achieved little because Māori groups had no legislative or judicial
powers
• Where contact with Europeans was limited, so too was the impact on Māori eg, the King Country, Ureweras,
Parihaka (initially at least). They adapted and maintained independence
• Successive governments may have used the law to their benefit and Māori might have been marginalised as a
consequence, but there remained a willingness to actively respond to these challenges.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 21 of 32
Essay question (c)
Describe the changes that took place in the political systems of New Zealand between 1852 and 1900.
Evaluate the impact of these changes on the economic and social structures of New Zealand by 1900.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
• Before 1852 New Zealand had been a Crown Colony. Governors were appointed and received their instructions
directly from the Secretary of State for the Colonies. To help them rule, the Governors appointed an Executive
Council to initiate and administer policy and a Legislative Council to pass ordinances. In practice, they met
infrequently and had little power. The Governors initiated legislation and had the power to act against the advice
of Council if necessary. Moreover, instructions from the Colonial Office were no great hindrance to the
Governors’ freedom of action, since they were usually out of date or not specific enough to deal with the
peculiarities of a situation. Thus, in principle, the Governors enjoyed almost autocratic power and upon them
rested huge settler expectation of economic progress and prosperity
• In practice, however, they were unable to deliver (Judith Bassett – ‘impotent autocrats’) as they had very few
resources – they had little money to buy land or provide administration (Could make reference to Hobson,
FitzRoy, Gore Browne, Grey). So political life in the Crown Colony period witnessed a struggle between the
Governors and the wealthier educated settlers who demanded a constitution
• An earlier proposed constitution of 1846 had not been implemented, but its existence shows that right from the
outset Pākehā settlers had wanted self-government. Accusations of ‘despotism’ also accompanied Grey’s
success in achieving the postponement of the NZ Constitution Act of 1846, which effectively excluded Māori from
its proposed provincial and national assemblies. Grey argued that Māori-Pākehā relations were still too unsettled
for devolution of power to Pākehā settlers and Grey warned of a possible Māori uprising
• The key problem for early Governors was an ability to balance settler hunger for land with their duty to protect
Māori interests. From the settlers’ point of view, the Governors’ policies were seen as philo-Māori and were a
hindrance to their progress. Thus prompted a vigorous campaign to end the gubernatorial system. Many settlers
wanted their own government in order to get their hands on cheap Māori land and government funding
• The British Government was unwilling to continue to be responsible for NZ because of the mounting costs
• British settlers were keen to establish British institutions and systems in New Zealand. They also wanted more
say in government than they had had in Britain
• There was also a significant assumption made by Pākehā settlers that they would dominate Māori. The 1853
constitution, by weakening the power of the governor to protect them, would achieve this
• The regional nature of the country also contributed to the clamour for change. The term ‘irresponsible
government’ was levelled at the Auckland-based gubernatorial system for its administrative ‘neglect’ of the
Southern provinces
• The British Parliament passed the Act, which granted New Zealand the right to set up a democratic style
government. (Whilst Governor Grey helped prepare the constitution and to set up the Provincial governments, he
refused to call a general assembly and this was left for Lt. Col. Wynyard (Administrator) to do so in 1854)
• The General Assembly or Parliament had three parts: The Governor, Legislative Council (upper house), and
House of Representatives (lower house)
• A representative government was set up in 1854 with the first NZ Parliament meeting on 27 May 1854. Though
ministers came from the House of Representatives, the Governor and his officials still held power. From 7 May
1856 ministers were responsible to the elected House of Representatives, not the Governor – this is known as
responsible government
• A Central parliament consisting of an Upper House and a Lower House would control national affairs. The
Governor continued to control defence, foreign relations, and Māori Affairs until they were devolved to Ministers
in the 1860s
• Elected parliamentary government held authority over everyone in NZ, including Māori. Like Crown Colony
government, self-government was based on the English version of Article One of the Treaty of Waitangi, ignoring
the Māori understanding of the Treaty and Māori traditional power structures
• The 1852 Act set up six provinces, each with its own provincial government, an elected superintendent, and wide
powers over local affairs including land revenue and purchase, customs revenue, public works, education, and
immigration. They objected to interference by central government
• 1856: Responsible government begins in New Zealand, with an executive that needs the support of a majority of
the members of the House of Representatives. The governor retains responsibility for defence and Māori
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 22 of 32
• Most Members of the House of Representatives were well-off Pākehā property owners, professional men,
merchants, and substantial farmers or run holders. They were a small elite group who focused substantially on
improving their own situations. Some were ex-New Zealand Company men
• There were no political parties. Without a tight party structure, politics was largely personality-based and
alliances were sometimes formed around significant business advantages offered. Shifting alliances meant some
ministries were only briefly in power, but this did not usually mean instability since there was often considerable
continuity of personnel
• There was plenty of “Pork Barrel” politics – political rivalry and desire often influenced national politics. People of
specific regions and provinces expected their Members to get what they could for their area
• Eventually, the Provincial government system began to financially implode. A financial downturn in the later
1860s stopped all borrowing and, therefore, development
• There were different development rates of provinces also – gold in Otago and Westland, war in the North. Only
the larger, better-off provinces such as Canterbury and Otago could borrow the capital needed for development.
Many provincial governments got into financial difficulties, especially in the late 1860s recession
• The issue of the capital city became more important with responsible government. Many MHRs and MLCs found
it difficult to get to Auckland, especially those from the South Island. There was also concern that the issues of
war with Māori in the Waikato and Auckland’s desire for land were dominating government too much in the early
1860s. In 1865, Parliament was shifted from Auckland to the more central Wellington, which became the capital
• Julius Vogel proposed large-scale borrowing to establish a railway, telegraph water supply, and immigration on a
national basis
• Franchise was male and property-based initially with a plural voting system. Māori were effectively unable to vote
because they did not own land as individuals. Women were also excluded
• Māori franchise began in 1867 – four Māori seats were established as part of the resolution of the wars. The
seats were regionally not tribally based, but all Māori men could vote. Māori seats were limited to four regardless
of Māori population. This separate representation made sure there could be no possibility, if Māori did choose to
vote, of Māori numbers influencing Pākehā government, even though Māori had been given all the rights of
British citizens in the Treaty of Waitangi
• The franchise for Pākehā men was still bound by property qualifications. Pākehā representatives were numbered
as a proportion of the Pākehā population. Pākehā men gained universal suffrage in 1879 (and women both Māori
and Pākehā in 1893)
• The Secret Ballot was introduced in 1870 (and Plural Voting was abolished in 1889)
• By the 1870s, many MHRs believed that the three-tiered system of government and, particularly, the provincial
tier had become an inefficient way of governing New Zealand
• Each province had its own methods and standards for land survey, and a divided administration meant that there
was no accurate system of triangulation to which land titles could be adjusted
• Different provinces had built railways with different gauges, which stunted the growth of national lines
• Steamships, telegraphs, railways, and the shifting of the capital to Wellington reduced the communication
problems that had led to the initial decision to set up the provincial system
• The Pākehā population had boomed in the 1860s and 1870s, and the new migrants were too removed to be
committed to the founding principles of their founding fathers. The Wakefield experiments were effectively over,
and the Otago gold rush had ended the dreams of a tight Free Church Presbyterian settlement in Dunedin
• The gold rush had also led to transience. People moved around the country in search of gold, and this created
less parochial regionalism, but it annoyed the miners that there were different regulations and rules in each
province. It seemed ridiculous that the miners should have to apply for a new “Miner’s Right” when they moved
from an Otago goldfield to a West Coast one
• Most of the provinces were financially weak. Only Otago and Canterbury had generated significant revenue from
the sale of land. Most relied on loans from central government to stay afloat
• With some justification, Vogel was able to accuse the provinces of being inward-looking. Conversely, the
provinces seemed to always be objecting to the interference of central government
• The provinces were developing at different rates. While Taranaki had war, Otago had gold
• There was concern in the central government about the quality of education throughout the country. Education
was a provincial responsibility, and many MHRs believed that the provinces were spending too little on it
• The abolition of the provinces was part of a gradual process as central government gradually absorbed the
functions of provincial government. In 1867, the provinces lost the power to raise overseas loans. By 1875, they
had also lost their immigration and public works responsibilities
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 23 of 32
• Vogel’s public works projects had made central government popular. They also placed centralist and provincial
interests in direct conflict. The final catalyst for the abolition of the provinces was the refusal of several provinces
to guarantee a Vogel loan by creating a Crown endowment of reserve land adjacent to the railways
• An increase in the proportion of the population both interested in politics and in casting votes was driven by the
economic downturn – people wanted political solutions to what they saw as problems or weaknesses in society
• Politics at a national level became more organised and structured because of the creation of a bureaucracy to
manage the work
• Socialist ideas imported from Australia or USA had spread through trade unions and other labour and social
organisations and this helped shape opinions on issues such as working conditions, alcohol and violence, and
women’s suffrage
• Land became a major concern, especially the monopoly of landholding by a few wealthy New Zealanders. Many
people doubted their capacity to ever become landowners, and this limited their sense of security and
independence. People wanted the government to make it possible for working-class New Zealanders to own land
• Support for a state bank grew – during the Long Depression a lot of land had passed into the hands of banks that
seem to favour the wealthy
• Social and economic issues arose in the 1880s, which required central government to take action to protect the
less well off (Pākehā) in society, who suffered most. The ministries of the 1880s, particularly under Vogel and
Atkinson, did not have much impact on the concerns and seemed unwilling or unable to tackle the social and
economic problems affecting ordinary New Zealanders
• ‘Old World Evils’ were apparent in New Zealand – working conditions were poor (sweating), which led to the
formation of unions and strikes (Maritime Strike); poverty; crime; alcoholism; prostitution.
• Political and social ideas developed in the 1880s – eg prohibition for alcohol, women’s suffrage. There were
Labour candidates for parliamentary seats, and some people sought radical solutions to problems. People
wanted a new attitude in government
• Stout’s defeat in 1887 saw a move by opposition groups to form a loose coalition, which, led from 1889 by John
Ballance, coalesced into the Liberal party
• The Liberals proposed a more active reformist programme than Atkinson and his group. Liberal leaders and
policies seemed more democratic compared with the ‘Continuous Ministry’, and both the Liberal leaders and their
policies appealed more to popular opinion
• The Liberals had policies that sought practical solutions to real problems, such as unemployment. The Liberals
were willing to intervene in matters that previous governments had believed were private, such as land
ownership, labour and employment, and social conditions. The Liberals felt the state should work for the good of
the people, and they promised land, welfare, and improved conditions for all
• Many Liberal leaders were immigrants who had first-hand knowledge of poverty and working-class life in Britain
and New Zealand. They had a genuine interest in ordinary people and real concern about ‘Old World Evils’
recurring in New Zealand.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
• The changes in the exercise of power in New Zealand had a considerable impact on the lives of its citizens
• The abolition of the provincial system slowly began a change in the way that inhabitants of this land saw
themselves – while parochialism was not to disappear, a sense of national identity did emerge. And with that
perception came a willingness to look beyond the limitations of provincial interests and self-regard. What was
best for a province was extended to the interests of the country. Candidates could argue that this perception
allowed the rise of the Liberal Party and its success as it addressed many of the issues that troubled New
Zealanders
• Until 1890 and the emergence of the Liberal Party the political structures of this country had allowed the
emergence of disparities of wealth. A good deal of land was concentrated in the hands of a relative few
• Government became more involved in the activities of citizens, with the approval of the majority of people –
‘Social Laboratory’
• The Liberals shared a belief in the power of the state to run the country in a way that improved individual
opportunities but favoured no particular group such as businessmen or pastoralists. However, they did little to
improve the conditions for Māori, who were thought to be dying out at this time. McKenzie’s land policies led to a
great loss of land for Māori in the North Island
• William Pember Reeves (labour) and John McKenzie (land) created programmes of legislation that helped satisfy
rural and urban working-class people
• The government was offered much more land than it bought. Many large estate owners were eager to sell
because they were heavily mortgaged and land had lost value in the Depression
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 24 of 32
• Some of the reforms instituted by the Liberals in the 1890s:
• Land
- land and Income Tax 1891 (taxed unimproved land or absentee owners)
- department of Agriculture 1892 (to educate farmers)
- lands for Settlement Act 1892 (lands could be repurchased by state for closer settlement – but private
subdivision opened up much more land than this did)
- advances to Settlers Act (state loans to farmers for development – not Māori)
- large-scale purchase of Māori land to make it available for farming.
• Labour
- Truck Act 1891 (workers to be paid in cash not goods)
- Department of Labour 1892 (created to inspect factories and help find employment)
- Factories Act 1894 (restricted hours for women, children, set holiday entitlement, health and safety measures)
- Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894 (peaceful settlement of industrial disputes and encouraged
unionism). There were no strikes in New Zealand for the following ten years and the system lasted for more
than 70 years).
• Other Measures
- Bank of New Zealand 1894 supported.
• Public works – bridges, railways to open up land and encourage settlement, which encouraged “pork barrel”
politics:
- Old Age Pensions 1898
- Women’s’ Franchise 1893
- Equal grounds for divorce for both men and women 1898
- James Carroll became the first Māori Native Minister 1899
- Māori schools reorganised by Reeves, which led to increase in attendance – medical supplies made available
through schools, which helped with health.
• The Liberals fought and won a battle against the governor’s interference in national politics. They were,
therefore, seen as more democratic and more responsive to the people
• The Liberals reduced the powers of the Legislative Council or Upper House
• The Liberal Government’s actions signified a change in attitude towards the role of government, showing a
greater willingness to use its power for the good of all. This foreshadowed the concept of the ‘welfare state’ and
the more interventionist policies of 20th century governments.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 25 of 32
Essay question (d)
Describe the developments that took place in the farming industry in the North Island and the South Island
between 1840 and 1900.
Evaluate the extent to which these developments changed the political and social structures of New
Zealand by 1900.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
• Candidates should refer to the development of large scale farming in the South Island and specific areas in the
North Island – extensive pastoralism -– and acknowledge the development of intensive farming and the
emergence of dairy farming in the North Island
• Sheep numbers boomed after Australian graziers came to New Zealand because of the drought in Victoria and
New South Wales. In the late 1860s, the natural increase in sheep exceeded the number required for flock
replacement, the formation of new flocks, and the needs of the local market. By 1870, virtually all the open
grasslands of both islands were being used for large-scale pastoral farming
• From the 1860s, pastoral farming and its products were improved in a number of ways: sown grasses instead of
sheep grazing on native tussocks and grasses; fences were constructed; new sheep breeds more suited to New
Zealand conditions, eg the Corriedale; meat canning factories were established from 1869 but their production
was small and unreliable and unsuccessful as an export; refrigeration made meat, cheese and butter an export
product; wool scouring and tanning factories added value to wool skins, and carcasses could be boiled down for
tallow – all of which was exported
• The construction of roads and railways in the 1860s and 1870s assisted in getting the wool clip to ports. The
development of the steam ship was important for refrigerated exports
• The first export of refrigerated sheep meat occurred in 1882, when the Dunedin took a load to Britain. Within 10
years, only wool was a more valuable export than meat. This success led to a number of changes: establishment
of freezing works to kill and process sheep; development of new breeds of sheep for meat as well as wool; and a
significant increase in North Island sheep numbers
• There were difficulties and issues with large-scale pastoralism. Sheep diseases such as scabies affected or killed
flocks; severe winters could kill many sheep. Pasture quality often deteriorated, and drought and over-stocking
had negative impacts. Burning of scrub and bush led to erosion and floods. Rabbits started to have a major
impact on grass cover in the 1870s. Overseas prices for wool were erratic, with significant slumps in the late
1860s and a long slide in prices from the late 1870s.
Dairying:
• Few settlers knew much about dairy farming. They also lacked knowledge of New Zealand’s soils and
environments, so there was much trial and error in farming. The establishment of the Department of Agriculture in
1892 played a key role in setting up the dairying industry by offering advice and providing quality control through
systems of branding, grading and inspection. They used models from Denmark and Canada
• From the 1880s, the dairy industry grew rapidly. Farms specialising in milk for dairy production became a feature
of regions such as Taranaki, where Chew Chong was a significant pioneer
• Dairy factories were established to process milk, and they led to economies of scale and a willingness to
innovate; a higher quality of hygiene through techniques such as pasteurisation and a higher quality of product;
the use of better and more machinery – the centrifugal separator (recovers butterfat from milk) was second only
to refrigeration in importance
• From 1885, there were successful co-operative dairy factories in Taranaki. They virtually disappeared in the
1890s, when businessmen-owners supplied needed capital. After 1900, co-operatives again became dominant
• In 1900, there were 95 dairy factories, more than twice as many as in 1896, and 21 cheese factories
• Dairy exports expanded faster than any other product exports in the years 1889–1898
• Cheese production increased more slowly than butter production. Butter was worth more per pound weight than
cheese as an export, and butter was exported in much greater quantities.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
• In the North Island, the wars of the 1860s disrupted farming progress, but in the South Island the emergence of
large estates from the 1870s caused resentment and locked out many would-be farmers. Younger sons of South
Island farmers had to go north to find land after the wars opened up much Māori land for settlement. The
Liberals’ ‘land for settlements’ programmes, in combination with the buy-up of over 3 million acres of Māori land,
addressed real land problems
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 26 of 32
• Different Māori and Pākehā attitudes concerning land and land use caused conflict, and Māori resistance to land
purchasing continued throughout the century
• Limited access for small farmers to cheap credit. Without capital, they couldn’t become efficient modern-style
capitalist farmers. The Advances for Settlement programme of the Liberals post-1894 was more helpful in
empowering farmers to modernise than the break-up of the large estates. Māori farming was almost destroyed by
the unavailability of credit until at least the 1920s
• New Zealand never really overcame the problems of limited markets. It lacked trading relationships with other
countries. It was dependent on Britain and Australia for markets. Britain was the main market for wool because of
Britain’s manufacturing capacity while frozen meat depended on the rising living standards of the British working
class for its existence – hence frozen meat didn’t take off until 1896. Pastoralism and especially refrigeration led
to the New Zealand economy being very closely tied with Britain’s (Belich refers to the “Protein Bridge”)
• The dependence on exporting / importing made the New Zealand economy susceptible to overseas trends
• Vogel and his focus on the development of a transport infrastructure was a key factor in the development of a
successful industry. Until the late nineteenth century, many internal markets were often inaccessible because of
a lack of safe harbours or rugged terrain. Improved communications (railways, roads, ports, telegraphs, bridges)
made transporting goods easier from the 1870s (Vogel’s Plan)
• New Zealand was far away from its main overseas markets. Many potential export items were perishable. This
distance made it very difficult to attract private investment
• Within New Zealand, there was often a local focus on economic development, rather than a national one. This
was particularly so at the height of the Provincial politics era before the 1870s
• Wool provided the mainstay of the economy and a good living for large-scale operators before 1860 and after
1870. The majority of wool was exported, mainly to Britain, and was a staple export throughout the century. The
wealth that wool created encouraged overseas investment in New Zealand, but New Zealanders usually
exported the wool without adding value to it. The New Zealand Historical Atlas shows that in 1881, only 18
percent of the wool that was exported was scoured and only 15 percent was washed. Wool didn’t create many
jobs for New Zealanders. The work for shearers was seasonal
• The social consequences of large scale pastoralism were the transient nature of much of the industry – shearers
– and the extensive settlement patterns
• Grain growing earned big profits during the 1870s. The wheat industry provided more work than the wool industry
• Refrigeration saw frozen meat and dairy products become major and sustainable export staples after 1896. This
meant small farming was much more economically viable and the processing of sheep and milk created a variety
of off-farm industries and encouraged transport systems. The ‘cow-cocky’s’ labour was as important as capital.
Refrigeration led to all-year-round employment in the meat and dairy industries. It helped to develop both a
working class and a change in settlement patterns as communities emerged to provide labour for the freezing
works
• Political power shifted from the South Island to the North Island as refrigeration (and governments) opened up
opportunities for farming in Taranaki and the Waikato, and the North Island population increased, ending “middle
island ascendancy”
• The quality of New Zealand stock was raised steadily
• A considerable number of subsidiary industries now supported farming
• A transformation of forest to grassland and tussock to grassland had been achieved by 1900, with over 14 million
acres of land sown in English grasses by 1914. Sawmills were cutting into the bush, creating more dairy and
mixed farming. This also had negative consequences such as erosion, floods, slips, and the destruction and
extinction of some flora and fauna
• Although small farms always predominated, the family farm did not really triumph over the great estates /
plantation model until the 1890s, when refrigeration made the medium-sized mixed farm economically viable.
This was the pattern for farming in the North Island, where the family farm became an important part of the social
landscape
• Private subdivision (4 million acres), the purchase of large areas of Māori land (3.2 million acres) and the busting
up of the large estates (1.3 million acres) revitalised the countryside and promoted the farmer as the number one
citizen
• Farmers would dominate both local and national politics for two generations until the 1930s
• Closer settlement also ensured that the relatively empty landscape became much more fully populated, and that
the environment was transformed even more rapidly than before as the remaining forest was converted to
pasture, and swamps and wetlands were drained
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 27 of 32
• Pioneer farmers experienced much greater hardships than those on cleared and improved large estates, but the
majority seemed to have achieved a modest prosperity by 1900. Initially, they spent a lot of time on roading, bush
felling, and sawmill work to clear the land. They practised a semi-subsistence type of farming
• The search for pastoral land led to exploration of country new to Pākehā
• Pastoral farming for the local market did much to feed New Zealanders and gave independence to many farmers
• Through wool and later through meat, large-scale pastoralism earned considerable overseas funds. Well-off
pastoralists dominated land possession in the South Island and formed a major part of powerful political and
social elites. Stevan Eldred-Grigg labelled such elites as the “Southern Gentry” (suggesting a natural aristocracy
transplanted from the social structures of Great Britain). This view has been challenged by historians such as
Gavin McLean, who argues that hard work and good fortune were more likely to be the factors in enabling the
emergence of a land-owning class.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 28 of 32
Essay question (e)
Describe some of the fears and hopes that led Pākehā to migrate to New Zealand between 1840 and 1875.
Evaluate the extent to which these fears and hopes had been realised by 1900.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
• Many migrants to New Zealand dreamed of owning their own land. Land was a commodity that many had found
hard to obtain in Britain. Land in New Zealand would provide security for settlers’ families
• Many migrants were also suspicious of urbanisation. In many cases, they had chosen to make the long migration
journey to New Zealand instead of joining those who were migrating from rural to urban areas in order to find jobs
brought about by industrialisation. Cities were associated with “Old World evils”. Migrating to New Zealand was
supposed to enable one’s family to avoid sweating, urban poverty, unemployment and work houses
• Many migrants came to New Zealand as a result of government assistance. It has been argued that this
established an expectation among New Zealand’s settlers that government would be involved in different aspects
of people’s lives
• Most migrants were Eurocentric. They believed that the European (especially the British) way of life was best.
The historian Rollo Arnold has shown that the way in which settlers thought was shaped more by their
experiences of “home” than their experience in New Zealand
• Most settlers brought with them beliefs and values that had been shaped by their Christian religion. Church
played an important part in the lives of nineteenth century New Zealand Pākehā
• Many migrants hoped that New Zealand would be egalitarian, a place where it was easy to get ahead quickly
because “Jack was as good as his master”. It was supposed to be a workers’ paradise
• Some female migrants saw New Zealand as a “bride’s paradise”, where they would quickly be able to be married
and experience upward social mobility
• Most had been led to believe that New Zealand was a land of great plenty
• Different groups of migrants brought different values depending on the circumstances of their migration. Some
New Zealand Company settlers to Otago and Canterbury brought expectations of Free Church Presbyterian and
Anglican utopias. Gold miners had a totally different set of values, which involved a desire to strike it lucky and
take part in a mate-ship culture that had its own set of well-established if unwritten rules
• Settlers who came as part of the Wakefield plan were probably more committed to the continuation of a class
system than those who came later. Wakefield had planned for a “vertical slice” of Britain to be transplanted into
New Zealand and although this was never realised in the manner he had hoped, those who found themselves at
the top of the ladder (including early pastoralists) were quick to put in place structures and activities that allowed
them to express their status.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 29 of 32
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
• The desire of Pākehā migrants to own land and the attitudes settlers brought with them about land ownership
clashed violently with the attitude that Māori had towards land. Settler notions of racial superiority also
contributed to the wars that broke out in the 1860s. These wars and the legislation that followed had a very
significant impact on the New Zealand that had developed by 1900
• It was much harder for migrants at certain times to fulfil their landowning ambitions because of the enormous
estates that were owned by a small group of South Island Pākehā farmers (“the maharajahs of merino”) and
North Island Māori
• The depression of the 1880s underlined the gaps that existed between the expectations of Pākehā settlers and
reality. The depression led to social unrest and a growth in class consciousness
• It led to New Zealand experiencing a net loss of migrants as many left for the perceived advantages of living in
Australia
• Settlers came to realise that governmental intervention was necessary to close the gap between their
expectations of a prosperous life in New Zealand and the reality of their situation. This led to the election of the
Liberal Government. Their programme of legislation allowed for the machinery of the state to be used to create
“god’s own country”. It included old-age pensions, health and safety regulations for factories and shops, the
establishing of a process for industrial arbitration and conciliation, and legislation that opened up both Māori and
Pākehā land for small-scale agricultural farming. It could be argued that these things were a direct result of the
attitudes and values of settlers
• Miles Fairburn sees the desire of Pākehā settlers to get ahead in New Zealand as contributing to an “atomised”
New Zealand that lacked strong community bonds
• His argument is one that is refuted by a number of historians who argue for ‘community’ and a patchwork of
viable groups connected through kinship, self-interest and a shared socio-economic background. The ability to
gain access to Māori land suitable for dairy farming sees the emergence of the family farm, realising migrants
dreams of ‘getting ahead’ and in the changing settlement patterns a cohesion at variance with Fairburn’s
arguments
• New Zealand’s willingness to reject the opportunity to federate with Australia suggests that aspirations had been
met to a significant degree.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 30 of 32
Essay question (f)
Describe the different waves of Pākehā migrants to New Zealand between 1840 and 1900.
Evaluate the extent to which each of these different waves impacted on the population composition and
settlement of nineteenth-century New Zealand.
The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:
th
• Pākehā immigrants came to New Zealand during the 19 century as part of what James Belich calls the
‘European diaspora’. Between 1840 and 1880, almost 500 000 migrants arrived; between 1880 and 1900,
another 225 000 came. Migrants came either in organised schemes, often assisted by the payment of part or all
of their fare, or they were independent and paid their own way. Many of the latter were single men
• Not all of the migrants stayed in New Zealand, and there were periods of considerable emigration – eg, between
1840 and 1881 about 200 000 people left
• Immigration had three major waves, each one progressively larger than the one before.
1840–1855 wave – Wakefield’s New Zealand Company and Associated Organisation Schemes
• Propaganda was used to recruit migrants using a network of New Zealand Company agents in England. A
picture was painted of a paradise on earth with flat, fertile land
• Desirable settlers were working class labourers, along with some capitalists
• Settlers were dispatched to the first settlement in Wellington before news was received that land had been
purchased and before this land had been surveyed
• The first immigrant ship, the Aurora, arrived on 20 January 1840 with 127 passengers
• About 12 000 settlers were brought out to New Zealand by the New Zealand Company; they arrived in the New
Zealand Company settlements of Wellington (1840), Wanganui (1840), New Plymouth (1841), and Nelson
(1842). Over 3 500 migrants arrived in the Otago (1848) and Canterbury (1850) settlements, organised by the
Canterbury and Otago Associations
• The schemes delivered immigrants who were young, adventurous and wanting a better life, including families
and females
• All of the New Zealand Company-inspired settlements had positive and negative features, and Keith Sinclair
concluded that the “experiments in New Zealand produced colonies – but not Wakefield colonies”
• During the same period over 10 000 unorganised, independent migrants arrived in New Zealand. Many went to
Auckland, which was the capital city, attracting bureaucrats, church administration, and entrepreneurs.
1856–1870 wave – Provincial Government Schemes
• From 1856, the provinces had responsibility for organising immigration. All the provinces were active, but
Canterbury and Otago had more resources and, therefore, brought in more migrants
• Some recruitment was from Australia, but most migrants came from Britain
• Agents or companies were appointed to find suitable migrants – rural labourers, domestic servants (women) and
people with capital were targeted. Offers were made of assisted passages and in the case of Canterbury and
Otago, of land to lease or purchase
• Immigration barracks and supervision were provided for migrants when they arrived
• Canterbury and Otago recruited about 8 000 single women in the 1850s and 1860s
• The objectives of these migration schemes were to meet the demand for domestic servants and to correct the
gender imbalance in New Zealand
• The South Island provinces were more successful in recruiting migrants as the North Island was engaged in war,
had land disputes and difficult economic conditions.
1860s – Gold Rushes
• The gold boom resulted in what James Belich describes as a ‘tidal wave’ of immigration to the goldfields. The
population of the South Island grew six-fold during the 1860s, with about 64 000 people arriving between 1861–
1863 alone
• Many were attracted by the lure of instant riches or from the money to be made in servicing the needs of the
miners
• Many miners came from the Victorian goldfields in Australia. They were a cosmopolitan group – Irish Catholics,
Australians, Americans, Europeans and Chinese
• Most miners were male, unmarried and young, causing a big gender imbalance on the goldfields. Most miners
were working class and came from backgrounds different from those of the settlers already established in these
areas. They brought with them democratic and egalitarian ideals
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 31 of 32
• From 1866, Chinese miners arrived, initially brought by the Otago Provincial Government to rework the fields.
Between 1874–81, there were about 5 000 Chinese in New Zealand. They were subjected to strong anti-Chinese
prejudice
• Many miners stayed on New Zealand after the gold declined while others departed (78 000 emigrants left
between 1869-69). Those remaining were useful immigrants – adaptable, tough, independent and possessing
skills useful in agriculture and industry.
1870s wave – Vogel Scheme
• In 1870, the central government took over the recruitment of immigrants from the provinces and Sir Julius Vogel,
the Colonial Treasurer, announced his development scheme, which provided for the use of loan money from
Britain to assist large numbers of migrants to come to New Zealand
• During the decade of the Vogel Scheme, 100 700 assisted migrants were brought to New Zealand out of a total
of 190 000 migrants
• Three-quarters came from Britain and a smaller number from continental Europe – Germans, Danes, and
Scandinavians
• An Agent-General went to Britain to recruit carefully selected migrants to meet the needs of the economy and
society – agricultural labourers, country mechanics, and single female domestic servants. About 6 000 Germans
and Scandinavians went to special settlements in remote, forested areas of the North Island that the government
hoped would be opened up, such as the Manawatu, Wairarapa Bush, and Dannevirke etc.
• Sixty per cent went to the South Island, where there was more economic development than the North Island
• By 1880, the country could not absorb any more immigrants, so efforts to encourage them ceased. Only the
nominations scheme (migrants nominated by relatives already living in New Zealand) continued, but it too, was
abandoned in 1890. In 1881, the total number of immigrants entering New Zealand fell to 9 688. In 1888, there
was a net outflow of 9 175 people. Although government interest in attracting immigrants saw a revival under the
Liberals, there were no official schemes offered. However, from 1893, the New Zealand Shipping Company was
given permission to offer reduced fares to those with little capital.
The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:
Population Composition – Changes to Māori population numbers and societies
• 1840–1874: A period of rapid decline in the Māori population (47 330 in 1874) due to epidemics, a drop in Māori
fertility rates (a hangover from the males that were killed in the musket wars), increasing numbers of Pākehā, war
and confiscation. In 1858, the Māori and Pākehā populations were roughly equal.
• 1874–1900: A stabilising of the Māori population due to increased fertility and increasing immunity
• Disease and war led to significant dislocation for Māori in many areas
• The swamping of the Māori population occurred because of the rapidly increasing size of the Pākehā population.
This put pressure on colonial governments to take control of Māori land through war and confiscation. Pākehā
dominance in population “legitimised” legislation that advantaged settlers over Māori as “democratic”.
Population Composition – Pākehā population numbers
• In 1840, the Pākehā population was about 2 000
• Between 1840 and 1858, there was a steady increase (59 413 in 1858). This was the era of the Wakefield
settlements. Young men were also attracted to New Zealand. Some population growth due to natural increase. In
1858, the Māori and Pākehā populations were roughly equal
• 1858–1881 saw a very rapid increase in the Pākehā population (487 889 in 1881) due to the gold rush and the
implementation of Vogel’s Plan. Until 1867, migration was more important in population growth than natural
increase. Natural increase still accounted for 61 percent of the population’s growth during this period
• During the “Long Depression” of the 1880s, there was some much-heralded out-migration. More people left New
Zealand than arrived in 1888. Despite this, New Zealand’s population kept growing through natural increase.
Population Composition – Gender
• For the whole of the 19th century, Pākehā men outnumbered women, although this gradually levelled out as the
“womb overtook the ship” as the main determinant of New Zealand’s population. There were 622 females for
every 1 000 males in 1861 and 900 for every 1000 males in 1901
• “A Man’s Country”: Evaluation of Jock Phillips’ view of 19th-century New Zealand being a male-dominated
community (“Truth by numbers”). Perhaps regional statistics are more significant than national statistics when
looking at social history. Caversham (Dunedin) and some suburbs of Auckland had more women than men for
much of the 19th century
• The gradual levelling out of the gender ratio led to the “settling down” of the New Zealand male. The beginning of
the end for the “frontier society”.
NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2012 — page 32 of 32
Settlement Patterns – North Island or South Island Dominance?
• Until the 1860s, most people lived in the North Island. Two-thirds of the Māori population lived north of Taupo,
and most migrants went to either the Wakefield settlements or to Auckland
• 1860–1890 was a period of “Middle Island ascendancy” – significant political power in Otago and Canterbury as
the gold rush, pastoralism, and Vogel attracted settlers to the South Island. War in the North Island also helped
the growth of the Pākehā population of the South Island
• By 1896, the North Island was dominant again. The effects of the “Long Depression” were more acutely obvious
in the South and the timber industry, refrigeration, and confiscation had opened up the North Island for farming.
The last major gold strike was in the Coromandel region
• The population of the South Island led to “middle island ascendancy”.
Settlement Patterns – Rural or Urban?
• There was gradual urbanisation of the Pākehā population; but even by 1900, Pākehā New Zealand was still
largely rural (54.4 percent in 1901)
• The desire for land: Because of their rural background and events such as the clearances that they had
experienced before migrating to New Zealand, many migrants wanted New Zealand to provide them with an
independent living on the land. These immigrants longed for access to the land that they believed was being
monopolised by Māori in the North Island and large estate-holders in the South.
Other Settlement Patterns
• 1840–1860 saw the development of small-scale coastal settlements. These were the planned Wakefield
settlements and Auckland. Pastoralism began in the hinterland beyond these settlements
• 1860–1900 was the period of great territorial expansion of much wider Pākehā settlement, with large waves of
South Island immigration and the development of inland towns and cities in Waikato, Manawatu, and Taranaki.
This Pākehā expansion was largely due to confiscation, refrigeration, the timber industry and the railways.
Judgement Statement
Achievement
Achievement with Merit
Achievement with Excellence
Achievement for each of:
Merit for each of:
Excellence for each of:
(a) or (b)
(a) or (b)
(a) or (b)
and
and
and
(c) or (d)
(c) or (d)
(c) or (d)
and
and
and
(e) or (f)
(e) or (f)
(e) or (f)