READING
The migration of
African Americans to the North
and the birth of
black nationalism
resulted in changes
for black society.
• What led thousands of southern
blacks to migrate to the North?
~ILDING
I :S~he
Focus
MAIN IDEA
• What events led up to the Red
Summer of 1919?
• How did black nationalism and
social gains lead to changes in the
United States?
KEY TERMS AND
PEOPLE
Great Migration
blues
Red Summer
Marcus Garvey
black nationalism
BACKGROUND
United States entered World War I in Europe, changes were taking place at home.
Tired of years of discrimination and poverty in the South, thousands of African Americans
began moving to the North in record numbers. This migration of people led to many
changes in the United States.
The Great Migration
In the years following World War I, thousands of African Americans left the South in
search of better opportunities. As black Americans moved North in record numbers,
they had a powerful effect on the economy and culture of the North.
African Americans Move North
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With the beginning of u.s. involvement in World War 1, the demand for war equipment and supplies surged. Northern factories were booming. However, hundreds of
thousands of white men were leaving their jobs to fight in the war, and the flow of
new immigrants was sharply limited. As a result, many northern businesses looked
to the South for workers to fill the new jobs. African Americans from the South
moved north in search of better lives.
Southern blacks were eager to move north for a variety of reasons. Chief among
those reasons was their desire for better economic opportunities. For many black
Americans, the promise of good jobs pulled them to the North. Northern cities
like Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Detroit held the promise of steady jobs and good pay.
African American newpapers such as the Chicago Defender also played a key role in
encouraging black southerners to move north. They frequently published articles
and letters from readers describing the advantages of life in the North.
At the same time, life in the South was pushing many African Americans to leave.
Years of discrimination, violence, and disenfranchisement pushed southern blacks
to move to the North. Black southerners hoped to escape the segregation, poverty,
and racial violence they often faced in the South, where many had little choice but to
work as sharecroppers or in other low-paying jobs. Economic troubles also pushed
many African Americans to leave the South. During the war, farmers and laborers
suffered from damaged crops, poor harvests, and a sharp drop in wages .
1. Identify the push
and pull factors that
led to the Great Migration.
Push and. Pull Factors
Push
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A NEW CENTURY AND NEW OPPORTUNITIES
209
states with greatest
D Northern
African American population
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increase
Southern states with greatest
African American population decrease
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Chicago
Detroit
New York City
City
St. Louis
Washington,
D.C.
2. What southern states experienced the greatest
decreases in population?
Source:U.S. Census Bureau
v-' Reading
Check
3. Summarize How did the
Great Migration lead to changes
in the North?
INFO TO KNOW
Originally an African American musical style, the blues
later influenced the growth
of jazz, soul, rock, and other
types of music.
210 CHAPTER 8
Effects of the Great Migration
This combination of factors resulted in an unprecedented movement of African Americans to the North. From 1910 to 1920 an estimated 330,000 black southerners moved
north. This enormous movement of people became known as the G~at Migration.
The Great Migration brought many changes to the United States. A key result was
the rapid growth of many northern cities. Black Americans moved in record numbers to industrial cities in the North. Cities such as St. Louis, Chicago, and Detroit
experienced tremendous growth. In Detroit, for example, the black population grew
from less than 6,000 in 1910 to more than 40,000 in 1920.
This massive movement of people also influenced northern culture. As African
Americans settled in northern cities, they brought southern customs with them. For
example, black musicians from the South introduced the blues to many northern
- cities. Born in the Mississippi Delta and nurtured in the city of New Orleans, the
mues is a form of music that combines instrumental rhythms and expressive vocals
- to convey deep emotions, especially sadness or love. Southern blues musicians such
as W C. Handy introduced the blues to northern cities, where it became an impor_ tant part of the cultural scene in places such as Chicago and St. Louis. ~
Red Summer of 1919
While many African Americans did find the new opportunities they sought in the
North during World War 1, they could not escape the racism and discrimination they
were fleeing. In fact, racial tension in the United States grew even more severe after
the end of World War I, reaching a peak in the summer and fall of 1919 when race
riots broke out across the country. Black writer and civil rights activist James Weldon
Johnson later named these months of bloody racial violence the Red Summ~.
Racial Tensions Rise
Racial tensions rose after World War I for several reasons. Many of the factory jobs
created in the North during the war were in war-related industries. When the war
ended, demand for these products fell suddenly and many workers lost their jobs.
As American soldiers returned home and tried to find work, they found themselves
competing with African Americans for factory jobs that had grown scarce. The
resulting competition between black and white workers for suddenly limited jobs led
to a sharp increase in tensions in many cities.
At the same time, African American expectations had begun to change. Many
blacks believed that they had earned greater freedom at home after helping fight
for freedom overseas during the war. Some whites were determined to resist any
changes brought about by this new attitude, and as a result many African Americans
grew increasingly frustrated and angry.
4. Underline the
reasons that racial
tension increased after
World War I.
Violence Breaks Out
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Inthe South, some whites began to punish anyone who encouraged black people
to move north or otherwise assert their independence. The cities of Birmingham,
Alabama, and Jacksonville, Florida, levied heavy fees-as much as $1,OOO-against
agents sent to recruit black workers. In some other places, laws made it illegal to sell
or distribute black publications such as the Chicago Defender or the NAACP's magazine The Crisis, both of which encouraged black southerners to seek better lives in
the North. Inthis tense atmosphere, whites attacked blacks in a number of race riots
that broke out in the summer of 1919. All together 25 such riots were recorded in
cities such as Charleston, South Carolina; Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Tennessee;
Longview, Texas; Elaine, Arkansas; Omaha, Nebraska; and Chicago, illinois.
The direct offshoot of simmering racial tension, most of these race riots were
triggered by what could have been harmless events. For example, the Chicago riot
began when a black man out for a swim in Lake Michigan drifted into a section of
the water reserved for white swimmers. A white crowd gathered on the beach yelled
and threw stones at the black swimmer, who drowned. Though his body-recovered
a few days later-showed no signs of being hit by stones, the discovery came too
late to stop the 13-day race riot that began when angry African Americans-who
believed the man had been murdered-took
to the streets.
Some other riots had more intentional beginnings. The riots in Knoxville and
Omaha both began when mobs tried to protect African Americans accused of attacking white citizens. The Longview riot was begun by a group of white men who went
to the black section of town to punish a schoolteacher who had written a condemnation of recent lynchings for the Chicago Defender. ~
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
5. Use the context, or surrounding words in the sentence, to
write a defi nition of levied.
V' Reading Check
6. Identify What led to the outbreak of race riots in 19197
A NEW CENTURY AND NEW OPPORTUNITIES
211
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Marcus
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In the 1920s Marcus
Garvey was argu_/,.
ably one ofthe.most
famous black men in
the world. He was born
1881-1940
the youngest of 11 children in St. Ann's Bay,Jamaica. At the age of 14, Garvey left school to
work as a printer's apprentice. He traveled throughout Central and
South Amer.icg, not returning to Jamaica until 1914. Determined to
end the terrible exploitation of black workers that he witnessed in
Jamaica and throughout his traM@ls,he founded the Universal Negro
Improvement Association (UNIA).
In 1916, atBooker T. Washington's invitation, Garvey moved to
the United States. Garvey, a gifted orator, toured the nation lecturing on racial pride, unity, and self-reliance. He attracted supporters
by the thousands. In time, he settled in Harlem and organized a
chapter ofthe UNIA there. By 19T9, the UNIA claimed more than a
million members and over 30 chap'ters worldwide. It w8s1he largest
organized mass movement of African Americans in U.5.liistory.
7. Make Generalizations Flow did Garvey's travels as a young
man shape his later beliefs?
GARVEY;/-:.
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Go online to read a historical document from Marcus
Garvey.
'7.
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Black Nationalism and
Social Gains
The outbreak of violence during the Red
Summer did little to deter black Americans
from their efforts to work for change. In fact,
African Americans, both individually and
collectively, increased their efforts to end
discrimination and win equal rights.
Marcus Garvey
One of the leaders of the fight against discrimination was Marcus Garvey, founder
of the black nationalism movement. Black,
naj:ionalisni was the belief that black people
around the world should create their own
societies, separate and distinct from white
societies. This was in direct contrast to the
beliefs of Booker T. Washington, W E. B.
Du Bois, and the NAACP, who shared the
goal of breaking down barriers between
blacks and whites. Garvey feared that this
goal threatened the racial purity of African
Americans and that it discouraged the feelings of unity and strength he tried to foster
in black communities worldwide.
In 1914, while still living in his native Jamaica, Garvey founded an organization
known as the Universal Negro Improvement Association, or UNIA. The UNIA's ultimate goal was to encourage Africans from around the world to return to Africa and
build a new nation there. Its slogan was "Back to Africa:'
Believing that blacks would be respected and self- reliant only' when they were
strong economically, Garvey sought to build an independent black economy in the
United States by founding businesses, including a shipping line, grocery stores, a restaurant, and a publishing house. Garvey also believed that blacks should take pride
in their African heritage. His newspaper, The Negro World, boasted of the accomplishments of people of African descent and of the glories of African culture. Garvey
spoke of a "new Negro" who would be proud of being black.
HISTORY'S VOIC.ES
''The new Negro. through the Universal Negro Improvement Association.
is speaking for himself. The new Negro is saying to the world: 'There can be
no abiding peace until we are fully emancipated.'"
-Marcus Garvey, Speech in Washington D.C., 1921
Garvey's message of self- reliance and black pride proved enormously popular,
and the UNIA soon claimed some 2 million members. At the same time, however,
Garvey made many enemies.
212 CHAPTER 8
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In 1922 Garvey and other members of the UNIA were indicted for mail fraud.
Supporters of the UNIA felt that the charges were politically motivated; nevertheless,
Garvey was convicted and imprisoned in 1925. He was released from jail in 1927, but
was forced to leave the country. Without his leadership the UNIA soon declined.
New Labor Unions
Though African Americans had first begun to join labor unions in the late 1800s, the
1910s and 1920s saw a renewed effort by blacks to form organizations that would
fight for better jobs and wages. In the 1910s, for example, Benjamin Fletcher organized several unions along the Eastern Seaboard under the auspices of the Industrial
Workers of the World (IWW). Fletcher's unions included most of Philadelphia's black
dockworkers. In 1925 the formation of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
under the leadership of A. Philip Randolph marked the creation of the country's first
truly successful black labor union. But it remained dangerous for African Americans to try to unionize. Fletcher was arrested and sentenced to 10 years in jail for his
unionizing efforts. The 1919 race riot in Elaine, Arkansas, had begun when whites
attacked black farmers who were discussing their plans to join a union.
Vi dories Against Lynching
The NAACP's fight against lynching that began in the first decade of the 1900s
continued through this period as well. Leaders of the NAACP had helped persuade
President Woodrow Wilson to condemn lynching in 1918, but they believed that a
federal anti-lynching law was the only way to bring an end to the horrible practice.
From 1901 to 1920, 16 anti-lynching bills had been introduced in Congress, but
opponents had blocked their passage. Finally, in 1922 the House passed the Dyer
Anti-Lynching Bill, which would make lynching a felony and require punishment
both for those involved in a lynch mob and for those who failed to punish mob
members. Despite support from the NAACP and President Warren G. Harding, the
bill was again blocked in the Senate. In 1923 it was reintroduced, but no action was
taken. Still, debate over the Dyer Bill had raised public outrage over lynchings. if'
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INFO TO KNOw
Garvey's release from prison
was the result of a nationwide campaign led by his
wife, Amy Garvey. When he
left the United States, Garvey
moved backtoJamaica and
then later to London, where
he died.
~ Reading Check
8. Analyze What were th ree
ways in which African Americans
worked to improve their lives in
the 1910s and 1920s?
Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
9. Describe What was the goal of black nationalism?
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10. Explain How did the Great Migration lead to increased racial tension after the end
of World War 17
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11. Make Judgments Do you think Marcus Garvey's desire to create a new nation in
Africa for black Americans was a good idea?Why or why not?
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A NEW CENTURY AND NEW OPPORTUNITIES
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213
Applying What You've Learned
Writing a Newspaper Editorial
As you have read, shortly after World War I, African Americans moved to the North
by the thousands. One black newspaper, the Chicago Defender, played a large role in
encouraging black southerners to move north. In the space provided, write an editorial
in which you discuss the benefits of moving to a northern city. Be sure to use persuasive
language to convince readers in the South to leave.
Make Plarrs.to Head North
214 CHAPTER 8