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Conservation biology
rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org
‘Neo-Europe’ and its ecological
consequences: the example of systematic
degradation in Australia’s inland fisheries
Opinion piece
Heidi K. Alleway, Bronwyn M. Gillanders and Sean D. Connell
Cite this article: Alleway HK, Gillanders BM,
Connell SD. 2016 ‘Neo-Europe’ and its
ecological consequences: the example of
systematic degradation in Australia’s inland
fisheries. Biol. Lett. 12: 20150774.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0774
Received: 7 September 2015
Accepted: 24 December 2015
Subject Areas:
ecology
Keywords:
aquatic ecosystems, ecology, history,
overexploitation
Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide,
South Australia 5005, Australia
HKA, 0000-0002-9322-5967; BMG, 0000-0002-7680-2240; SDC, 0000-0002-5350-6852
The antiquity of human impact on ecosystems is increasingly understood,
though the arrival of settlers to new lands remains a defining period. Colonization of the ‘neo-Europes’, a reference from the discipline of history, precipitated
changes in aquatic ecosystems through modification of waterways and introductions of non-native species. We considered historical fisheries and fish market
records from South Australia (1900–1946) against contemporary production statistics (1987–2011). Native inland species historically contributed large quantities
to the market but have deteriorated such that fishing is now limited, and conservation regulations exist. This pattern mirrors the demand-driven transition from
freshwater to marine fisheries in Europe; hence, we propose that this pattern was
predicated on societal expectations and that European settlement and introduction of non-native fishes led to systematic overexploitation and degradation of
native inland fisheries species in Australia, representing a further consequence
of neo-European colonization to ecology. Accurate interpretation of ecological
change can ensure more appropriate management intervention. Concepts,
such as neo-Europe, from alternative disciplines can inform the recognition
and evaluation of patterns at regional and global scales.
1. Introduction
Author for correspondence:
Heidi K. Alleway
e-mail: [email protected]
Electronic supplementary material is available
at http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0774 or
via http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org.
Human domination of ecosystems after the arrival of people in new lands has
often set the foundation for the ecosystems we study today [1]. Change induced
by human activity has been pervasive; such as, the effects of overfishing have
been widespread and protracted [2]. Between 1820 and 1930, more than 50
million European people migrated to distant colonies—the United States,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Uruguay—which have been
called the ‘neo-Europes’ [3]. When settlers arrived, they initiated unprecedented
changes in ecosystems, including the intentional introduction of exotic species
[4– 6] to ‘renovate the biota’ [7]. The behaviours of settlers have been shown
to have been vested in their ability to acclimatize to new surroundings [3,4].
For example, formal acclimatization societies contributed ‘colonial science’ [7]
towards the successful establishment of plants and animals, but these societies
introduced exotic diseases and species [8].
Where ecosystems have been markedly altered, ‘Anthropocene baselines’, a
description used to reflect ecosystems that have been invariably transformed by
human activity, may provide a more representative basis for management [9].
Neo-Europe is a concept for widespread European colonization of geographically
distinct areas across the world, the behaviours that settlers displayed and the ecological changes they initiated [3]. We considered changes to fisheries in South Australia,
from 1900 to 2011, and describe the influence of societal expectations on native
inland fisheries species, which mirrored those that occurred in Europe. The concept,
also termed the ‘Columbian exchange’ [3], well known in social sciences is little
& 2016 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved.
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(a)
(b)
2
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2800
total quantity
(×1000 kg)
2400
2000
1600
1200
800
400
0
Biol. Lett. 12: 20150774
(c)
(d )
contribution
to total (%)
60
40
20
0
(e)
(f)
2500
quantity (×1000 kg)
1000
Mulloway (N)
800
Trout (I)
2000
Redfin Perch (I)
Bream (N)
600
European Carp (I)
1500
Callop (N)
400
Bony Bream (N)
1000
Murray Cod (N)
500
200
0
1900
1910
1920
1930
year
1940
1950
0
1951
1961
1971
1981
year
1991
2001
2011
Figure 1. Quantities from inland fisheries (a) sold at the Adelaide Fish Market, 1900–1946 and (b) statewide production, 1987–2011; (c) the contribution of fisheries to
total sales and (d) total production; and (e) quantities of native (N) and introduced species (I) to market sales and (f ) fisheries production. (Online version in colour.)
Table 1. Number of marine and inland species sold at the Adelaide Fish Market, 1900 – 1946, and statewide production, 2000 – 2011, and the average ratio of
marine to inland species.
marine species
inland species
time series
min n
max n
min n
max n
average n marine spp. : n inland spp.
1900– 1946
2000– 2011
13
33
21
38
4
6
5
8
3.25 : 1
5.50 : 1
known in ecological sciences but can assist analysis of why ecosystems look and function the way they do today. Its wider use
in ecology could provide a more rigorous basis for evaluating
change associated with European agency [5], reconciliation
of the disparity between history and ecology [10], and
identification of baselines in human-dominated ecosystems [9].
2. South Australian fisheries, 1900–2011
In the early 1900s, native inland fisheries species in Australia
were highly popular among consumers. Adelaide, a coastal
settlement and the capital of South Australia, had ready
access to a range of marine resources (table 1). However,
archival fisheries records (annual quantities of fish sold at
the Adelaide Fish Market held within the State Records of
South Australia, State Library and Adelaide City Council)
illustrate that large quantities of inland species, supplied
from distant ports, contributed to market sales. Although
total quantities of inland species have increased over time
(figure 1a,b), the contribution of inland species relative to
all fisheries species has decreased (figure 1c,d). Between
1900 and 1946, the contribution of inland fisheries to
market sales fluctuated from 23% to 57% (figure 1c), but
quantities of the same species declined to 17% in 1992 and
2% from 2004 onwards (figure 1d).
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(b)
(c)
(d)
3
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(a)
Historical governmental reports and photographs attest
to the popularity of native inland fisheries species, and
that this influenced their overexploitation and degradation.
Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii peelii) historically provided
large market quantities (figures 1e and 2a). In 1996, the
species was listed as critically endangered on the ‘red list’
of threatened species, and it has recently supported only a
spatially and temporally limited catch and release recreational fishery (table 2). Catches of ‘butterfish’
(mulloway, Argyrosomus japonicus) bolstered sales after cod
declined but deteriorated in the mid-1900s (figures 1e and
2b,c) through overfishing and weir construction (in 1940)
along the state’s principal waterway, the River Murray,
which reduced flow to estuarine areas (table 2) [11].
Golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) also supplemented native
inland fisheries sales from 1937 onwards, but has recently
supported limited commercial production (figures 1e and
2d; table 2). Bony bream (Nematalosa erebi) has most recently
contributed to production from inland native species
(figure 1c), possibly because it has not declined since flow
regulation [11], but historically this species was unpopular
and not sold at market. Since 2003, commercial fishing of
native species has been prohibited in the South Australian section of the River Murray and catches have been dominated by
introduced species, particularly European carp (Cyprinus
carpio; figure 1f ).
Increased production of sardine (Sardinops sagax) since
1991 has contributed to a recent pattern of decreasing
inland fisheries production; however, declines in native
species occurred prior to this and their current degraded
status indicates that deterioration has been absolute, not
owing to changes in reporting (table 2). Implementation of
regulations can indicate when governments first became
concerned about overexploitation [12]. Legislation was introduced to regulate inland fishing by the early 1900s. It did not,
however, preclude fishing, and it is possible that the decline
of highly valued species, such as cod, was exacerbated by
opportunistic exploitation during fishing for co-occurring
lower-value species [13].
3. Connections to Europe: fishing and ecological
imperialism
Ecological changes influenced by European societal preferences are a recurring phenomenon around the globe. When
settlers arrived in the neo-Europes, they precipitated
transformations, altering vegetation histories [14] and introducing exotic species [7]. In inland aquatic ecosystems fish,
including salmonids, were introduced and their spread
encouraged and facilitated (table 2) [8]. Many events reflected
‘seed’ introductions, having the intent of establishing new
Biol. Lett. 12: 20150774
Figure 2. Historical photographs of inland fishing in South Australia: (a) fishermen holding a large Murray cod ca 1925 (State Library of South Australia, PRG1258/2/
2508); (b) mulloway caught at Milang 1938 (B19128/4); (c) catch at the Goolwa Wharf 1939 (B44307); (d) a large golden perch 1931 (SLSA, PRG1258/1/4007).
Argyrosomus japonicus
(butterfish, mulloway)
Tandanus tandanus (catfish)
(Murray cod)
Maccullochella peelii peelii
crayfish)
Euastacus armatus (Murray
(bream, black bream)
native species
Acanthopagrus butcheri
608.99
2.03
128.02
0.76
32.01
1939
1911, 1912
1911
1907
1902
limits
commercial fishing permitted and occurring.
Recreational fishing permitted, with size and bag
fully protected species (state legislation), must be
returned to the water
evidence). . . . With a cycle of normal river levels and judicious fishing
therein, is there any reason why those good times should not come
‘critically endangered’ on IUCN Red List
its price fell to as low as 112 d. per lb (1939)
(Continued.)
butterfish, the most important fish passing through the Adelaide market also
reached a production peak not noted for many years, with the result that
very little in demand (1903)
. . . personally prefer them to salt-water lobsters (Murray crayfish). The same
thing applies to catfish and callop, both of which are excellent food, but
industry, than allow the present decimation to go on till all those now
engaged in the trade (about 500) find their occupation gone (1903)
may trench upon the means of livelihood of a certain number of
fishermen: but better inflict this necessary hardship, and save the
made. Imperative restrictions. The precautionary measures recommended
again? Since those prosperous times netting has been introduced, and
though doubled during the last few years, a precarious living only can be
unusual thing for a man to catch half a ton a week’ (Mr. McIntosh’s
personally prefer them to salt-water lobsters (1903)
9 years ago men could make a good living with crosslines and springers. ‘No
although a number were caught higher up the river. Lobsters generally
appear in May and go away in August; they are not sent to market;
(1914)
lobsters, etc.—Great falling off from Morgan to the corner this year,
the suspension bridge, where on calm days large shoals can be seen
River has been exceptionally good, and in one week over 2000 fish were
taken by a few anglers. This stream is at present splendidly stocked above
Inspector Furler reports that bream fishing at Noarlunga in the Onkaparinga
example historical qualitative statements regarding species
(additional statements in electronic supplementary material)
catch and release recreational fishing only; listed as
commercial fishing not permitted in SA River Murray;
returned to the water
fully protected species (state legislation), must be
Recreational fishing permitted, with size and bag
limits
commercial fishing permitted and occurring.
current status (fisheries and conservation)
Biol. Lett. 12: 20150774
year of largest
quantity
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largest quantity
(31000 kg)
Table 2. Largest per annum quantities sold at the Adelaide Fish Market, 1900– 1946, or caught statewide, 1987– 2011, of native and introduced inland fisheries species in South Australia, current regulation or management, and
historical anecdotes regarding past status.
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4
carp)
Cyprinus carpio (European
perch)
Perca fluviatilis (redfin
Salmo trutta (rainbow and
brown trout)
Oncorhynchus mykiss and
introduced species
Nematalosa erebi (skipjacks,
silver fish, bony bream)
golden perch)
Macquaria ambigua (callop,
(congolli)
Pseudaphritis urvillii
1154.00
92.00
92.97
1172.00
299.00
50.44
1992
1989
1945
1990
1994
1942
year of largest
quantity
not be returned to the water. Commercial and
recreational fishing permitted and occurring
introduced noxious species (state legislation), must
not be returned to the water. Commercial and
recreational fishing permitted and occurring
introduced noxious species (state legislation), must
recreational fishing occurring; stocking permitted
within five waterways
introduced exotic species (state legislation);
commercial fishing occurring in the Lakes and
Coorong
and bag limits
commercial fishing occurring in the Lakes and
Coorong. Recreational fishing occurring, with size
commercial fishing not permitted in SA River Murray;
no management ascribed
current status (fisheries and conservation)
affords pastime to the pelicans and cormorants (1909)
in the waters of both the lakes and the river. This variety is of no edible
value to man, yet it appears to supply the wants of the cod, and also
during recent years immense shoals of carp and goldfish have been reported
on their own properties, but also the consuming of palatable fresh fish
(1948)
such food as shrimps, yabbies, and minnows is present the perch thrive
and multiply. Many farmers now enjoy not only the relaxation of fishing
liberated in many privately owned dams in South Australia. Many orders
for these fish could not be supplied last year. It is known that so long as
English perch, which are good sporting fish and very palatable, have been
continue to stock their waters with fish supplied from the Ballarat
Acclimatization Society (1914)
with rainbow trout, which have spread to the various streams; also the
enterprise of the Gawler Fish Protection Society and Anglers’ Club, who
it is exceedingly pleasing to note the success obtained by stocking waters
purposes (1903)
portion, at least) to the large number of bones which it contains, and
which are the means of preventing many people from using it for edible
this fish is a member of the herring family, and is known in New South
Wales as the ‘Bony Bream’, this name having reference (the former
fish (cod and callop). When flooding of the river occurs these supplies are
often so large as to over-tax the market (1942)
not occurred in big numbers this winter (1943)
the Adelaide market regularly receives considerable quantities of River Murray
helped the market carry on through this difficult season. These fish have
fortunately, congollis appeared again in the Lakes during the winter and
example historical qualitative statements regarding species
(additional statements in electronic supplementary material)
Biol. Lett. 12: 20150774
largest quantity
(31000 kg)
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Table 2. (Continued.)
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Several distinct changes through history have characterized
European fisheries, including a demand-driven transition
from freshwater to marine species partly because of declines
in freshwater populations [18], a pattern that is reflected in
the neo-Europe of South Australia. South Australian fisheries
have also experienced a transition, from fisheries historically
focused on inland species to contemporary industries focused
on marine species, and it is likely that similar patterns of
change have occurred elsewhere. Inland fisheries species in
other neo-Europes have also been depleted; for example,
Pacific salmon in the USA and Canada have deteriorated dramatically since settlement, and populations occurring inland
have been disproportionately more impacted than those in
coastal areas [19]. In addition, it is well known that European
settlers consistently introduced comparable non-native fish
species to geographically distinct locations [3,6,7].
Competing interests. We declare we have no competing interests.
Funding. We received no funding for this study.
Acknowledgements. This work was the outcome of cross-disciplinary
encouragement from the Australian National University. We thank
Tom Griffiths, Libby Robin and Heather Goodall for their support
and acknowledge Primary Industries and Regions South Australia,
and two anonymous reviewers and the Handling Editor for
comments that improved this manuscript. S.D.C. and B.M.G.
acknowledge Australian Research Council Future Fellowships and
B.M.G. an ARC Discovery grant.
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