STP History Department
Special
points of
interest:
USA:1930—2000
C o u r s e

Part 2 has a
focus on the
USAs Foreign
Policy (dealings
with other
countries).

S t u d y
Overview of topics
Part 1 has a
focus on the
Race Issue in
the USA.

O u t l i n e
The course
contains 2 units
of equal length

B o o k l e t — 2 0 1 4
The Exam is
1 hour and 15
minutes long.
The story of the USA from
the 1920s all the way
through to 2000. The
course will focus on two
main strands of the American story.
The first focus is on the
Race Issue. This tells the
story of how Black Americans were persecuted and
poorly treated. It begins by
analyzing their treatment in
the 20s and 30s, with
lynchings, beatings and
general discrimination. The
story continues by following
Black American soldiers
during WW2 and also their
families experience back
home.
After WW2 we see the beginnings of the Civil Rights
Movement and we learn
about the leaders and the
events which brought the
problem to the attention of
Americans and the rest of
the world.
cessful Black Americans,
such as Eddie Murphy and
Oprah Winfrey.
The second part of the
course follows the same
route through history, but
focusing on the interaction
between America and other
countries.
We follow the story from
between World Wars One
and Two, through America’s
involvement in the war and
onto the development of
the Cold War between the
USA and the USSR.
The story continues on
through the 70s and 80s,
where we discover the
changes to American society and we learn about suc-
The story concludes with
the collapse of the Soviet
Union and the shift from
fear of Communism to fear
of Islamic extremism.
How to use this book...
This booklet contains an
overview of the course and
its contents. It is NOT all
you need to achieve your
GCSE in History.
You are expected to read
this book and use it to
begin your research into
the topics presented within.
There are exercises and
activities in this book which
will be used either within
class or for homework.
It is advised that you read
this booklet in addition to
other books / magazines
covering the topics in order
for you to gain a complete
understanding of the events
and people discussed.
You will NOT attain your
potential grade from just
attending lessons—you
MUST put in effort in your
own time as well!!
Background to the Race Issue
The story of racial tensions in the
USA goes back into America’s past,
to the time of the Civil War (1861—
1865) and before. The USA was reliant upon slave labour for the production of many agricultural crops,
such as cotton and tobacco.
The plantations upon which these
slaves worked were located in the
southern states of the USA, such as
Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia.
The white Americans here had
grown up with slaves around them
and were conditioned to see nothing
wrong with slavery itself.
After the Civil War ended in 1865,
slavery in the United States was
abolished and the slaves were freed.
This did not mean that they were
now equal to whites, but faced continued discrimination and hardship,
with white Americans using several
methods to try and keep the black
Americans ‘in their place’.
The position of black Americans did
not change between the end of the
Civil War and the period we are
studying—the 1930s.
"Whenever I hear any one arguing for slavery I feel a strong impulse to see it
tried on him personally." Abraham Lincoln
Tasks
 Write a definition for
each of the following
words:

Discrimination

Segregation

Slavery

Sharecropper
 Write a paragraph
explaining why, even
though slavery had
ended, black Americans were still not
‘free’ in the 1930s.
2
Life in the 1930s
Life for black Americans in the 1930s remained unchanged from previous
decades. They worked on the same plantations their ancestors had worked
on. After being freed the only work available to them was manual labour in
the agricultural industries.
The main difference for them was that although they were ‘free’ from slavery, they were often not paid to work on the plantations. Instead they were
known as ‘Sharecroppers’ as they received a share of the year’s crops in return for their labour. This could then be sold or exchanged for things they
needed, such as cloth, pots and pans, shoes etcetera.
As well as not being paid for their work black Americans faced discrimination
from the local white American population. This took many forms and was an
accepted part of everyday life on the southern states.
There were written laws which controlled blacks and kept them in a lower
social position than whites. There were also unwritten rules which everybody
knew and kept to for fear of being targeted. Black Americans would have to
call white people ‘Sir’ or ‘Ma’am’, they would have to step off the pavement
to let white people pass them, they would have to take off their caps or hats
and bow their heads to whites as a sign of respect.
Tasks
 Research and find an
example of a ‘Jim
Crow’ law for each of
the following areas:
Drinking fountains in a southern waiting room—notice the difference in quality.
Jim Crow Laws

Marriage

Public Transport

Employment

Voting

Education

Housing

Healthcare
 Describe the ‘Jim
Crow’ Laws in the
Throughout the southern states there were two sets of rules in place, official
and unofficial. Both are summed up in the phrase ‘Jim Crow’ laws. These were
the sets of rules and regulations which were imposed upon black Americans in
the southern states of the USA.
They were designed specifically to keep blacks and whites apart (segregation),
and also to keep blacks as ‘second class’ citizens, with whites reigning supreme. The laws concerned places such as public waiting rooms, hospitals,
public transport and restaurants and either kept the two races apart, or ensured that whites had the better service, often with blacks served out of sight.
southern states during
the 1930s

For guidance on this
type of question see
page 15
 Draw or print a map
of the United States
and highlight / name
the southern states.
 Research what is
meant by ‘Separate
but equal’ in relation
to Jim Crow Laws.
3
Tasks
 Research the Ku Klux
Klan with the following headings:

Origins

Membership

Activities

Decline
 Explain why black
Americans could not
receive a fair trial in
the southern states of
Intimidation and fear
Whilst the ‘Jim Crow’ laws aimed to
keep blacks as second class citizens,
it was the fear of stepping out of line
which ensured most blacks stayed
there.
racial group. They were WASPs—
White, Anglo-Saxon Protestants.
They hated Jews, Blacks, Catholics,
Communists amongst others.
Groups such as the Ku Klux Klan used
fear and intimidation to keep the
black community from questioning
the situation. Although they were
already on the decline in the 1930s
the Klan still held power in many
southern states, with police officers,
judges and Government officials all
being prominent members.
The Klan stood against anything and
anyone who did not represent their
the USA in the 1930s.
Lynchings
 Create a mnemonic to
help you remember all
of the aspects of life in
the 1930s for black
Americans.

A mnemonic is a word
or phrase which can
be used to help you
remember a list, eg.
‘Richard of York gave
battle in vain’ to remember the colours of
the rainbow.
4
For blacks that stepped out of line there was the ever present fear of being
lynched. This was the illegal beating and humiliating of people by large gangs
of whites—many led to the murder of their victims. Whites too could find
themselves lynched if they supported blacks or tried to defend them.
Officials would sometimes stand by as the ‘mob’ took the law into their own
hands. Victims could be taken from Police Stations and beaten and hanged
without the officers intervening.
The Scottsboro Trial
One of the most famous trials of the 1930s was the case of the ‘Scottsboro
Boys’. The nine young men were travelling aboard a freight train in 1931.
After a fight with white youths the train was surrounded by a mob. One of
two white girls on the train then alleged she had been gang raped by the
blacks on board. The nine were arrested and placed on trial.
All nine were convicted of the rapes and they spent the next 6 years fighting
the convictions and appealing their death sentences. The suspects faced an
all white jury of local Alabama men. The judge even made reference to the
fact that he thought that all of the nine were guilty.
After what was seen as an unfair trial the ‘Scottsboro Boys’ legal team appealed their convictions and they spent the next 6 years fighting the court’s
decision.
"The courtroom was one big smiling white face." --Haywood Patterson, one of
the suspects.
A fair trial?
"Do not quibble over the evidence:
Say to yourselves we're tired of this
job and put it behind you. Get it
done quick and protect the fair
womanhood of this state”. This was
the advice of the Prosecutor, Hutson, addressing the jury in the fourth
Patterson trial.
After 6 years of fighting their convictions the final outcome was mixed:
Clarence Norris – Sentenced to
death (released in 1946)
Andy Wright – Sentenced to 99 years
in prison
Charlie Weems – Sentenced to 75
years (released in 1943)
Willie Roberson – Found innocent
Olen Montgomery – Found innocent
Eugene Williams – Found innocent
Roy Wright – Found innocent
Ozzie Powell – Charged with assaulting a deputy (released in 1946)
Haywood Patterson – Sentenced to
death (escaped in 1948).
5
Origins of the Ku Klux Klan
Six college students founded the
Ku Klux Klan between December
1865 and the summer of 1866 in
the town of Pulaski, Tennessee.
After the Civil War slavery was
abolished and many southerners
did not agree. Former Confederate officers, the six young men
organized as a social club or fraternity and spent their time in
horseplay of various types, including wearing disguises and galloping about town after dark. They
were surprised to learn that their
nightly appearances were causing
fear, particularly among former
slaves in the area. They quickly
took advantage of this effect and
the group began a rapid expansion. Various factions formed in
different towns, which led to a
meeting in April 1867 to codify
rules and organizational structure.
“When
someone is anonymous, it opens the door to all kinds of antisocial behaviour, as seen by the Ku Klux Klan.”
Philip Zimbardo
The re-emergence of the Klan
In 1915, white Protestants organized a revival of the Ku Klux Klan near Atlanta, Georgia, inspired by their romantic
view of the Old South as well as Thomas Dixon’s 1905 book “The Clansman” and D.W. Griffith’s 1915 film “Birth of a
Nation.” This second generation of the Klan was not only anti-black but also took a stand against Roman Catholics,
Jews, foreigners and organized labor. It was fueled by growing hostility to the surge in immigration that America experienced in the early 20th century along with fears of communist revolution akin to the Bolshevik triumph in Russia
in 1917. The organization took as its symbol a burning cross and held rallies, parades and marches around the country. At its peak in the 1920s, Klan membership reached almost 5 million people nationwide.
6
Activities and Beliefs
The Klan were WASPS. They identified themselves as white, Anglo
-Saxon, Protestants, and they saw themselves as being superior to
other races. They were anti-Communist, anti-black, anti-Jew, antiCatholic and against all foreigners immigrating to the United
States.
Klansmen dressed in white robes and wore white hoods to hide
their identities during their activities. They often carried out these
activities at night to conceal their identities and also to increase
the fear and intimidation of their victims. They carried American
flags and lit burning crosses at their meetings and also on the
lawns of their victims.
In 1920 the Klan had 100,000 members but this grew to almost 5
million by 1925. Members were mainly in the southern states, but
some chapters were also set up in the north. Klan leaders often
held positions of authority within their state, such as the Governors of Oregon and Oklahoma.
The decline of the Klan
After its peak in the mid 1920s the Klan went into a period
of decline. This came about partly because of its leader at
the time. Grand Wizard David Stephenson was convicted
of the rape and mutilation of a woman on a Chicago train.
The scandal destroyed Stephenson’s reputation and also
that of the Klan. The Governor of Indiana refused to pardon Stephenson of his conviction and in revenge Stephenson produced evidence of the Klan’s illegal activities. This
discredited the Klan even further and led to a sharp decline in membership as people tried to distance themselves from the Klan.
The victim, Madge Augustine Oberholtzer (November 10,
1896 – April 14, 1925) was an American schoolteacher who
worked for the state of Indiana on adult literacy. She was
kidnapped by Stephenson and held in his private train car,
where he raped and partially cannibalized her. She died
from a combination of an infection and kidney failure from
mercury chloride poisoning, which she took while imprisoned in order to commit suicide. However, she retained
consciousness long enough to give a signed statement to
police as she lay dying. She vividly described Stephenson's
assaults on her, and this detailed testimony led to his conviction at trial.
7
The NAACP
In 1909 a man called William DuBois set up the organization called
the NAACP. This stands for the
National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People.
The organization's aims were to
help the situation of black Americans. Its mission is "to ensure the
political, educational, social, and
economic equality of rights of all
persons and to eliminate racial
hatred and racial discrimination".
The group campaigned for an end
to lynchings, for increased voting
rights for black Americans and for
an end to segregation in all areas
of life.
They set up a Legal Defense Fund
to pay for legal battles through
the supreme court. This could be
used to challenge Jim Crow laws
through the legal system and
force a change from within the
establishment.
Their most famous lawyer was
Thurgood Marshall who fought on
their behalf and ultimately became a Supreme Court judge.
"A child born to a Black mother ... has exactly the same rights as a white baby
born to the wealthiest person in the United States. It's not true, but I challenge
anyone to say it is not a goal worth working for”. Thurgood Marshall
Tasks
 Describe the work of
the NAACP [5]
 Design a poster / information leaflet for
the NAACP highlighting their fight against
segregation
 Research the life and
work of Thurgood
Marshall
8
The Great Depression & Great Migration
After the Wall Street Crash of October 1929 the USA entered the period of
the Great Depression. This was a time of extreme poverty and high unemployment. Many black Americans found themselves struggling to find any
work at all—50% of all blacks were unemployed during this time compared to
30% of whites.
The Depression hit every sector of American society but the effects for blacks
were worse, for a group that were already living in poverty. Wages for black
Americans was also 30% less than for whites on average. Over 1 million black
Americans moved to the North looking for work.
Voting Rights
Tasks
Black people found it hard to get fair treatment and were seen as second
class citizens. They were often prevented from voting and had to pass literacy
tests in order to do so. The literacy test was given to potential voters to prove
that they could read and understand parts of the constitution. However,
black Americans were frequently asked impossible questions and this prevented many in the South from voting until the 1960s.
 Research ‘Grandfather
Another method used to stop blacks from voting under the new constitution
was the annual poll tax. Voters had to pay for two years before the election.
This was a difficult economic burden to place on poor blacks, who made up
the poorest part of any state's population. Many people simply couldn't
afford to pay it and so did not bother to register to vote.
When poll taxes, literacy tests, and "grandfather clauses" did not stop blacks
from registering and voting, intimidation often did the job. An AfricanAmerican citizen attempting to exercise his right to vote would often be
threatened with losing his job. Denial of credit, threats of eviction, and verbal
abuse by white voting clerks also prevented black Southerners from voting.
When all else failed, mob violence and even lynching kept black people away
from the ballot box.
Improvements
Nevertheless, there were some improvements for black Americans, especially
in the Northern states. In Chicago and New York there was a growing black
middle class. In Chicago, in 1930, black people boycotted department stores
until they agreed to employ black workers. Jazz music brought fame to several
black musicians, such as Louis Armstrong. The black neighbourhood of Harlem
in New York became the centre of the Harlem Renaissance for black singers,
musicians, artists, writers and poets. Black theatre attracted big audiences
whilst black performing artists, including singers, comedians and dancers, were
popular in clubs and musical shows.
Clauses’ with regard
to registering to vote.
 Draw a map of the
USA showing where
blacks moved from in
the 1930s and where
they moved to.
 In groups research
and present on the
Harlem Renaissance
with sections on:

Music

Theatre

Poetry

Film

Art
 Create a profile of
Louis Armstrong
showing his background and rise to
fame and success.
9
The New Deal
Tasks
The Federal Government had to respond to the desperate situation during the 1930s. President Franklin D.
Roosevelt set up the ‘New Deal’ - a
series of state programmes to create
jobs for workers by undertaking building projects, public works and tasks
designed to benefit society.
The so-called ‘Alphabet Agencies’ were
formed to administer each of these
collection of plans. Groups such as the
AAA, NRA, TVA and CCC organized
workers in areas such as agriculture,
relief, countryside conservation, dams
and power stations.
 Create a list of the effects of the Depression
on Black Americans
 Research 6 Alphabet
Agencies and discover
how they created jobs
for Americans
 How successful was
Roosevelt’s New Deal
for Black Americans?
[8]

For guidance on how
to answer this type of
question see page 15
Did the New Deal help Blacks?
 Write an Acrostic poThe New Deal was set up by the Federal Government with a view to getting
the American economy working again. It was not specifically aimed at one
racial group over another. Administration of the organisations was filtered
down to local levels, with regional officers running their own affairs in their
own manner.
em about life in the
1930s based on the
word ‘Discrimination’.
Most New Deal programs discriminated against blacks. The NRA, for example,
not only offered whites the first crack at jobs, but authorized separate and
lower pay scales for blacks. The Federal Housing Authority (FHA) refused to
guarantee mortgages for blacks who tried to buy in white neighbourhoods,
and the CCC maintained segregated camps. Furthermore, the Social Security
Act excluded those job categories blacks traditionally filled.
40 percent of all black workers made their living as sharecroppers and tenant
farmers, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) acreage reduction
hit blacks hard. White landlords could make more money by leaving land untilled than by putting land back into production. As a result, the AAA's policies
forced more than 100,000 blacks off the land in 1933 and 1934.
Roosevelt named Mary McLeod Bethune, a black educator, to the advisory
committee of the National Youth Administration (NYA). Thanks to her efforts,
blacks received a fair share of NYA funds. The WPA was colour-blind, and
blacks in northern cities benefited from its work relief programs.
10
The impact of World War 2
When America joined WW2 the
American government recruited
men into the armed forces. Most of
the black soldiers who enlisted in the
armed services during World War II
knew that they would serve in segregated units. The Marines and the
Army Air Corps (the predecessor to
the Air Force) refused to accept
blacks until later in the war. The navy accepted them only as mess men.
Most men in the army were used in
non-combat military jobs.
It wasn't until later in the war that
black Americans began to get promotions and recognition for their
efforts and service.
Over 1 million black Americans
signed up for the draft to join the
armed forces. They joined what became known as the ‘Jim Crow Army’.
Tasks
 Research some key
events of World War 2
which black soldiers
took part in and won
credit for.
 Create a Diamond 9 of
events in the 30s and
40s. Which do you
think is the most important event of the
two decades? Which is
the least?
 How did the British
press react to black
soldiers in Britain?
Experience in Britain
When black Americans were posted to Britain during the war they experienced
a very different society to the one they had left. They were generally welcomed and treated with respect. They were allowed to dance and drink in
clubs with everybody else. They even danced with white women.
White American soldiers found it hard to accept that blacks were treated in
this way in Britain and fights often broke out. British soldiers would fight on
the side of the blacks. Even the newspapers reported the story from the black
soldier’s point of view.
Find an example of a
headline or story.
 Why did many blacks
believe that life would
be better after the
war?
 Design a poster for
CORE to raise black
Americans political
awareness.
11
11
Double V Campaign
The Double V campaign was started in 1942, just as World War II
began, by the Pittsburgh Courier, an historic African-American
newspaper. “Double V” stood for “Victory Abroad and Victory at
Home.” The purpose of the campaign was to call continued attention to the legal injustices and segregation that blacks dealt with as
American citizens on American soil and as soldiers abroad within
the (segregated) armed forces. Naturally, J. Edgar Hoover considered the Double V Campaign an act of treason. When Black Americans were hesitant to serve in the military for a country in which
they were legally treated as second class citizens, there was no understanding, only accusations and anger towards them.
"We were dumb to the facts and didn't know any better. We were treated as human beings by Europeans and Australians and other whites. It opened up my
eyes to the racial problems." - unknown Black soldier.
Black workers
As more and more men were conscripted into the armed forces
many job opportunities became available. The factory jobs were
taken up by women and older workers. These black workers were
poorly treated, however, leading to the Double V Campaign mentioned above.
In 1941, A. Phillip Randolph, a leading black American, sought to
remove discrimination in the armed forces and the workplace. He
organised a ‘March on Washington’ movement. President Roosevelt
feared the possible consequences of the march and met Randolph
to discuss the issues. Roosevelt issued Order 8802 which stopped
discrimination in industrial and government jobs and also set up the
Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC). The FEPC could not
force companies to employ blacks, but it could use the threat of
withdrawing Government contracts to encourage them to do so.
During the war, over 400,000 black Americans migrated from the
south to the north , to the USA’s major industrial centres. The number of black Americans employed in government service rose from
50,000 to 200,000 and by the end of the war there were more than
2 million black Americans involved in industry. The war also meant a
broadening of opportunities for black American women. Many became nurses but were only permitted to help black American soldiers.
12
Progress during the war
There was some success for service men during the war, with groups such as
The Tuskegee Airmen (332nd Fighter Group) who were all black American
pilots. They won great acclaim acting as fighter escorts for US bombers during daring raids over Europe and the Mediterranean. Also the 761st Tank
Battalion won acclaim during the Battle of the Bulge in Europe in 1944—
1945. The Battalion’s nickname was the ’Black Panthers’.
Increasing racial tension led to many riots in 47 cities. The worst was Detroit
in 1943 when 25 black people and 9 white people were killed. Over 700 were
injured and damage amounted to $2 million.
Awareness of discrimination spread and its injustice led to an increase in the
membership of the NAACP—from 50,000 before the war to over 450,000
after it. Many of the new members were professionals, but there were also
many new urban workers. Many people believed the saying “It’ll all be better
after the war”.
A new organisation called the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was set up
in 1942 by James Farmer. CORE was inspired by the non-violence of Mahatma Ghandi in India. It used the same idea of sit-ins in places such as cinemas
and restaurants and did achieve some success in some northern cities.
There was an increase in interest in politics after the war. Black Americans
registered to vote , with numbers increasing from just 3 percent to over 12
percent over the years 1940 to 1947. This showed that the war had changed
many black Americans attitudes, with many now willing to join organisations
willing to fight for change. The Civil Rights Movement was born out of this
change of heart among the black community.
 Why was the Second
World War a turning
point in the growth of
the Civil Rights Movements? [8]

For help in answering
this type of question
see page 15
 Describe the experience of black people
during WW2 [5]

For help in answering
this type of question
see page 15
13
Source A
“I grew up in the South under segregation. So, I know what terrorism feels like - when your
father could be taken out in the middle of the night and lynched just because he didn't
look like he was in an obeying frame of mind when a white person said something he must
do. I mean, that's terrorism, too.”
Alice Walker, 2003
Source B
“After the experience of World War II, by the end of 1945 the ground had been prepared
for Jim Crow's grave. Within a decade, the Army had changed from being one of the most
tightly segregated organizations in the country to the most successfully integrated.”
Chief Historian Wright, 1974
(b) Explain how far the treatment of black Americans had changed by the end of World
War 2.
[7]
[In your answer, you should use the information in the sources and your own knowledge
to show the extent of change and the reasons for this.]
This type of question asks you to identify change or lack of change (continuity) and to use
your own knowledge to help to describe and explain this change or continuity, placing
each source into context. To do this you need to:
 Describe what is in each source, making use of the caption and the content
 Refer directly to each source, for example ‘Source A says…’, ‘Source B shows a different side….’
 Attempt to cross-reference, pointing out what is the same or different about each
source
 Remember to include specific factual detail from your own knowledge to help place the
source in context
 Remember that if you only use your own knowledge, or only use the sources you can
only score half marks
14
(a) Describe the activities of the Ku Klux Klan
[5]
How to answer this type of question:






Make sure that you only include information that is directly relevant
Jot down your initial thoughts, making a brief list of points you want to mention
After you have finished put the list into chronological order
Reword the question to begin your answer—’The activities of the KKK were…’
Include specific facts such as dates, names, places, events.
Aim to write a good sized paragraph (15 lines)
(c) Why was the second world war a turning point in the growth of the Civil Rights
Movement?
[8]
How to answer this type of question:






This question requires you to evaluate the importance or success of a particular
event, movement or individual
You must aim to analyse and evaluate the reasons for this importance / success
Descriptive answers will not score more than half marks—you must analyse
You need to support your answer with specific factual detail
Remember that this question requires you to provide a judgement, giving specific
reasons why you think this event, movement or individual was important or successful
You can, in certain circumstances, disagree and argue that the event, movement or
individual was not important or successful
15
The Education Issue
The Jim Crow Laws still prevailed in the southern states throughout the 1950s. This was
seen in the field of education, where black
children were taught separately from white
children.
The Supreme Court had previously ruled that
segregation was legal, so long as facilities
were of an equal standard. Separate but
equal was deemed to make segregation acceptable.
Black Americans during the 1950s began to
challenge these unjust Jim Crow Laws and the
area of education was the first battle ground.
This was because many blacks saw it that
education of their children was crucial to
them getting on in the United States.
The fight for equality in education was aided
by the NAACP, who fought for equality
through the legal system, challenging state
laws in the Supreme Court. Lawyers, such as
Thurgood Marshall, presented arguments to
end segregation, and in many cases the court
found in their favour.
The fight was not just in the courts, as many
blacks took matters into their own hands and
got involved in demonstrations, rallies and
pickets. Several individuals became infamous
for their courage and resolve, putting themselves at personal risk of harm in order to
assert their rights.
"Segregation was so complete that most Black children didn't really, absolutely
know what whites looked like” Maya Angelou
Tasks
 Explain why education
was such an important
issue to the birth of
the Civil Rights Movement.
 What role was played
by the Supreme Court
in bringing about an
end to segregation in
education?
 How important was
the NAACP in the fight
to end segregation in
education?
16
Brown vs. Topeka
The first challenge to segregation in education was in the mid-West state of
Kansas, in the small town of Topeka. Linda Brown was an 8 year old black
American girl. She had to walk from her home for over a mile to her segregated school for black children. In the course of her travels she passed a whites
only school just seven blocks from her front door. In 1953 Linda’s father filed
a lawsuit, with the help of the NAACP, against the Board of Education in Topeka, claiming that his daughter was psychologically harmed at that her education suffered as a result of segregation.
It took 18 months of legal argument with the court’s decision announced on
17th May 1954. Chief Justice Warren of the Supreme Court said ‘separating
white and colored children in schools has a detrimental effect on the colored
children’. He concluded by saying that ‘in the field of education the doctrine
of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal’.
As a result of this ruling in favour of Mr Brown schools had to change their
policies. The court called for change but did not specify a timescale when
schools had to change by. By 1957 300,000 black children were being educated with whites in schools, but 2.4 million still were not. Education boards
dragged their heels and openly sought ways to avoid changing their policies,
such as bringing in state laws which prevented integration.
Little Rock High School
After Brown vs Topeka, Little Rock High School in Arkansas decided to let nine
black students enrol. On 3rd September 1957 the nine students, led by Elizabeth
Eckford, tried to enter the school building. They were stopped by the Sate Governor, Orval Faubus, who ordered the National Guardsmen to block their entry.
Tasks
 Create a 3 x 3 table
with the three education cases in the left
The following day Faubus ordered the Guardsmen to let the students run the
gauntlet of the angry white crowd. At midday, the students went home under
police guard because their safety could not be guaranteed. Press and Television
coverage in the USA and across the world was a serious embarrassment to a
country which put itself forward as the champion of freedom and equality.
column. Put brief de-
President Eisenhower had to act and sent in the 101st Airborne Division of over
1000 federal troops. The troops were to escort the nine for the rest of the academic year. They patrolled outside the school and escorted the nine students
around the campus. Despite the President’s intervention, Faubus closed all of
the state’s schools the following year to prevent the nine returning. Many white
and black students had no schooling for a whole year. Schools in Arkansas reopened the following year, in 1959, following a Supreme Court ruling that the
schools must integrate.
case was significant.
tails in the middle column. In the right column say why each
 Which do you think is
the most significant
and why?
 Create a map and
highlight the locations
of each of the big three
Showed Federal
Govt had power
over states
President
involved
education events.
 Research - what happened to Elizabeth
Black activists did
not rely on Court to
bring change
Why was Little
Rock so important?
Shown on TV, radio
and press to the
world
Eckford in later life?
(Clue: President Bill
Clinton). Why is this
significant?
Challenged the views
of many whites
Highlighted racial
hatred to many
Americans
 Write a press release
highlighting the President’s position in the
Little Rock case.
17
James Meredith
In June 1962, the Supreme Court
upheld a federal court decision to
allow James Meredith a place at
Mississippi University, against the
University’s wishes.
Meredith was prevented from registering and in response President
Kennedy sent 320 federal Marshals to escort him onto the campus.
Riots followed with students of the
university demanding that Mere-
dith not be allowed to study there.
2 people were killed, with 160
Marshals and 210 demonstrators
injured in the fighting.
President Kennedy sent in a further 2,000 troops to restore order.
The event is remembered as the
‘Battle of Oxford’. 300 troops had
to stay with Meredith for a further
3 years so that he could complete
his studies.
“My answer to the racial problem in America is to not deal with it at all. The
founding fathers dealt with it when they made the Constitution”
James Meredith
Montgomery Bus Boycott
Public transport had long been segregated. In Montgomery, Alabama blacks were expected to sit at the back of the
bus, and to give up their seat to a white person if the bus became full. On 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks boarded her
bus home from work. Tired, she refused to give up her seat when the bus filled up and a white man asked for the
seat. Parks was eventually arrested and charged, being sent to court.
Montgomery Women’s Political Council organised a one day boycott of the town’s buses on the day of Parks’ trial.
The day after Parks was found guilty and fined students printed leaflets urging the town’s black population to keep up
the boycott of the buses.
18
Legal action and public action
Local activists such as Ralph Abernathy and Martin Luther King Jr. became
involved in the organisation of the bus boycott. They held meetings to
discuss progress and to arrange alternative transportation for the town’s
black workers. They liaised with the NAACP over the legal battle and organised marches in support of the cause.
A new organisation, the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)
was set up and King was chosen as its leader. About 20,000 people were
involved in the first boycott, with a further 7,000 attending the evening’s
march and listening to King make his first inspirational public speech.
Rosa Parks was fined $10 for the offence and a further $4 for court costs.
This made the MIA and King more determined to achieve their aims. They
continued with the fight through the courts, alongside the NAACP, and
called for the complete de-segregation of the state’s buses.
The continued fight
Those boycotting the buses were helped during the first few days by local black taxi companies. As the boycott progressed Church groups got involved and arranged for car pooling and other means of transporting the town’s blacks
to and from their places of work. The authorities fought back with harassment from the police, arrests of organisers,
including King, and white groups targeting the boycotters. King even had his home firebombed by extremists.
Eventually, on 13th November 1956, the Supreme Court reached the decision that segregation on public transport
was illegal. The boycott formally ended on 20th December 1956 when King, Abernathy and other leaders travelled on
an integrated bus.
19
The importance of the bus boycott
The bus boycott was important because:
Tasks
 Research Claudette

It showed that unity and solidarity could win

Victory offered hope to those who were fighting for other rights in other
areas of life

The NAACP was vindicated in making a legal case and using the Brown vs.
Topeka case as a precedent

It highlighted the benefits of a peaceful approach and, above all, showed
that black Americans were able to organise themselves

It brought King’s philosophy to the fore and gave the movement a clear
moral framework

Success encouraged King to consider further action which would confront inequality and bring about further change
Martin Luther King Jr.
Colvin. Who was she?
Why is not as famous
as Rosa Parks?
 What does Colvin’s
story tell you about
the NAACP and the
CRM?
 What was the Montgomery White Citizens
Council?
 Research the life of
MLK
You are going to find out about the man, Martin Luther King Junior. Research his
background, beliefs, successes and failures, public response, attempts on his life,
speeches, influence and ultimately his death.
Come to a final decision and say how important he was to the Civil Rights Movement.
20
The Sit-ins of the 1960s
The successes of the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the protests in the education issue increased a belief in the black community that change could be
brought about by non-violent protest, as advocated by King.
On 1st February 1960 four black students from a local college in Greensboro,
Alabama, walked into a local F.W.Woolworth store and demanded to be
served at the lunch counter. The problem was the counter was specifically for
whites. The four students refused to leave until they were served and ended
upstaying until the shop closed.
The next day they returned, accompanied by a further 27 students. The day
after a further 80 attended, followed by 300 more the following day. Police
officers were called and several protestors were arrested for trespass. The
protests spread to other shops with segregated counters in Greensboro.
By August of 1961 the sit-ins had attracted over 70,000 participants and resulted in over 3,000 arrests. Other venues were targeted, such as cinemas
and theatres. The businesses eventually suffered a drop in their takings and
eventually many stores voluntarily ended segregation within their facilities.
The success led to further challenges, such as the Freedom Rides.
Tasks
 Where else did the Sitins take place? Research and make a list
of towns and cities.
 Create a table of all of
the issues from Brown
vs Topeka all the way
to the Freedom Rides.
In the second column
say why each event is
significant—why was
it important? What did
it lead on to?
 What do the pictures
below show you about
the Sit-ins?
 Why were the sit-ins
different to all the previous demonstrations?
 What involvement did
MLK have with the sitins? What did he say
about them?
21
The Freedom Riders
Tasks
 How successful were
the Freedom Riders
and the Sit-in protestors? (See page 15)
 Draw a map showing
the route of the Freedom Rides and also a
The Supreme Court decided in December 1960 that all bus stations and terminals on inter-state transport routes should be integrated. CORE wanted to test
whether this was being implemented so they set up the Freedom Rides. These
were a series of journeys from the Northern states to the deep south which
were to involve blacks and whites determined to test the facilities along the
route to see if they were integrated.
The leader of CORE and twelve other volunteers set out on the first journey in
May 1961, from Washington DC to New Orleans. The blacks used white only facilities and the whites used black only facilities. There was no trouble until they
reached Anniston in Alabama. Their bus was attacked by a group of whites and
burnt.
key showing what
happened at the major
locations shown
above.
 Who was Stokeley
Carmichael? Research
his life and involvement in the Civil
Rights Movement.
22
Further trouble occurred on later rides, with many Freedom Riders beaten up in
Montgomery, Alabama. In Jackson, Mississippi, 27 of the Freedom Riders were
arrested and jailed for 67 days. This included members of the SNCC (Student Non
-Violent Co-ordinating Committee) of which Stokeley Carmichael was one. Their
crime? Sitting in the Whites Only section of the bus station.
President Kennedy got involved and got an assurance from Police Chief ‘Bull’
Connor that there would be no trouble when the buses reached Jackson, but the
Chief gave most of the police the day off and a mob attacked the buses. Riders
were arrested when they tried to use the whites-only facilities.
On 22nd September 1961 the Interstate Commerce Commission issued a regulation that ended racial segregation in all bus terminals.
The Marches of 1963
Martin Luther King came more to the fore after his involvement in many of the protests of the Civil Rights
Movement. As he did so his philosophy of non-violent protest spread and many people took up the challenge of showing their defiance. Many were willing to be arrested and go to jail for the simple act of demonstrating.
King himself was arrested during his March on Birmingham in 1963, after defying a ban on marches made by
‘Bull’ Connor, the local Police Chief. From his prison cell King wrote a letter which highlighted the cause to
the people of America. Upon his release King organized another march in Birmingham and this time planned
to include children on the march to show its peaceful aims.
The Police attacked the marchers with dogs and fire hoses. They arrested over 2,000 people and detained
1,300 children. These scenes were televised and seen all over the world. Public opinion was firmly on the
side of King and the CRM.
President Kennedy was forced to get involved and he sent Assistant Attorney General, Burke Marshall, to the
scene to negotiate a peace deal. It was finally agreed on 9th May 1963 that total de-segregation of the city
would take place within 90 days.
After the marches in Alabama, King planned to take the cause to the Capital itself—he planned a March on
Washington.
Tasks
 Who were the SCLC
and the SNCC?
 Why did Kennedy get
involved in the
marches?
 Read and sum up the
main points of King’s ‘I
Have A Dream’ speech.
 What slogan would
you write on a placard
if you were on one of
King’s marches?
The March on Washington
The NAACP, CORE, SNCC and SCLC all took part in this high profile march to the
nation’s capital. King was keen for the march to take place as he felt that many
blacks were becoming unhappy with the pace of change taking place in America.
Some black communities were becoming restless and wanted change to happen
immediately. There was a risk that people would give up on non-violence and
that all King had worked for could fall apart.
The march called for jobs and freedom, but it broadened to encompass the
whole of the Civil Rights Movement. There was a demand from the marchers for
a Civil Rights Bill which would finally bring an end to all segregation and discrimination.
The march took place on 28th August 1963 and involved over 250,000 demonstrators. The organisers had expected half that figure to attend. The crowd repeatedly chanted ‘Pass the Bill’, referring to the Civil Rights Act.
King was the final of many speakers that day and it was here that he gave his
famous ‘I Have A Dream’ speech where he called for a new America with all citizens living together in equality and respect. The March was deemed a success by
all the media and King truly became a national figure.
23
Growing Discontent
From the late 50s into the early 60s there was a sector of the black
community who were growing tired of King’s CRM and the slow
pace at which it was delivering change.
Several different groups sprang up which allowed for these people
to vent their frustrations at the system and the CRM. Not all of
these groups agreed with each other or came at the problem from
the same angle. Some were religious and some political or ideological.
These included the Nation of Islam, or The Black Muslims as they
were known, the Black Power Movement, the Black Panthers and
also in the form of many race riots across many American cities.
“Nobody can give you freedom. Nobody can give you equality or justice or anything. If you’re a man, you take it! Malcolm X
Malcolm X
The Nation of Islam were a group of Muslims specifically for black people.
They built their religious beliefs on the ideologies of their leader, Wallace Fard
Muhammad, and his successor, Elijah Muhammad (shown right). Black Muslims believe that God originally created all men black and that the devil created white people, which is why white people ruled the world, according to the
group’s teachings. CRM groups criticized the Black Muslims for being ‘Black
Supremacists’ and anti-white.
Malcolm Little joined the organization whilst in prison for burglary. He discovered his innate ability for public speaking and discourse. He was a superb organizer and travelled the USA winning converts to the religion.
He changed his name from ‘Little’ to ‘X’ as he argued that ‘Little’ was the slave
name given to his ancestors by their white owners—his real family name was
lost in time when his forebears were made slaves.
Malcolm X became the face of the Nation of Islam and also of a black America
not happy to wait for equality. He advocated a race war with ‘white’ America
and demanded a separate black state in which they could seek their own destiny. This message and its violent undertone appealed to many young black
men at the time.
The teachings of Malcolm X influenced others, such as Stokeley Carmichael,
who had once been a part of the SNCC, but left to push the Black Power movement and later came to lead the Black Panthers.
24
The Black Power Movement
Stokeley Carmichael had made the move from active involvement in the
non-violent struggle for equality to decrying that very movement and joining more violent campaigns. He left the SNCC, in which he had been an important character, and began to openly criticize King and others.
The Black Power Movement was born of this frustration, fed by people
such as Carmichael. It was not a club or a group, but was a collection of
ideas and ideologies. It was more of a cultural shift of minds with some
blacks not willing to wait for equality, but wanting to take equality.
After his arrest during a march in 1966, Carmichael gave his ‘Black Power’
speech, in which he called for Black Americans to take their destiny in their
own hands. He and his followers wanted blacks to have pride in their own
heritage and culture. They called for a renaissance in all forms of black culture from literature, art, poetry, theatre and music. They called for blacks
to set up black businesses serving the needs of the black communities. In
essence they wanted blacks to be self-sufficient and self-reliant and not to
partake in ‘white’ society.
They adopted the slogan ‘Black is Beautiful’ which was to inspire blacks to
have a feeling of black pride and they promoted African forms of dress and
appearance.
Tasks:
 Explain why many
blacks were becoming
disillusioned with the
The 1968 Mexico Olympics
The Black Power Movement gained enormous publicity during the 1968 Mexico Olympics when two black American athletes, John Carlos and Tommie Smith, gave a ‘Black
Power’ salute during the medal ceremony, when the US National Anthem was being
played. He also wore black socks with no shoes to represent black poverty. It highlighted to the world the cause of black Americans.
CRM.
 Why did Malcolm X
appeal to mainly
young black men?
 Research Malcolm X—
his life, inspirations,
The International Olympic Committee was furious as the games are supposed to be
non-political. Also furious was the American Government, embarrassed by the situation. They received death threats on their return to the USA.
ideas and end.
 Who was Stokeley
Carmichael? Research
Peter Norman, the Australian who came in 2nd, supported them by wearing a badge.
He was stripped of his medal and banned from representing Australia again.
him and his life and
write a eulogy for his
death in 1998.
 Find newspaper reports of the ‘68 Olympics—how do they
report the story?
25
Tasks
 Research the ‘Ten
Point Programme’ of
the Black Panthers.
 How can the Black
Panthers be considered different to all
other groups at the
time?
 How successful was
the Black Power
Movement? (See page
15 for help answering
this question)
 Why was the March
on Selma necessary?
 If you were a protestor at Selma what
would your marching
chant be?
 What were the good
points and the bad
points of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964?
 Who was more important? MLK? Malcolm X? Or Stokeley
Carmichael? Say why...
26
The Black Panthers
At the same time as the emergence
of the Black Power Movement, there
emerged a group called the Black
Panthers. They could be considered
a part of the Black Power Movement
as they wanted societal change within America, but in many ways they
were different to many groups.
The Black Panthers were a political
organization primarily. They wanted
major political change in America
and their overall ideology was more
aligned with Communism than many
other organizations of the time.
The Party was founded by Huey
Newton and Bobby Seale in October
1966 in Oakland, California and both
men were heavily influenced by the
speeches and teachings of Malcolm
X. They were not a religious group,
however.
Due to their main aim being to bring
down the American establishment
they were more than willing to form
alliances with extremist white
groups. They called for an end to
Capitalism and the establishment of
a more Socialist America. Seale said
“We believe our fight is a class struggle and not a race struggle”.
They wore a uniform and were prepared to use weapons against their
‘enemy’ - namely anyone who represented the American authorities,
such as the Police, Inland Revenue
Service, Politicians etcetera. The
main enemy on a day to day basis
was the Police, and it was these who
they frequently came into conflict
with.
By 1968 they had over 5,000 members. Internal divisions and the
events of 1969, which saw 27 panthers killed and 700 injured by the
Police, saw the group diminish. They
were targeted by the FBI as a major
threat and formally disbanded in
1982.
The Civil Rights Act, 1964
After the success of the March on Washington the CRM received major publicity across the USA and the world. President Kennedy was forced to act after
Birmingham and was now under pressure to bring in a new Civil Rights Act.
He planned the act but was assassinated on 22nd November 1963. His successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, promised to fulfill Kennedy’s promise. He forced
the legislation through.
The Civil Rights Act forced state governments, especially in the south, to
change their local laws to end segregation and discrimination in many areas
of life. It was hailed as a success by many, such as King. Many others criticized
the Act as not going far enough (the Act did not address issues to do with
voting) and also for taking too long to arrive.
Many white Americans in the south saw this as an unacceptable attack on
their liberties and resented the north forcing change upon them again.
"It enshrined into law the basic principle upon which our country was founded—that all people are created equal” Thomas Perez
The March on Selma
In 1965 King and the CRM wanted to challenge the
voting rights of black Americans. The 1964 Civil Rights
Act had dealt with many aspects of life for black Americans, but had not included anything regarding voting.
This was still an issue in the south, such as Selma,
where only 383 black voters were registered out of a
potential 15,000.
After 2 months of trying to get blacks registered and
failing, along with beatings and arrests, King decided
to organize a march from Selma to Birmingham.
Several marches were organized between 7th March
1965 and 21st March, but they were stopped by Police
intervention, often violently. One march was labeled
‘Bloody Sunday’.
The successful march took place on 21st, with King
leading a crowd of over 25,000 people. The publicity
generated was enormous and President Johnson
promised to address the issues of the marchers in a
new Voting Rights Act that same year.
27
The Voting Rights Act 1965
President Johnson reacted to the
March on Selma by fulfilling his
promise. He brought in the Voting
Rights Act the same year.
This piece of legislation dealt specifically with voting rights of black
Americans. The Act brought an
end to literacy tests and also ensured that voting registration
would be monitored by federal
agents to ensure no discrimination. By the end of 1965 250,000
black Americans had registered to
Tasks:
 Why did President
Lyndon B. Johnson
bring in the Voting
Rights Act of 1965?
 Work out the percentage increase in the
numbers of registered
voters in the table opposite.
 Attempt the Literacy
Test from Louisiana in
1965 shown on page
29.
 Draw a table with
March on Washington
and March on Selma in
the left column. In the
right column state why
each was significant.
28
vote. By the end of 1968 a further
750,000 had registered.
The numbers of black representatives also increased as a result of
this increase in black voters.
Two further additions were enshrined into law in 1967 and 1968.
The Fair Housing Act and the Supreme Court declared bans on
inter-racial marriages were unconstitutional.
29
Race Riots of the 1960s
Tasks
 Research the following riots of the 1960s:

Los Angeles,1965

Watts Riot, 1965

Newark Riots, 1967

Detroit Riots, 1967
 Which was the worst
of the riots and why?
Despite the progress made during the 1950s and 1960s, there was still much
unhappiness with the status and position of black Americans during the decade of the 1960s. Black Americans living in ghettos and those in the south
living in poverty were not feeling the effects of the changes and tension began to build.
On 11th August 1965 this frustration exploded onto the streets of Los Angeles, with over 30,000 people rioting in the Watts District of the city. It left 34
dead, 1,072 injured and over 4,000 arrested. There were further riots across
the USAs major cities in the following two summers. In 1967 there were riots
in 125 US cities, such as Newark and Detroit.
President Johnson called for a report on the riots, looking for the root causes
of them. The findings of the Kerner Report stated that America’s deep seated
racism was a major factor in bringing about the riots. It found the following:

Economic issues faced by the majority of black Americans living in poverty in the south or ghettos in the northern cities

Systematic police bias and brutality

Frustrations with the pace of change and perceptions of change
The report recommended federal initiatives from the government, but these
would be costly and mean increased expenditure. As a result the report was
largely ignored. The final riots of the 60s took place on the assassination of
Martin Luther King on 4th April 1968.
30
Progress from the 70s to the 90s
Tasks
From the 1960s there was much change for some black Americans, with
many becoming successful in spheres of American culture and business. The
culmination of this progress is seen by many as the election of America’s first
black President, Barrack Obama, in 2008.
 Research key individ-
Black Americans have experienced success in all walks of life since the 1960s,
ranging from politics to sport, and their achievements have been recognized
across the world. In most instances it was a case of being the first black American to achieve an award or position and these individuals opened the door
for many more of their race.
Improvements have been in many areas, but these have only been for a minority of black Americans. The vast majority still lived in poverty and with the
everyday realities of life. Some of these successful people are discussed below.
Politics
uals in each of the sectors listed below:

Politics

Sport

Literature

Business

Television / Film

Music
 Draw a diagram to
Jesse Jackson became the first black American to
run for President in 1984.
show how the status
of black Americans
has changed over
time, from 1930
through to 2000.
 Research the Riots of
Los Angeles, 1992.
What do they show us
about America in the
late 1990s?
Carol Moseley-Braun became the first black woman to be elected to the US Senate in 1993.
 Which has been the
most important event
in the fight for equality? Why?
Colin Powell became the first black American to become Chairman of the Joint Chiefs
of Staff in 1989 and held this position during the Gulf War of 1990—1991. He was
the first black Secretary of State, holding
the post from 2001—2005.
 Create a table of Presidents of the USA,
showing time in office
and CRM events during that time.
31