Introduction to English Linguistics
Introduction to English Linguistics
Orientierungsprüfung:
Part III: Structure of English
Donnerstag, 12.07.07 18 Uhr, R.
206
Winkler
1. Orientierungsprüfungsformulare vor R.
464 (bitte 2-fach ausfüllen)
2. Studienbuch, Scheine plus
Stammdatenblätter mitbringen!
SS07
VLS02
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WEB-BASED ASSESSMENT:
COURSE NOTES AND
WEB-BASED ASSESSMENT:
The final web-based assessement follows the
structure of our lecture. It is divided into three
thematic parts (or "quizzes"). For each quiz the
maximum score is 100. To pass the assessment,
you need a minimum of 70 scores in each quiz.
1. Go To:
http://www.es-courseportal.de
2. Course Notes:
1. Language and Discourse
2. Phonetics and Phonology
3. Structural Aspects of Meaning
http://homepages.uni-tuebingen.de/susanne.winkler
Select: Course Notes
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The assessment will be open from July 20th until
August 3rd 2007.
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Assignments
Different approaches to the study of language:
1. Read Radford (2004), Chapter 2 and 3.
2. Register for the web-based assessment test:
http://www.es-courseportal.de
3. Reread „Course Notes“
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1.
the traditional approach
2.
the formal approach
3.
the cognitive approach
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The father of the boy and the girl left.
The traditional approach:
⇒ lists the rules of a specific language.
Lisa saw young lions and tigers.
The description should account for
• wellformed sentences
We don’t sell gasoline to anyone in
a glass container.
• illformed sentences
• ambiguous sentences
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Ben could not go to her party. (two readings)
Local Ambiguity (resolved in the sentence)
P1: It was not possible for Ben to go to her party.
The horse raced past the barn fell.
P2: It was possible for Ben not to go to her party.
The soldiers marched across the parade ground
are a disgrace.
Ben couldn't go to her party. (one reading)
Die Löwin zähmten die Dompteure.
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To summarize: Traditional linguists formulate
rules which account for the grammaticality, the
ungrammaticality and the ambiguity of
sentences.
But, not everything can be explained on the
basis of grammatical rules:
And there is no doubt in my mind –
not one doubt in my mind –
that we will fail. (Bush, Oct. 4, 2001)
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English sentences which are constructed according to
the SVO pattern are grammatical.
Word order Rules
S
V
[ I
One of the rules that traditional grammars
provided us with is the SVO word order rule.
The SVO Hypothesis:
S
*[I
[ won
O
] [ the presidential election ]
V
[ Students ]
Adv
[ protested ] [ vehemently
]
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Explanation of Grammaticality vs. Ungrammaticality:
The SVO-Hypothesis can account for:
O
I like detective stories.
] [ detective stories ]
O
]
]
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English sentences which are not constructed
according to the SVO pattern are ungrammatical.
[ like
O
] [ a new car
V
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]
[ bought
] [ detective stories ]
V
[ Bush
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[ I
]
S
English sentences are constructed
according to the SVO pattern.
V
[ like
S
[ John
S
]
O
*I detective stories like.
V
[ detective stories ] [ like
We call such a grammar an observationally
adequate grammar.
]
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Q: How can the SVO-Hypothesis account for the
grammaticality of the following sentences?
Observational Adequacy:
An observationally adequate grammar must be
able to distinguish those strings of words which
are sentences of the language from those which
are not sentences of the language in question.
O
S
V
[ Detective stories, ] [ I ] don’t [ like ].
O
S
V
[Which stories ] do [ you ] [ like ] ?
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The formal approach:
Descriptive adequacy:
⇨ assigns structural representations to
sentences of a particular language.
A descriptively adequate grammar does not
only list appropriate rules but also accounts
for the competence of the speaker with
respect to more general regularities of his
or her language.
⇨ formulates simple & elegant rules for the
wellformedness of representations.
⇨ "Formal grammar is a way of thinking about
language" (Freidin 1992)
Result: descriptively adequate grammars (Def.).
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Claim: (revised version)
The SVO word order must be observed
at the level of D(eep)-structure.
Claim: (initial version)
The SVO word order must be observed at
some level of representation.
(preminimalistic view)
D-structure or Deep Structure:
often referred to as “underlying structure”
or “basic structure” in minimalism
S-structure or Surface Structure:
often referred to as “derived structure”,
close to the surface order.
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D-Structure/Basic Structure
S-Structure /Derived Structure
S
Detective stories, I don’t like.
V
O
I don’t like detective stories.
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(S-Structure)
The grammatical operation which relates these two
sentences is known as TOPICALIZATION.
Which stories will you read?
Topicalization: Movement of an object to the
left periphery of the sentence for information
structural purposes.
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(D-Structure)
Which stories
(D-Structure)
you will read?
you will read which stories?
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Generative Grammar (GG):
A GG is defined as a formal grammar that is
fully explicit. It consists of a set of rules by
which it is possible to decide whether any
given sentence is grammatical or not.
Result: "explanatory" adequate grammar
In most cases, a GG is capable of identifying
as grammatical ("generating") an infinite
number of strings, from a finite set of rules.
This is obviously a requirement for a correct
grammar of any natural human language.
An explanatory grammar aims at the
formulation of abstract rules, which specify
universals on the one hand, and language
acquisition on the other.
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⇒
Explaining the linguistic competence
of the native speaker. The formal
grammar has psychological reality.
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Conditions which we need to impose on a
theory of language:
A cognitive linguist – regardless whether
preminimalist or minimalist - is like the formal
linguist interested in isolating the principles or
procedures that govern sentence formation
and interpretation. But additionally, he
conceives the study of language as the study
of one aspect of human psychology, that is the
human mind.
Criteria of adequacy:
1.
universality
2.
explanatory adequacy
3.
maximally constrained
4.
learnability
Conclusion Approaches to
Grammar:
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Model of Grammar in The Minimalist Program
Next Topic:
[Chomsky 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002]
Words:
Lexicon
Syntax
Morphology, Grammatical
Categories, Features
and the Minimalist
Program
syntactic structure
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PF component
semantic component
PF representation
semantic representation
≈
≈
THOUGHT SYSTEMS
SPEECH SYSTEMS
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Structure of the Lecture
Main Characteristics of The Minimalist Program:
1. Economization of the processes
Word Classes: classification of words in
grammatical categories
2. Derivational Model replaces the former
Representational Model
1. Morphological Evidence
- inflectional processes
Chief goal: reduction of the complexity of computation
- Elimination of D-Structure and S-Structure
- word-formation processes
3. Motivation
- the structure of words
- Everything which is dispensable/not motivated
must go! e.g. D-Structure and S-Structure
- Every movement needs a trigger !
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2. Syntactic Evidence
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Semantic criteria
Grammatical categories
used to categorize words in traditional grammar:
semantic properties
•
•
•
(i)
Verbs denote actions (go, destroy, buy, eat, etc.)
(ii)
Nouns denote entities (car, cat, hill, John, etc.)
morphological properties
(iii) Adjectives denote states (ill, happy, rich, etc.)
syntactic properties
(iv) Adverbs denote manner (badly, slowly, painfully,
cynically etc.)
(v) Prepositions denote location (under, over,
outside, in, on etc.)
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Problems of Semantic Classification Criteria:
i.
assassination
ii.
illness
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Problems of Semantic Classification Criteria:
Bush: “War is a dangerous place.”
denotes an action but is a noun, not a verb;
denotes a state but is a noun, not an adjective;
iii. fast food
the word fast in fast food denotes the manner in
which the food is prepared but is an adjective,
not an adverb; and
iv. Cambridge
denotes a location but is a noun, not a preposition.
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Morphological criteria for the classification of
Nouns/Verbs:
Building Words: morphological processes
Morphological Processes
Inflection
Word-Formation
Derivation
Compounding
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i.
inflectional properties
- relate to different forms of the same word
cat - cats (by adding the plural inflection –s)
ii.
derivational properties
- relate to the processes by which a different kind
of word can be build by e.g. affixation:
sad - sadness (by adding the suffix –ness)
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Claim 1:
English inflectional affixes
Nouns
A systematic account of English inflectional
morphology is only possible on the basis of the
assumption that words belong to grammatical
categories, and that a specific type of inflection
attaches only to a specific category of word.
Q:
plural -s
the books
possessive -s
John's book
Verbs
How many inflectional affixes are there in English?
English has 8 inflectional affixes
third person singular present -s
John reads well.
progressive -ing
He is sleeping.
past tense -ed
He arrived yesterday.
perfect participle -ed/-n
He hasn't discussed /seen
any book by Chomsky.
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English inflectional affixes
Adjectives and adverbs
Synthetic (inflectional) comparison:
comparative -er
This one is smaller.
He arrived earlier.
superlative -est
This one is the smallest.
He arrived earliest.
Analytic (periphrastic) comparison:
hopeful, more hopeful, most hopeful;
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Quirk & Greenbaum Grammar: „The choice between the
inflectional and periphrastic comparison is largely
determined by the length of the adjective.“ (1985: 461).
Which morphological process is violated?
-see video clip
monosyllabic Adj normally form their comparison by inflection
We‘ll make America what we want it to be –
low
a literate country and a hopefuller country.
(George W. Bush, Des Moines, Iowa, 8-21-2000;
11:35-12:14)
Instead of using the analytic (or periphrastic)
comparison, the synthetic comparison was used.
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lower
lowest
Many disyllabic adjecties can also take inflections, though
they have the alternative of the periphrastic form:
polite
politer/more polite
politest/most polite
Trysyllabic or longer Adj can only take periphrastic forms
beautiful
*beautifuller
*beautifullest
hopeful
*hopefuller
*hopefullest
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The best of the best
*the most baddest
*the bestest
*the fabulouser of the betterer
*the bestable
*the most bestable
Brian Unger „Bushisms“ 2004
Video clip: Bush-Worst
Brian Unger „Bushisms“ 2004
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What went wrong here?
Building Words: morphological processes
"Oftentimes, we live in a processed world—you know,
people focus on the process and not results.“ G.W. Bush,
Washington, D.C., May 29, 2003.
A:
Morphological Processes
Limits to the freedom of innovation.
Inflection
A new word cannot be derived if the derived word already
exists and means something else.
processed food
—
okay
processed word/sentence
—
okay
processed world
—
???
Word-Formation
Derivation
Compounding
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Definition of Morphology:
Problem: how to determine the category of the base
to which an affix is added, e.g work-er
The study of the internal structure of words.
Definition of MORPHEME:
The minimal meaning-bearing unit of language.
Q:
•
The base work is sometimes used as V (they
work hard) and sometimes as N (this work is
time consuming)
•
One searches for similar cases whose
category can be unequivocally determined
like teach-er (teach: V), writ-er (write: V), seller (sell: V)
How many morphemes make up the word
workers?
note: sale (N) > *saler;
work er s
Conclusion: the base with which -er can combine must
be a verb rather than a noun.
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Root
The suffix -er added to a verb means "one who does X"
Verb base
Resulting noun
teach
teach-er
write
write-er
sing
sing-er
car
*car-er
house
*house-er
ultimate starting point for deriving a word. The
root is the most basic morpheme in a word. The
root of a word cannot be further decomposed;
- teach
Stem/Base
the actual form to which an affix is added;
- teach for teach-er; teacher for teacher-s
Affix
General Conclusion: Inflectional and derivational
affixes have categorial properties.
each of the bound morphemes is an affix;
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Free vs. Bound Morphemes
Claim 2:
Free Morpheme: can constitute a word by
itself, e.g. not
A systematic account of English derivational
morphology is only possible on the basis of the
assumption that words belong to grammatical
categories, and that particular derivational affixes
can only be attached to words belonging to
particular categories.
Ex: John should not leave the country.
John will not leave the country.
Bound morpheme:
must be attached to another element, e.g. n’t
Ex: John shouldn’t leave the country.
John won’t leave the country.
Q: Question formation
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Q:
Q:
What went wrong in the following derivational
processes?
sad
—
sadly
computer
—
*computerly
accept
—
*acceptly
with
—
*withly
Observation: the adverbialising suffix ‘-ly’ can only be
attached to adjectives not to nouns, not to verbs and
not to prepositions.
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What went wrong in the following derivational
processes?
sad
—
sadness
boy
—
*boyness
resemble
—
*resembleness
down
—
*downness
Observation: the nominalising (i.e. noun-forming) suffix
-ness can be attached only to adjective stems (so
giving rise to adjective/noun pairs such as
coarse/coarseness), not to nouns, verbs or
prepositions.
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Types of Affixes:
defined in terms of their position relative to the stem:
Infix:
Prefix:
attached to the
front of its stem,
e.g. disappear,
Suffix:
occurs between
two other morphemes, e.g. -um, -in- in Tagalog
(Philippines)
replay, illegal,
inaccurate,
attached to the
end of its stem,
e.g. vividly,
government,
hunter,
distribution,
Affix
Example
Change
Suffix
Semantic effect
attached to V
-er
work → worker
V→N
-ion
protect → protection V → N
-ial
→ presidential
-ly
→ quietly
one who X
the act of X´ing
attached to N
takbuh (run), tumakbuh (ran)
lakad (walk), lumakad (walked)
Engl.: absobloodylutely;
Massafuckingchusetts
Derivational Affixes
N→A
pertaining to X
attached to A
A → Adv
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in a X manner
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Derivational Affixes
Affix
Example
Change
Semantic effect
Prefix
in-
→ incompetent
A→A
not X
re-
→ rethink
V→V
X again
un-
→ unhappy
A→A
not X
un-
→ untie
V→V
reverse X
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The Structure of Words
What is a possible explanation?
Q: What word formation process(es) can you detect?
Negative prefix: "mis-"
The prefix "mis-" can be added to a number of verbs to show a
"bad" or "wrong" action.
“They under – they misunder – estimated what our
campaign is about.”
George W. Bush
They misunderestimated me. Bentonville, Ark., Nov. 6, 2000
[Vmis [ V under[ estimated] ]
V
]
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Examples:
behave calculate count
handle -
misbehave
miscalculate
miscount
mishandle
understand -
misunderstand
underestimate -
misunderestimate
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The Structure of Words
Tree Structure
Q: How can we represent the structure of teach er s?
N
Labelled bracketing:
N
Af
[N [ N [V teach ] er ] s ]
V
Af
teach
er
s
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Q: Why shouldn´t we assume the following
structure?
*
N
Q: And what is wrong with the following structure?
N
N
Af
V
Af
Af
V
Af
teach
er
s
teach
er
*
N
N
V
s
Binary Branching Hypothesis:
The basic morphological operations are binary.
s
teach
Definition: In any morphological tree structure, a mother node
only has two daughters at most.
er
No-Crossing Branches Restriction: Branches cannot cross.
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Q: How can we represent the structure of nationalization?
N
Af
V
Labelled bracketing:
[N [V [ A [N nation ] al ] ize ] ation ]
A
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Af
N
Af
nation
al
ize
ation
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Building Words: morphological processes
COMPOUNDING:
involves the combination of two words (with or without
accompanying affixes)
Morphological Processes
N - N: mail-box, blackbird, doghouse, doorstop
N - A: seaworthy, winedark
Inflection
N - V: stagemanage
A - A: blue-green
Word-Formation
Derivation
Compounding
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N
N
N
N
steam
In English, compounds can be found in all the major
lexical categories - N, A, V, but nouns are by far the most
common type of compounds. Verb compounds are quite
infrequent.
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N
A
man
strong
boat
A
A
N
A
blood
thirsty
A
red
A
hot
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Complex N Compounds
N
dog
food
Compound word
box
Phrasal Expression
(non-compound word)
N
N
N
N
Ambiguities: Compounds vs. Noncompounds
N
N
N
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N
N
N
N
stone
age
cave
dweller
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gréenhouse
grèen hoúse
bláckboard
blàck boárd
wét sùit
wèt súit
primary stress on the
first component
secondary stress on
the first component
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Ambiguities in Compounds: California history teacher
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
history
teacher
N
California history
teacher
California
[N[N[NCalifornia ] [N history]] [N teacher] ]
Q:
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COMPOUNDING:
Conclusion: morphological processes
Morphological Processes
Inflection
Word-Formation
Derivation
Compounding
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2. Syntactic evidence for assigning words
to categories:
Q:
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What element can occur in the position
of the dash?
They have no --- car / conscience / ideas
[NOUNS]
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They have no
*went
*for
*older
*readily
[verb]
[preposition]
[adjective]
[adverb]
Def. Noun: the class of nouns is defined as
the set of words which can terminate a
sentence in the position marked --- in
They have no --.
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Claim: Different categories of words have
different distributions.
They occupy a different range of
positions within phrases or sentences.
Q:
What element can occur in the position
of the dash?
They can --- stay / leave / hide / die / cry
[VERB]
Def. Verb: only a verb (in its infinitive/ base
form) can occur in the position marked --- in
the above sentence to form a complete
(non-elliptical) sentence
Other categories are ungrammatical:
They can --- *gorgeous [adjective]
*happily
*down
*door
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Def. Adjective: the only category of word
which can occur in the position marked --- in
the following sentence:
They are very -- tall /pretty /kind /nice
[ADJECTIVE]
*slowly
[adverb]
*child
[noun]
Def. Preposition: they alone can be intensified by right in the sense of ‘completely’,
or by straight in the sense of ‘directly’:
Go right
He went right
He walked straight
He fell straight
[preposition]
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The Substitution Test:
ADJ
He is more fluent/*more fluently at French…
He speaks French better than you.
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How would you classify better ?
He is better at French than you.
up the ladder.
inside.
into a wall.
down.
[PREPOSITION]
*astonish [verb]
*outside
[adverb]
[preposition]
[noun]
ADV
He speaks French more fluently/*more fluent …
Substitution Test!
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Def.: The substitution test is a technique to
determine the category which a given
expression belongs to. An expression belongs
to a given type of category if it can be
substituted (i.e. replaced) in the phrase or
sentence in which it occurs by another
expression which clearly belongs to the
category in question.
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Summary:
What else do we need?
We determined five major categories of
English: N, V, P, A, Adv.
They have
an
They have
this idea.
In determining the syntactic category of a
given lexical item, morphological clues must
be used in conjunction with syntactic tests,
like the substitution test.
They have
two ideas.
They have
no
They have
many ideas.
They have
one.
idea.
idea.
Determiners (D)
Quantifiers (Q)
Proform
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What else do we need?
What can pronouns
Hey! Teachers! Leave them kids alone!
cf.
Leave them / those kids alone!
"Our enemies are innovative and resourceful, and so are we.
Pronouns (PRN): traditionally,classified as N;
They never stop thinking about new
ways to harm our country and our
people, and neither do we."
Minimalism: Personal pronouns are classified as functors, like determiners. They do
not have descriptive content. They simply
encode sets of person, number, gender and
case properties.
G. W. Bush —Washington, D.C., Aug. 5, 2004
Pronouns (PRN): establish reference
relations in discourse;
Proforms: e.g. so; ellipsis;
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Lexical vs. functional categories:
What are Auxiliaries in English?
Lexical categories (open class): have idiosyncratic
descriptive content: N, V, P(?), A, Adv;
Def. AUXILIARIES have the function of marking
grammatical properties associated with the relevant
verb like tense, aspect, voice, mood or modality
Functional categories (closed class): serve
primarily to carry information about the grammatical properties of expressions; e.g. information
about number, gender, person, case.
Determiners (D), Quantifiers (Q), Pronouns (PRN);
Auxiliaries (AUX),
Infinitival to (T),
Complementizers (C);
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(i)
perfective auxiliary: have
(ii)
imperfective/ progressive auxiliary: be
(iii)
tense (periphrastic) auxiliary: do
(iv)
modal auxiliaries: can, could, may,
might, will, would, shall, should, must
What is the difference between auxiliaries vs. verbs?
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Auxiliaries have so-called NICE properties
N egation: Aux are directly negated.
Infinitive Particle to:
Def. To: so called because the only complement it will allow is one containing a V in the
infinitive form. Jane wants to [go home].
Max didn‘t/couldn‘t see the car. vs. *saw not the car
I nversion: Aux are directly inverted.
Did/could Max see the car? vs. *saw Max the car?
C ode: Aux can delete everything to its right;
Bill saw the car but Max didn‘t vs. *but Max saw not.
E mphasis: Aux can be used for emphasis:
Max DID see the car. vs. Max SAW the car.
Plus TAGS
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Similarities between inf-To and Aux:
It‘s vital that John should show an interest.
It‘s vital for John to
show an interest.
Inf-To and Aux seem to occur in the same
position in the sentence and require a V in
its infinitive form.
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Ellipsis Test:
Claim: Only inflectional or tensed elements
(T) license VP-ellipsis.
Ellipsis Test:
Claim: Only inflectional or tensed elements
(T) license VP-ellipsis.
"And question is:
Are we going to be facile enough to change with it—will we
be nimble enough; Will we be able to deal with the
circumstances on the ground?"
"And the answer is:
Yes, we will."
—G.W. Bush; Washington, D.C., July 25, 2006
Yes, we will be .....
John doesn‘t want to do his linguistics
homework, but he should [-------------].
John knows he should do his linguistics
homework, but he doesn‘t want to [----------].
Auxiliaries and infinitival to are Ts.
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Complementizers (C):
Attested Example:
Republicans believe in an America run by the
right people, their people, in a world in which
we act unilaterally when we can [-----------],
and cooperate when we have to [-----------].
(W. Clinton 26-07-04).
Def.: a C is a word which is used to introduce
complement clauses; e.g. that, if, for;
I think [that you may be right] → finite clause
I wonder [if you can help me] → finite clause
- finite C: that (declarative), if (interrogative);
I want [for you to receive the best training].
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- infinite C: for (hypothetical, or irrealis)
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Labelled Bracketing:
[PRN You ][T don't ] [V seem ] [T to ] [V be ] [Adv too ]
List of abbreviations:
[A worried ] [Pabout ] [Dthe ] [N possibility ] [Cthat ]
Lexical categories: N, V, A, P, Adv
[Q
many ] [P of ] [D the ] [Nshareholders ] [Tmay ]
[Adv now ] [V vote ] [P against ] [PRN your ] [A revised ]
Functional categories: D, T, C, PRN, Q
[N takeover ] [N bid ].
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Feature Matrix of lexical elements
+V
-V
+N
A
N
-N
V
P
Feature matrix of lexical and functional elements
-F
+V
+F
-V
A
V:
undo, untie, unfold
A:
unafraid, unfriendly
N:
*unfear, *unfriend
P.
*uninside, *unby
+N
-N
N
D
V
PRN
P
AUX
C/T
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Feature Matrix of lexical elements
Conclusion:
Claim: word classes exist.
Generalization:
Each functional category seems to be closely related
to a corresponding lexical category: auxiliaries to
verbs, pronouns to nouns, determiners to adjectives,
and the complementizer for and the infinitive particle
to to the corresponding prepositions.
Definition: grammatical category: a set of elements
which have the same value(s) for a given set of
grammatical features.
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1. Morphological Evidence
- inflectional processes
- word-formation processes
- the structure of words
2. Syntactic Evidence
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