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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Góngora, Luis de. Polyphemus and Galatea. Introduction by
Alexander A. Parker. Translated by Gilbert F. Cunningham. Austin, 1977. Translation of Fábula de Polifemo y
Galatea (1612).
—. The Solitudes. Translated by Gilbert F. Cunningham. Baltimore, 1968. Translation of Soledades (1612–
1614).
Rivers, Elias L., intro. and ed. ‘‘Luis de Góngora.’’ In Renaissance and Baroque Poetry of Spain, pp. 157–198.
New York, 1966. Prospect Heights, Ill., 1988. Selection of poems with prose translations.
Secondary Sources
Beverley, John. Aspects of Góngora’s ‘‘Soledades.’’ Amsterdam, 1980.
Collins, Marsha S. The ‘‘Soledades,’’ Góngora’s Masque of the
Imagination. Columbia, Mo., 2002.
Gaylord [Randel], Mary. ‘‘Metaphor and Fable in
Góngora’s Soledad primera.’’ Revista Hispánica
Moderna 40 (1978–1979): 97–112.
McCaw, R. John. The Transforming Text: A Study of Luis de
Góngora’s ‘‘Soledades.’’ Potomac, Md. 2000.
Smith, Paul Julian. ‘‘Barthes, Góngora, and Non-Sense.’’
PMLA 101 (1986): 82–94.
Terry, Arthur. ‘‘Luis de Góngora: The Poetry of Transformation.’’ In Seventeenth-Century Spanish Poetry: The
Power of Artifice, pp. 65–93. Cambridge, U.K., and
New York, 1993.
MARSHA S. COLLINS
GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO
DE (1746–1828), Spanish painter and printmaker.
Born on 30 March 1746 in the village of
Fuendetodos, Francisco Goya received his earliest
artistic training in the provincial capital of
Saragossa, under the Neapolitan-trained painter
José Luzán y Martı́nez. In 1766 Goya competed
unsuccessfully in a drawing competition at the
Royal Academy of San Fernando. Documents reveal
his entry into another academic competition in
Parma, Italy, in 1771, where he received an honorable mention for the painting Hannibal Crossing the
Alps (Fundación Selgas-Fagalda, Cudillero, Spain).
On his returning to Saragossa in 1772, Goya
undertook religious commissions for private patrons and religious organizations. In 1773 he married the sister of the court painter, Francisco Bayeu y
Subı́as (1734–1795), and it was probably through
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Bayeu’s influence that the artist was invited to the
court of Madrid in 1774 to paint designs (also
known as cartoons) for the royal tapestry factory.
Goya’s ability was soon recognized, and he was
given permission to paint tapestry cartoons ‘‘of his
own invention’’—that is, he was allowed to develop
original subjects for these images. He painted three
series of tapestry cartoons for rooms in the royal
residences before the tapestry factory cut back production in 1780 because of a financial crisis engendered by Spain’s war with England. The decade of
the 1780s was nevertheless one of great advancement for the artist, beginning with his election to
the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando in
1780 and continuing as he won patronage for religious paintings and portraits from the grandest families in Spain, including the duke and duchess of
Osuna and the count and countess of Altamira. His
appointment as court painter in April 1789, four
months after Charles IV had acceded to the throne,
cemented his fortunes.
Documents and paintings of the early 1790s
suggest the artist’s growing unease with the limitations imposed on painters by traditions and patronage. Images in his final series of cartoons, such as
The Straw Mannikin (1792; Museo del Prado, Madrid), betray an increasingly cynical view. As one of
several academicians asked in 1792 to report on the
institutional curriculum, he responded that ‘‘there
are no rules in painting.’’ Thus, although the turn in
Goya’s art to a more liberated exploration of unprecedented subject matter is often credited to a
serious illness suffered in 1792–1793, such a
change might have occurred in any case. From 1793
onward, in addition to his work as a painter of
commissioned portraits and religious paintings,
Goya explored experimental subjects—ranging
from shipwrecks to scenes of everyday life in Madrid—in uncommissioned paintings, prints, and
drawings. This experimentation led to the publication in 1799 of a series of eighty aquatint etchings
known as Los Caprichos, whose subjects encompass
witchcraft, prostitution, fantasy, and social satire. It
is wrongly thought that these etchings jeopardized
Goya’s relationship with his patrons; that this is not
the case is proven by Goya’s promotion to first court
painter eight months after their publication. The
artist would continue to paint portraits including
The Family of Charles IV (1800–1801, Prado), as
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Francisco de Goya y Lucientes. The Second of May 1808. THE ART ARCHIVE/MUSEO DEL PRADO MADRID/THE ART ARCHIVE
well as works for the king and queen’s close confidant, Manuel Godoy, that include portraits, allegories, and probably the Naked Maja and the
Clothed Maja (c. 1797–1805; Prado).
In 1808 Napoleonic forces invaded Spain, the
royal family abdicated, and Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte, assumed the Spanish throne. In
1810 Goya undertook etchings documenting the
atrocities of war, today known as the Disasters of
War. Goya probably continued work on these etchings even after the Spanish government of Ferdinand VII was restored in 1814, although the series
of eighty plates was published only in 1863, thirtyfive years after Goya’s death. On the restoration of
the Spanish monarchy, Goya depicted The Second of
May and The Third of May (1813–1814; Prado) to
commemorate the Spanish uprising against French
troops; although these are among Goya’s most fa-
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mous works, little is known of their original function or placement, or of their early reception.
Goya continued in his position as first court
painter under the restored monarch, who nevertheless preferred the neoclassical style of the younger
Vicente López. In 1819 Goya purchased a villa on
the outskirts of Madrid and painted on the walls of
its two main rooms images of witchcraft, religious
ceremonies, and mythical subjects today known as
the Black Paintings (1819–1823; Prado). In 1824
the artist left Spain and after a brief trip to Paris
settled in Bordeaux among a colony of Spanish exiles. Here he continued to paint and draw, and also
to experiment with the technique of lithography—
leading to the publication of The Bulls of Bordeaux,
a masterpiece in that medium. He died in Bordeaux
on 26 April 1828.
See also Spain, Art in.
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G R A N A D A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gassier, Pierre, and Juliet Wilson. The Life and Complete
Works of Francisco Goya. New York, 1971.
Tomlinson, Janis. Francisco Goya y Lucientes, 1746–1828.
2nd ed. London, 1999.
—. Goya in the Twilight of Enlightenment. New Haven
and London, 1992.
JANIS TOMLINSON
GRANADA. Located in the southeastern sector
of the Iberian Peninsula, the city of Granada lies in
the northern foothills of the Sierra Nevada, some
sixty kilometers from the Mediterranean. It rose to
prominence in the mid-thirteenth century as capital
of the Muslim kingdom of Granada, the last surviving state of medieval Al-Andalus or Islamic Iberia.
During the latter half of the fifteenth century, Granada faced growing internal instability and the increasing militancy of its northern neighbor, the
Christian kingdom of Castile.
Granada’s capitulation in 1492 to the forces of
Ferdinand V and Isabella I (ruled 1474–1504),
king and queen of Aragón and Castile, signaled the
end of independent Muslim power on the Iberian
Peninsula. Though the treaty of surrender guaranteed Granadans their traditional religion, forced
conversions in 1499 drove the Muslim community
to insurrection. The crown responded by rescinding
the treaty and demanding mass baptisms. By 1501
the city’s Muslim population—estimated at fifty
thousand souls in 1492—either emigrated to North
Africa or became Moriscos (Muslim converts to
Christianity). Thousands of ‘‘Old Christian’’ newcomers from southern and central Castile soon replaced the émigrés. By 1561, immigrants to the city
numbered around thirty thousand, perhaps twice
the dwindling Morisco population. Both Moriscos
and immigrants found employment in Granada’s
lucrative silk industry. Granadan Moriscos dyed the
raw silk produced by rural Morisco peasants; immigrants, however, dominated the weaving process.
Granada. A seventeenth-century view of the city from Civitates Orbis Terrarum, by Braun and Hogenberg. THE ART ARCHIVE/
BIBLIOTECA NAZIONALE MARCIANA VENICE/DAGLI ORTI (A)
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