ART HISTORY
Universal Principles of Design
Week One
Week One Universal Principles of Design
Iconic Representation
The use of signs and symbols to represent actions, objects and ideas.
Signs and symbols are used when it is necessary to communicate
concepts quickly. They are tools used to make more complex concepts
easy to understand and remember.
In Medieval and Renaissance art, signs and symbols were incorporated
to communicate religious motifs and ideas. In the example below, note
the halos around the heads to signify holiness.
Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels icon in the Monastery of
Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt. Second half of 6th century.
Encaustic on wood, 27” × 18⅞” (69 × 48 cm) (Art: A Brief History
for Full Sail University, 4th Edition. Pearson Learning Solutions).
Today, signs and symbols are used in our daily communications
(examples: road signs, computer icons)
There are four kinds: Similar, Example, Symbolic and Arbitrary
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
• Similar Icons are comprised of images that directly and very literally correspond to a simple and direct action or idea (Example:
an arrow pointing right indicates a right turn).
• Example Icons are used to communicate a more complex action
or idea. But rather than illustrate the action or idea directly, a related image will be used to represent it (example: fork and knife
icon represents restaurants on a highway exit sign).
• Symbolic Icons represent concepts in a more abstract way. They
are effective when the symbol is very recognizable and can be
easily associated with the action or idea it represents (example: a
lightning bolt represents high voltage or electricity).
• Arbitrary Icons use images that are visually unrelated to the
concept they are representing, and so their meanings must be
learned. Examples of arbitrary icons are the symbols for male and
female. Another example is the “power on” symbol.
Symmetry
Symmetry is the attribute of having equivalent or similar parts in a form
or forms. There are three types: Reflection, Rotation, and Translation.
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• Reflection:
An element is exactly mirrored around a center line.
• Rotation:
A duplicate element is rotated around a common center.
• Translation:
Location of a duplicate element. The duplicate can go anywhere
as long as the orientation is the same as the original.
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Combine different types of symmetry for visual interest. Leonardo da Vinci’s
Last Supper is a good example of the use of symmetry. Note how the walls
on either side mirror each other.
Wall painting in the refectory, Monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, Italy. 1495–1498. Tempera and oil
on plaster, 15’ 2” × 28’ 10” (4.6 × 8.8 m) (Art: A Brief History for Full Sail University, 4th Edition. Pearson Learning
Solutions p. 14).
Perspective
Perspective allows the representation of 3D objects and spatial relationships
on a flat, 2D surface.
Linear Perspective: parallel lines are drawn to converge at
a particular point (called the vanishing point), creating the
impression of depth. Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper again (see above)
is a good example of this. Notice how the line of the walls recede into
the background. If these lines kept going, they would eventually converge.
Here they serve to both create the illusion of depth in the room, while
acting as a natural frame that draws the eye to Jesus in the center.
Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective: loss of detail, focus, color, etc.
as objects/elements recede into the distance. Leonardo da Vinci used
this a lot and referred to it as “The perspective of disappearance.” In his
Mona Lisa, notice how he has used this to make the background behind
her feel far away.
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Leonardo da Vinci. Mona Lisa c. 1503–1506. Oil on panel, 30¼” × 21”
(76.8 × 53.3 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris (Art: A Brief History for Full
Sail University, 4th Edition. Pearson Learning Solutions).
Golden Ratio
This is the ratio between two segments of a form that roughly equals 1.618.
It is an underlying principle that helps to create aesthetically pleasing designs.
If you create a golden rectangle based on the proportion above and divide
part of that rectangle into a perfect square, the remaining portion will be
exactly proportionate to the original rectangle. You can continue dividing
the rectangle in this way infinitely. See the diagram below.
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
You can apply this to designs by using it to guide the placements of the
elements, which will create an aesthetically pleasing composition. However,
in the book, Universal Principles of Design: 125 Ways to Enhance Usability,
Influence Perception, Increase Appeal, Make Better Design Decisions, and
Teach through Design, the authors caution against forcing a design to
conform to a Golden Ratio. Instead, you should think about using it when
it is appropriate and if it will not interfere with the composition.
It is also called the Golden Mean, Golden Number, Golden Section,
Divine Proportion, Golden Proportion, and Sectio Ario.
It is related to the Rule of Thirds and the Fibonacci Sequence.
It is seen in nature (seashells, flowers, the human body, etc) and in
many masterpieces of art and architecture. Examples are Leonardo da
Vinci’s Vitruvian Man, and the Parthenon.
Kallikrates and Iktinos. Parthenon. Acropolis, Athens. c. 447–
432 BCE. View from northwest. (Art: A Brief History for Full Sail
University, 4th Edition. Pearson Learning Solutions).
Leonardo da Vinci. Vitruvian Man. c. 1490.
Ink, approx. 13½” × 9⅝” (34.3 × 24.5 cm).
Galleria dell’Accademia, Venice (Art: A Brief
History for Full Sail University, 4th Edition.
Pearson Learning Solutions).
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Rule of Thirds
This is a technique that helps place compositional elements in visually pleasing
ways. The picture plane is divided into thirds with imaginary lines running
horizontally and vertically. This creates a proportion that is a rough
approximation of the Golden Ratio. Important elements are placed near
where these lines intersect, creating a visually interesting asymmetrical
composition, such as in the example below by Grant Wood:
Grant Wood: The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere, oil on masonite, 762×1016
mm, 1931 (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Arthur Hoppock
Hearn Fund, 1950, Accession ID: 50.117); © Figge Art Museum, successors
to the Estate of Nan Wood Graham/Licensed by VAGA, NY, http://www.
vagarights.com, image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci Sequence is a series of numbers where each number is the sum
of the two numbers before it. An example is: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, etc.
It is closely related to the Golden Ratio: when any two contiguous
numbers in the series are divided, the sum is roughly equivalent to 1.618.
It is found throughout nature and masterpieces of art and music.
A practical application example: Create a Fibonacci sequence and
use it to help choose font sizes in your designs. It helps to achieve a
harmoniously balanced appearance between the blocks of text.
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Balance
Balance refers to the arrangement of elements in a composition so that
visual weight is evenly distributed. A composition can be balanced
symmetrically or asymmetrically.
Symmetrical balance is achieved when elements are equally distributed on
both sides of a composition. An example is the Reims Cathedral, seen below.
West façade, Reims Cathedral. 1230s–1260; towers mid-15th century. The towers were later
additions to this massive cathedral front, as was the row of statues (the so-called Kings’ Gallery)
stretching across the façade at the base of the towers. The spires were never completed.
(Art: A Brief History for Full Sail University, 4th Edition. Pearson Learning Solutions).
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Asymmetrical balance is achieved when elements are not equally
distributed, but the results are harmonious. Use asymmetrical
balance when wanting to emphasize a particular element. The Golden Ratio
and the Rule of Thirds can be employed to create an asymmetrically balanced
composition. An example is the Venus of Urbino by Titian, seen below.
Titian. Venus of Urbino. c. 1538. Oil on canvas, 3’ 11” × 5’ 5” (1.19 × 1.65 m).
Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. (Art: A Brief History for Full Sail University, 4th Edition.
Pearson Learning Solutions).
Framing
Framing presents information or subjects in a way that influences and
manipulates audience reaction and opinions. Examples of modern works
that commonly use the technique of framing include political propaganda,
advertising, and news media.
In the image to the left, the artist JacquesLouis David used framing to portray Napoleon Bonaparte as a romantic hero.
Jacques-Louis David: Napoleon Crossing the St Bernard Pass, oil
on canvas, 2.7×2.0 m, 1800–1 (Malmaison, Château National de
Malmaison); photo credit: Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art
Resource/NY
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Savanna Preference
This is the preference people have for savanna-like environments over other
settings. It is more pronounced in children and fades somewhat with age.
Salomon van Ruysdael: Drawing the Eel, oil on wood, 29 1/2 x 41 3/4 in. (74.9 x 106 cm), 1650s
(New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, 1871, Accession ID:71.75); photo © The
Metropolitan Museum of Art http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/110002041
Pieter Bruegel I (the elder): Corn Harvest (or The Harvesters), oil on wood, overall, including added
strips at top, bottom, and right, 46 7/8 x 63 3/4 in. (119 x 162 cm); original painted surface 45 7/8
x 62 7/8 in. (116.5 x 159.5 cm), 1565 (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1919,
Accession ID: 19.164); photo © The Metropolitan Museum of Art http://www.metmuseum.org/
Collections/search-the-collections/110000242
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Color
Color is used to communicate ideas, emotions, and mood. Color can signify
different meanings in different cultures so make sure to research and
substantiate the effectiveness of your choice for a particular audience.
Color is used to help establish hierarchy, emphasis, organization. It is also
used to attract attention. Franz Marc: Small Yellow Horses, oil on canvas, 660×1045
mm, 1911 (Stuttgart, Staatsgalerie); photo credit: Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, NY
Choose color harmonies based on the color wheel to create a pleasing palette. There are many possible combinations. Some common color harmonies are
Complementary, Analogous, Triadic, Split Complementary, Tetradic, and Square.
complementary
Violet
VioletRed
Red
RedOrange
BlueViolet
Orange
Blue
OrangeYellow
BlueGreen
Yellow
Green
YellowGreen
• Complementary: This color harmony
consists of two colors that appear exactly
opposite each other on the color wheel.
Because they are opposites, this is good for
creating vibrant contrast, but be careful of
overdoing it and making your design garish
and loud.
analogous
Violet
VioletRed
Red
RedOrange
BlueViolet
Orange
Blue
OrangeYellow
BlueGreen
Yellow
Green
YellowGreen
• Analogous: This color scheme consists
of colors that appear next to each other
on the color wheel. This will create a very
pleasing and relaxing scheme, but because
the colors are similar, take care to incorporate enough contrast.
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
triadic
Violet
VioletRed
Red
RedOrange
BlueViolet
Orange
Blue
OrangeYellow
BlueGreen
Yellow
Green
YellowGreen
split complementary
Violet
VioletRed
Red
RedOrange
BlueViolet
Orange
Blue
OrangeYellow
BlueGreen
Yellow
Green
YellowGreen
• Triadic: This scheme is made up of three
colors that are equally distibuted on the
color wheel. A triadic scheme can get loud,
so for best results, use one of colors as the
main color, and use the others as supporting, secondary colors.
• Split Complementary: This scheme is like
the complementary scheme, but it uses
the two colors on either side of the opposing color. So in the example to the left,
instead of choosing green as the complement to red, you would choose the colors
to the left and right of green.
tetradic
Violet
VioletRed
Red
RedOrange
BlueViolet
Orange
Blue
OrangeYellow
BlueGreen
• Tetradic: This color scheme is composed
of two complementary pairs of colors on
the wheel.
Yellow
Green
YellowGreen
square
Violet
VioletRed
Red
RedOrange
BlueViolet
Orange
Blue
OrangeYellow
BlueGreen
• Square: The square scheme is made up
of four colors that are evenly distributed
around the wheel.
Yellow
Green
YellowGreen
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Value
Value refers to the lightness or darkness in an image. It is directly related to light and how surfaces reflect and absorb light. Value creates the illusion of light and shadow. Looking at a black and white photograph will help you understand the role of value in an image, such as the one below by Alfred Stieglitz:
Alfred Stieglitz: From the Back Window, 291, platinum print,
25.1 x 20.2 cm (9 7/8 x 7 15/16 in.), 1915 (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Alfred Stieglitz Collection, 1949, Accession
ID: 49.55.35); © 2007 Georgia O’Keeffe Museum/Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York, photo © The Metropolitan Museum
of Art http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-thecollections/190021269
Light values (tints) represent areas where light is striking the object. Dark
values (shades) represent where the light does not reach (shadows). Use
a full range of values to achieve a more aesthetically pleasing result.
This video from TheVirtualInstructor.com shows you how to easily create
a value finder of your own to help you identify values in an image:
http://thevirtualinstructor.com/make-a-value-finder.html
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Line
Line is used to establish and delineate form and shape in art and design.
It is also used to create the illusion of weight or volume, as well as to create
the outline of a shape.
In addition to creating shape, the type of line used may set the tone or
create a mood. • Rounded, organic or undulating lines are
soothing and relaxing as in the exampleby
Henri Matisse.
Henri Matisse. Le bonheur de vivre (The Joy of Life).
1905–1906. Oil on canvas, 5’ 8½” × 7’ 9¾” (1.74 × 2.38
m). The Barnes Foundation, Merion, Pennsylvania. (Art: A
Brief History for Full Sail University, 4th Edition. Pearson
Learning Solutions).
• Jagged, sharp and sharp angled lines can
create aggressiveness, anxiety or tension
as in this piece by Willem De Kooning.
Willem de Kooning: Woman I, oil on canvas, 1.93×1.47
m, 1950–52 (New York, Museum of Modern Art); © 2007
The Willem de Kooning Foundation/Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York, photo © Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Shape
Shapes are created when lines overlap or intersect.
Shapes can be:
• geometric (squares, circles, triangles, etc.)
• organic (leaves, flowers, etc.)
• Positive (a solid object, like a lamp)
• Negative (the empty space around a solid object)
• Static (not moving – example: Caravaggio: Basket of Fruit)
Caravaggio: Basket of Fruit, oil on canvas, 310×470mm, c.
1598–1601 (Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana); Photo credit:
Scala/Art Resource, NY
• Dynamic (The illusion of movement – Example: Raphael:
Transfiguration)
Raphael: Transfiguration (detail), oil on panel, 4.05×2.78 m,
1517–20 (Rome, Pinacoteca Vaticana); Photo credit: Scala/
Art Resource, NY
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Texture
Texture is the suggestion of how an object’s surface would feel.
Texture can also help to emphasize the illusion of visual depth. The
texture of objects that are closer to the viewer will be easy to perceive,
while the texture of objects that recede into the distance will not be as
easily seen the further away they are.
The use of multiple textures in a composition can create visual interest
and complexity. For example, look at all the rich variety of fabrics and
surfaces in Jan Van Eyck’s “Arnolfini Wedding.” From the sumptuous clothing
the couple is wearing, to the wooden shoes on the floor, to the shiny metal
of the intricate chandelier, the textures help to keep the viewer’s eye
moving and engaged.
Jan van Eyck. Double Portrait: traditionally identified as Giovanni Arnolfini and
Giovanna Cenami. 1434. Oil on wood panel, 33” × 22½” (83.8 × 57.2 cm). The
National Gallery, London. (Art: A Brief History for Full Sail University, 4th Edition.
Pearson Learning Solutions).
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Hierarchy
Hierarchy is the arrangement and organization of information and elements
that facilitates understanding. Elements in a composition are arranged
and perceived by order of importance. Importance of an element
can be achieved through the use of contrast (in size, color, value,
placement, etc.), balance, and value, among other things. Without a clear
hierarchy, the eye will become confused and not know how to process
the information.
Hokusai’s “The Great Wave” is a great example of the effective use of
visual hierarchy. Notice how your eye moves through the piece, first
from the large wave, to the other details. Using the Rule of Thirds,
an asymmetrically balanced composition is achieved.
Katsushika Hokusai. The Great Wave. Edo period, c. 1831. Polychrome woodblock print on paper, 9⅞” × 14⅝” (25
× 37.1 cm). Honolulu Academy of Arts, Hawaii. (Art: A Brief History for Full Sail University, 4th Edition. Pearson
Learning Solutions).
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
Figure/Ground
People tend to organize visual elements as either objects of focus or as
background objects.
• Stable Relationship: Compositions with a
distinct object of focus and separate background. Notice in this example that the
man in the foreground is clearly the focal
point, and the background objects are separate and secondary supporting compositional elements.
Nicolas Poussin: Self-portrait, oil on canvas, 980×740 mm, 1650 (Paris, Musée du Louvre); Photo credit: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
• Unstable Relationship: Compositions
which the foreground and background objects are hard to separate or define, as in
the example at left.
Jacques Villon: La femme en rouge, oil on canvas, 920×650 mm, 1937
(Paris, Pompidou, Musée National d’Art Moderne); © 2007 Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris, photo credit: CNAC/
MNAM/Dist. Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY
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Week One Universal Principles of Design
RESOURCES
Lidwell, William, Kritina Holden, and Jill Butler. Universal Principles of Design:
125 Ways to Enhance Usability, Influence Perception, Increase Appeal,
Make Better Design Decisions, and Teach through Design. Beverly, MA:
Rockport, 2010. Print.
“Doctor Disruption.” Doctor Disruption. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Feb. 2013.
Kovalik, Cindy, Ph.D., and Peggy King, M.Ed. “Visual Literacy.”
Http://www.educ.kent.edu. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2013.
“Elements of Design.” Elements of Design Student Handout. N.p., n.d.
Web. 21 Feb. 2013.
“Art Studio Chalkboard.” Chalkboard: Aerial Perspective. N.p., n.d.
Web. 05 Mar. 2013.
“The Elements of Art-”Value”” Value- The Elements of Art. N.p., n.d. Web.
05 Mar. 2013.
Fussell, Matt. “Free Art Lessons, Instruction, and Videos.” Free Art Lessons
and Tutorials. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2013.
“Color Harmonies.” : Complementary, Analogous, Triadic Color Schemes.
N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Mar. 2013.
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