Absorption, Wicking and Drying Characteristics of
Compression Garments
Canan Saricam, PhD
Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul TURKEY
Correspondence to:
Canan Saricam email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the influence of the production
parameters on the moisture related comfort
characteristics of the compression garments that
differ according to the tension applied during the
production and elastane count. Correlation analysis,
two sided independent t-test analysis and ANOVA
tests were applied to analyze the relationship between
the production parameters and comfort characteristics
which are absorption, vertical and transfer wicking
and drying. It was found that tension and elastane
composition affect the comfort characteristics by
changing the porosity, thickness and the pathways
within the fabric.
Keywords: Compression
Absorption, Drying
Garments,
They found out that wearing the custom-fit
compression garment improves warm-up in terms of
skin temperature attained and increases vertical jump
height. Ali et al [5] examined the influence of
wearing graduated compression stockings on several
physiological and perceptual responses during and
after exercise and they concluded that the
compression stocking reduced muscular soreness of
the lower limbs after exercise. Kraemer et al [6]
analyzed the influence of various designs of
commercial hosiery with light to moderate graduated
compression on physiological and performance
responses to standing fatigue.
Wicking,
Compression garments are produced according to
half plating or full plating technique where plaiting
means the simultaneous formation of one loop from
two threads. Elastane yarn proportion which
influences the fabric characteristics is one of the most
important parameter of single jersey plated fabrics,
and it is adjusted by setting the elastane delivery
system speed [7]. The elastane yarn consumption and
tension have to be adjusted to keep the area density in
accord with the order specifications [7]. There is no
physical law that determines the necessary elastane
consumption for given fabric properties while the
relationship between elastane proportion and fabric
width, weight and elasticity is not generally known
[7].
INTRODUCTION
Compression garments are the garments for which
the degree of pressure is determined by the
construction and fit of the garment, the structure and
physical properties of its material, the size and shape
of the part of the body to which it is applied and the
nature of the sporting activity undertaken [1].
Compression garments are used in athletics and
fitness activities because of their style, reducing
chaffing, preventing injuries, and enhancing
performance [2]. Compression garments are also used
for medical purposes such as therapy for scald
management [3] and healing treatment for the
patients with reduced venous function [4]. The
compression garments provide the wearer with the
enhanced blood flow, better muscle oxygenation,
reduced fatigue, faster recovery, reduced muscle
oscillation and reduced muscle injury [1].
There are some studies that investigated the structural
characteristics of the compression garments and the
fabrics with elastane. Cuden et al [8] studied the
elasticity and shrinkage properties of the fabrics
before and after laundering. Senthilkumar et al [9]
investigated the effect of spandex input tension,
linear density and cotton yarn loop length on the
dynamic recovery of cotton/spandex single jersey
knitted fabric. Ozdil [10] studied the stretching and
bagging properties of denim fabrics that contain
different amount of elastane. Gorjanc and Bukosek
[11] studied the behavior of woven fabrics with
Some research regarding the compression garments
has been undertaken to identify their performance
effects and the related physiological mechanisms [1].
Doan et al [2] investigated how custom-fit
compression short affected athletic performance and
examined the mechanical properties of the shorts.
Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics
Volume 10, Issue 3 – 2015
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elastane core spun yarns during stretching.
Abdessalem et al [7] studied the effect of elastane
consumption on width, weight, and elasticity of
plated plain fabrics. According to the authors, the
tension inside the elastomeric yarn makes wales
closer to each other and, consequently, fabric width is
reduced and stitch density is increased. Sadek et al
[12] studied the effect of Lycra extension percent on
the properties of compression fabrics in order to
predict the optimal lycra extension percent with
respect to required fabric quality. The authors
showed that as the extension of Lycra increased, the
thickness increased whereas the air permeability and
the elastic modulus decreased. The authors also
stated that the increase in course density was higher
than the increase in wales density with an increase in
the extension of the elastane. Pavlo-Cuden et al [13]
compared the geometrical parameters of plain single
weft knitted structure made from various elasticized
yarns with the conventional yarns such as yarn
thickness, loop width, loop height, fabric thickness,
and loop length. They found that, the elastane
addition did not influence the loop length of fabrics
knitted at the same cam settings and relaxed by the
same process whereas the loop configuration and so
the loop width, height and fabric thickness changed.
Although the structural characteristics and the
influence of compression garments on the
performance were studied, the comfort characteristics
of the compression garments were not studied in
terms of moisture transport which is very important
considering especially their usage.
and porosity which are determined mostly by fiber,
yarn, and fabric variables. The diffusion of water and
the capillary wicking are influenced from capillary
pore distribution, pathways, and surface tension [20]
within the fabric. According to Adler et al. [21] who
investigated transfer wicking in cotton and polyester
woven and knitted fabrics, the vapor diffusion was
the major mechanism of moisture transport and the
moisture content is important for wicking to begin.
Drying is the other characteristics in clothing comfort
as it cools the body because it required heat energy
for the process to occur [22]. The dominant
mechanism in drying is the evaporation of water or
sweat [22]. The comfort is related with the time
required for drying which is dependent on the initial
water content of the fabric due to the moisture
affinity and water holding capacities of the fiber [18].
There are many studies on the relationship between
the wicking and drying characteristics and the
characteristics of textile materials. Most of the
studies were held in knitted fabrics [19, 23-26] for
which the fibers and fabric constructions differed
from each other. Although, some of the studies
involved the fabrics with elastane [20, 27], no study
was found in literature that was dedicated to the
analysis of comfort characteristics of the compression
garments.
This study investigates the comfort characteristics of
the compression garments and the fabrics by relating
the comfort characteristics with the construction and
production features. To this aim, the influence of two
production parameters which are tension and elastane
composition were investigated on the comfort
characteristics of the compression garments.
The evaporation of the moisture is very important for
clothing comfort especially for sportswear and
underwear as it creates a sense of dampness and
claminess leading to reduced body heat and makes
the people tired [14]. In order to have clothing
comfort, the liquid on the body surface or the inner
layer of clothing should be transferred to the outer
layer and the liquid should evaporate from the outer
layer to the environment [15]. Clothing comfort in
terms of moisture transport is influenced from the
wicking and drying characteristics of the apparel
products.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The fabric specimens used for the experiments were
produced in Santoni knitting machine (SM8-TOP2)
with a gauge of 28 and diameter of 13 inches
according to full plaiting technique in which the
elastane yarn is fed in every course as shown in
Figure 1.
By increasing the spreading of the liquid or vapor
throughout the garment by increasing the evaporation
of moisture [16], wicking occurs after the fibers with
capillary spaces in between them are wetted by a
liquid as in the case of the capillary wicking [17] or
when the liquid is transferred from wet fabric to dry
fabric when they are in close contact with each other
as in the case of transfer wicking [18]. According to
Prahsarn et al [19], the moisture vapor transmission
through fabrics is to be controlled by fabric thickness
Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics
Volume 10, Issue 3 – 2015
FIGURE 1. Full plaiting technique [12], and the photo of
specimen.
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Eight types of specimens produced from double ply
Nylon 6.6 yarn and elastane using different tensions
and elastane counts, have the properties given in
Table I and Table II.
The vertical wicking properties of the fabrics in
course and wale direction were determined using the
method proposed by Fangueiro et al [20]. The
specimens that were cut in dimension of 200 mm X
25 mm were suspended in a reservoir of distilled
water with their bottom ends at a depth of 30 mm into
the water. The height of the water raised was
measured and recorded at 30 second intervals within
5 minutes.
TABLE I. The production properties of the fabric specimens.
Fabric Code
Yarn Count
(Dtex)
Elastane
Count
(Denier)
Tension (gr)
Elastane
composition
(%)
1
78(39X2)
20
1
5.73
2
78(39X2)
40
1
15.46
3
78(39X2)
70
1
26.16
4
78(39X2)
140
1
39.73
5
78(39X2)
20
2.5
4.03
6
78(39X2)
40
2.5
12.56
7
78(39X2)
70
2.5
21.07
8
78(39X2)
140
2.5
35.08
The transfer wicking properties were identified using
the method Zhuang et al. [15] with the application of
standard load of 15.6 km/m2. Paired specimens, one
for wet and one for dry sample, were prepared with
the diameter 74.5mm of using a round cutter. One
specimen of the paired specimens was soaked in
distilled water, and the excess water within this
sample was removed using a paper towel. Paired
samples were placed between two dishes that have
same circular area of the specimens in a way that wet
sample is put under the dry sample. The specimens
were weighed at each five minutes within the 30
minutes interval.
TABLE II. The structural properties of the fabric specimens.
Fabric Code
Course
Density
(course / cm)
Wales
Stitch density Fabric weight
density
2)
(g/cm2)
(wales /cm) (stitch /cm
Thickness
(mm)
Air
Permeability
(lt/min)
1
26
16
416
2
32
16.5
528
273
0.59
276.67
279.7
0.65
3
34
16
544
267.7
0.67
61.67
31
4
35
18
630
321.9
0.68
9.67
5
29
16
464
329.1
0.64
342.33
6
33
17
561
347.9
0.69
143.33
7
36
18
648
322.2
0.71
58
8
37
18.5
684.5
341.2
0.74
33.33
The drying behavior of the samples was determined
according to the method of Coplan [30] and Fourt et
al [31]. The specimens that were cut in dimension of
40mm X 40mm, were soaked in distilled water for 30
minutes. They were suspended vertically for 15
seconds and laid on dry paper towel for two minutes
on each side. They were weighted at every 30
minutes until they reach 105% of their dry weight.
The air permeability was measured in the Air
Permeability machine according to Standard TS 391
EN ISO 9237. The air permeability results were taken
into account to make comparison in terms of
porosity. Yasuda et al. [28] state that the permeability
of the fabrics is nearly identical if the porosity of the
fabrics is similar.
The influence of the tension parameter on the
absorption, transfer and vertical wicking and drying
properties was found using the independent t-test
since the samples were produced with only two
different tension values whereas the influence of
course, wale and stitch densities on the those
properties mentioned was determined with ANOVA
F test using the SPSS 21 software package.
Moreover, correlation analysis was performed to
determine the strength of the relationship between the
fabric characteristics and the test results. All the
analyses were carried out at 5% level of significance
according to the procedures [40]. Levene’s test was
used in order to decide about the equality of
variances in independent t-test whereas Tukey and
Dunett’s post hoc tests were used in the ANOVA F
test. In order to deduce whether the difference or the
relation is significant, p values were examined. If the
p-value was smaller than 0.05 (p < 0.05) then it was
accepted as statistically significant.
Before the experiments, the samples were
conditioned and then tested under standard
atmospheric conditions 20+2°C and 65%+5 relative
humidity.
Water absorbency of fabric samples was determined
using the method of Mukhopadhyay et al [29]. The
specimens that were cut in circles with 74.5 mm
diameter were dipped in distilled water for 30
minutes. After taking the specimens out of the water,
they were put between two sponge sheets in order to
remove excess water. The weight of specimens was
then measured and the water absorbency was
calculated using Eq. (1).
(1)
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According to Das et al [32], the absorption of water
molecules by fiber increases as the number of
hydrophilic groups increase in the material and the
amount of water taken up by the pores is dependent
on the porosity of the material. The fiber type and
thereby the hydrophilic characteristics did not
change, whereas the stitch densities changed for the
specimens in this study. The correlation coefficients
between the absorption ratio and the stitch density
and the air permeability were found to be (-0.567)
and (0.915) respectively. Thus, it may be stated that
the change in elastane composition and tension
caused a change in the stitch density of the fabric and
so the porosity of the fabric.
RESULTS
The results are given under four titles: absorption,
transfer wicking, vertical wicking and drying.
Absorption Ratio
The Figure 2 shows the absorption ratio of the
fabrics. It was observed that the pattern of change for
absorption ratio of the fabrics produced with lower
tension was similar to the fabrics with higher tension.
Independent t-test result showed that the difference
on the absorption values of the sample groups
produced with different tension was statistically
significant. As seen in Figure 2, this revealed that the
fabrics produced with higher tension values had
higher absorption values than the fabrics produced
with lower tension. On the other hand, the absorption
ratio decreases as the elastane composition increases.
Besides, the correlation coefficient between the
absorption ratio and the elastane composition was
found to be (-0.746) with the p-value (0.000). Thus
the combined effect of tension increase and elastane
composition decrease caused an improvement of the
absorption of the compression garment.
Transfer Wicking
Transfer wicking values were obtained for wet and
dry fabrics individually using the difference in the
amount of water at the beginning and at the end of
measurements. Figure 3 shows the transfer wicking
behavior for wet and dry fabrics respectively. It was
seen that the transfer wicking for both wet and dry
fabrics was at a faster pace in the beginning and then
it slowed down and; the fabrics that had higher water
content initially transferred more water during the
transfer wicking process.
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
FIGURE 2. The relationship between Absorption ratio and
Elastane Composition (a) Fabrics Produced at Lower Tension, (b)
Fabric produced with higher tension.
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FIGURE 3. Transfer wicking for wet and dry fabric (a) The
amount of water for wet fabric, (b) The amount of water for dry
fabric.
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This situation can be explained by the statement of
Zhuang et al. [15] which says that a higher external
pressure speeds up the beginning of transfer wicking,
and if the amount of water initially held in fabric
increases, the amount of water transferred increases.
Nonetheless, the amount of liquid transferred was
different for different specimens in accord with the
findings of Zhuang et al [15] who claimed that the
transfer wicking was based on the performance of
individual fabrics and the way they contacted with
each other.
The results of independent t-test confirmed that the
amount of water transferred from wet fabrics changed
with the tension. Moreover, the transfer wicking
results were correlated with the elastane composition
and the air permeability having the correlation
coefficients of (-0.523), (0.686) and the p-values of
(0.009), (0.000) for dry and wet specimens
respectively. Considering the combined effect of
tension and elastane composition on the porosity, it
can be said that, the transfer wicking increased with
the increase in the porosity of the fabrics. This result
is in parallel with the findings of Crow and Osczevski
[33] who stated that the amount of water that wicked
from one layer to another depended on the pore sizes
and their corresponding volumes. Nonetheless, the
amount of the water transferred decreased as the
elastane composition increased for the fabrics that
were produced with higher tension whereas it showed
a complex behavior for fabrics that were produced
with lower tension. This may be attributed to the
external pressure applied during the transfer wicking
experiments since the external pressure applied on
the layers and the amount of initially held in wet
layer are explained to be the two main external
factors that influence transfer wicking of knitted
fabrics according to the study established by Zhuang
et al [15]. The external pressure may have showed its
influence more on the fabrics produced with lower
tension and it may have led to the increase in the
flatness of fiber cross section which might cause a
decrease in the moisture diffusivity through the fabric
[34].
Figure 4 shows the change of transfer wicking
behavior of the fabrics with the tension and elastane
composition. The first column in the figure stands for
the water amount that is transferred or lost by the wet
fabric whereas the second columns stands for the
water amount wicked or gained by the specimens.
(a)
Vertical Wicking
Figure 5 and 6 show the vertical wicking behavior of
fabrics in wale and course direction respectively.
From the figures, it was observed that the wicking
behavior change according to fabric; wicking usually
begins at high rate and then begins to stabilize.
(b)
FIGURE 4. The transfer wicking behavior of dry and wet fabrics
(a) Fabrics Produced at Lower Tension, (b) Fabric produced with
higher tension.
FIGURE 5. Vertical wicking in Wale Direction.
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Besides, the statistical analyses showed that both the
Vertical Wicking in Wales and Vertical Wicking
height in Courses are in a statistically significant
relationship with the elastane composition getting the
correlation coefficients of (0.677) and (0.596) and the
p-values of (0.000) and (0.021). The wicking height
increased with the increase in elastane composition
and decrease in tension. The Vertical Wicking
Heights in Wales and Courses were found to be
correlated with air permeability in a negative way
with the values (-0.625) and (-0.687) with the pvalues (0.001) and (0.000) revealing that the wicking
height decreased with an increase in porosity. This
result may be explained with main driving
mechanism of the vertical wicking, which is based on
the capillary flow of the liquid. It is known that the
flow of liquid moisture through textile materials is
the result of fiber-liquid molecular attraction at the
surface of the fiber materials [35] that is determined
by the surface tension and effective capillary
pathways and pore distribution [36]. This implies the
fact that the discontinuity is more important than
porosity in identification of vertical wicking.
FIGURE 6. Vertical wicking in Course Direction.
The statistical analysis for vertical wicking was done
according to the wicking height at the 5th minute, or
300th second. This time was selected because it was
seen that the vertical wicking still continues at the
fifth minute of the measurement.
Figure 7 shows the relationship between the Vertical
Wicking Behavior in Course and Wales Direction
and the tension and elastane composition. The fabrics
with lower tension had higher wicking heights than
the fabrics with higher tension values. The influence
of the tension on the Vertical Wicking Height in
Wales and Course Directions were confirmed with
the result of the independent t-test.
The pattern of wicking height for the fabrics with
lower tension differed from the pattern of wicking
height for the fabrics with higher tension in a way
that the former is more complex than the latter.
ANOVA F test results confirmed that the difference
in vertical wicking height is significant for different
course densities (F=4.106, p<0.05). No significant
relationship was observed in wales direction
however. This may be explained with the fact that
elastane composition and extension affect the
structure of wales and courses and that influence is
effectual for course densities [12]. As the course
densities increases, the wicking height increases for
the fabric with lower tension. This is expected
because as the fiber gets closer to the non-roundness,
the specific area increases and the proportion of
capillary wall increase [37].
The complex behavior of wicking pattern, on the
other hand, may be attributed to the differences to the
arrangement of fibers and yarn in the fabric [17].
Drying Results
Figure 8 shows the drying behavior of the fabrics.
Although the fabric groups having different tension
values show similar behavior, there is no statistically
significant relationship between the tension and
drying time.
Drying time was found to be in statistically
significant relationship with the elastane composition
with the correlation coefficient of (0.662) and the p-
FIGURE 7. Vertical Wicking Behavior with Elastane Composition
(a) Fabrics Produced at Lower Tension, (b) Fabric produced with
higher tension.
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value of (0.000) and with the air permeability having
the correlation coefficient of (-0.703) and p-value
(0.000). As the elastane composition increased and
porosity decreased, the time needed for the fabrics to
dry increased. This result was similar with the
findings of Prahsarn et al [19] who stated that the
higher the air permeability, the smaller the
microclimate drying time. Besides, the drying
process is related to capillary penetration and
porosity of the fabrics [38].
Besides, the relationship between the initial water
amount of the fabric and drying time was found to be
statistically significant with the correlation
coefficient value of (0.890) and p-value of (0,000).
These results are again in parallel with the findings
from the literature14. The drying time was positively
correlated with mass of water in the fabric [22].
CONCLUSION
This study investigated the influence of the
parameters specifically elastane composition and
tension applied during production on the comfort
characteristics of the compression garments.
Nonetheless, the elastane composition combined with
the tension is known to affect the thickness of the
fabric. The fabrics knitted with elastane yarns with
the higher tension values give higher weight and
thickness [9]. A close relationship was observed
between the thickness values and the drying time
with the correlation coefficient of (0.805) and p-value
of (0.000) stating that as the thickness of the fabrics
increased, the time needed by the fabrics to reach the
water level of 5% increased. Similar results were
obtained in the study, Yanilmaz and Kalaoglu [23].
Moreover, according to Li et al [39], as the fabric
gets thicker, the porosity of the material is reduced
thus the diffusion rate is reduced
The statistical analysis showed that the absorption,
both vertical and transfer wicking and drying
characteristics of the compression garments change
with the tension and elastane composition. The
tension and elastane composition were found to make
that impact on the garments by changing the structure
of the fabrics such as by changing the wale, course
and stitch densities, thickness, weight and the
porosity of the fabrics.
Specifically,
the
absorption
and
wicking
characteristics were found to be closely related with
the porosity of the fabrics whereas the vertical
wicking characteristics were influenced from the
changes in pathways and disturbances of the pores of
the fabric. Drying on the other hand, was found to be
closely related with the thickness and initial water
content of the fabric.
In conclusion, the comfort characteristic can be
improved indirectly by changing the tension and
elastane composition. Nonetheless, this study is
limited with the fabrics that were produced with full
plaiting technique and that differentiate on two
production parameters. Thus, future studies should be
established in order to find out the effects of different
plaiting techniques and other structural characteristics
of the fabric, such as yarn count and fiber type.
(a)
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AUTHORS’ ADDRESSES
Canan Saricam, PhD
Istanbul Technical University
Inonu Cad. No:65
Gumussuyu
Beyoglu
Istanbul 34437
TURKEY
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