APEnvironmentalScienceUnit2Part2BiomesCaseStudies
Readthefollowingcasestudiesbyclickingonthelinksorscrollingdownandreadingthembelow.
AnswerthequestionsontheBiomesCaseStudiesStudentsSheet.
1.Temperatedeciduousforest–AirQualityintheGreatSmokyMountainsNationalPark
http://www.nps.gov/grsm/naturescience/air-quality.htm
2.Tropicalrainforest-“DeforestationofMadagascar”
http://www.wildmadagascar.org/conservation/threats.html
3.Temperaterainforest–“EthicsandtheSpottedOwlControversy”
http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/iie/v4n1/
4.BorealForest–ThreatstotheBorealForest
http://www.borealbirds.org/threats-canadian-boreal-forest
5.Tundra–TheAlaskaPipeline
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pipeline/peopleevents/e_environment.html
6.DesertThreats
http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/desert-threats/
http://www.defenders.org/desert/threats
7.Chaparral/Mediterraneanhabitatthreats–
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/california_chaparral_woodlands.cfm
http://www.bioexpedition.com/chaparral-biome/
8.ThreatstoGrasslands
http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/grassland-threats/
http://www.defenders.org/grasslands/temperate-grasslands
TemperateDeciduousForest-theGreatSmokeyMountains
Airpollutionisshrinkingscenicviews,damagingplants,anddegradinghighelevationstreamsandsoils
intheGreatSmokyMountains.Evenhumanhealthisatrisk.Mostpollutionoriginatesoutsidethepark
andiscreatedbypowerplants,industry,andautomobiles.
Researchandmonitoringconductedintheparkhasshownthatairbornepollutantsemittedfrommostly
outsidetheSmokiesaredegradingparkresourcesandvisitorenjoyment.Theburningoffossilfuels—
coal,oil,andgas—causesmostofthepollution.Inadequatepollutioncontrolequipmentinpowerplants,
factories,andautomobilesistheprimaryproblem.
WindcurrentsmovingtowardthesouthernAppalachianstransportpollutantsfromurbanareas,
industrialsites,andpowerplantslocatedbothnearandfar.Theheightandphysicalstructureofthe
mountains,combinedwithpredominantweatherpatterns,tendtotrapandconcentratehuman-made
pollutantsinandaroundthenationalpark.
ShrinkingViews
ViewsfromscenicoverlooksatGreatSmokyMountainsNationalParkhavebeenseriouslydegradedover
thelast50yearsbyhuman-madepollution.Since1948,basedonregionalairportrecords,average
visibilityinthesouthernAppalachianshasdecreased40%inwinterand80%insummer.These
degradationsinvisibilitynotonlyaffecthowfaronecanseefromascenicoverlook,theyalsoreducehow
wellonecansee.Pollutioncausescolorstoappearwashedoutandobscureslandscapefeatures.
Pollutiontypicallyappearsasauniformwhitishhaze,differentfromthenaturalmist-likecloudsfor
whichtheSmokieswerenamed.
Theburningoffossilfuelsproducestinyairbornesulfateparticles,whichscatterlightanddegrade
visibility.Increasingly,visitorsnolongerseedistantmountainridgesbecauseofthishaze.Annual
averagevisibilityatGreatSmokyMountainsNationalParkis25miles,comparedtonaturalconditionsof
93miles.Duringseverehazeepisodes,visibilityhasbeenreducedtounderonemile.Sulfate
concentrationsincreasedintheregionby27%from1984-1999.Electricity-generatingpowerplantsare
thesourceofmostsulfates.
Ina1996survey,74%ofsummervisitorstotheSmokiessaidcleanairwas“extremelyimportant”to
themduringtheirstayinthepark;84%saidscenicviewswere“extremelyimportant.”
Ground-levelOzonePollutionThreatensPeople,Plants
Anotherairqualityproblem,ozonepollution,threatenshumanhealthandparkplants.Nottobeconfused
withthenaturallyoccurring,beneficialozonelayerwhichfiltersthesun’sultravioletrays,groundlevel
ozoneisacolorlessgascreatedwhennitrogenoxidesmixwithhydrocarbonsinthepresenceofsunlight.
Powerplants,automobiles,andfactoriesarethemainproducersofnitrogenoxides.Mostozonepollution
originatesoutsidetheparkandtravelstotheSmokiesonprevailingwinds.
OzoneexposuresintheparkareamongthehighestintheEastandinrecentyearshaveexceededlevels
thatthreatenhumanhealth.Onaverage,ozonelevelsovertheridgetopsoftheparkareuptotwotimes
higherthaninnearbycities,includingKnoxvilleandAtlanta.
Ozoneisapowerfulrespiratoryirritantforhumans.Researchshowsthatozonecancausecoughing,
sinusinflammation,chestpains,scratchythroat,evenpermanentdamagetolungtissueandreduced
immunesystemfunctions.Children,theelderly,peoplewithexistinghealthproblems,andactiveadults
aremostvulnerable.
Ozonelevelsareinjuringtreesandotherplants.Thirtyspeciesofplantsshowedleafdamageafterbeing
exposedtocontrolledozonelevelsidenticaltothosethatoccurinthepark.Tofurtherquantifyozone
injurytoplants,permanentmonitoringplotsweresetupinthepark.Ingeneral,researchershavefound
thatozoneexposureanddamagetoplantsareworseatthehigherelevations.Theyhavealso
documentedthatupto90%ofblackcherrytreesandmilkweedplantsinnumerousparklocationsshow
symptomsofozonedamage.Someoftheotherplantsthatshowozonedamagesymptomsincludetulip
tree,sassafras,wingedsumac,blackberry,andcutleafconeflower.
AcidRain,AcidClouds,andNitrogenOverload
PlantsandanimalsinGreatSmokyMountainsNationalParkarealsothreatenedbyairbornesulfurand
nitrogenpollution.Theparkreceivesthehighestsulfurandnitrogendepositsofanymonitorednational
park.Thesepollutantsfalltothegroundnotonlyasacidrain,butalsoasdryparticlesandcloudwater.
Theaverageacidity(pH)ofrainfallintheparkis4.5,5-10timesmoreacidicthannormalrainfall(5.05.6).Cloudswithacidityaslowas2.0pHbathethehighelevationforestsduringpartofthegrowing
season.
Researchshowsthatcertainhighelevationsoilsintheparkarereceivingsomuchairbornenitrogenthat
theyaresufferingfromadvancednitrogensaturation.Thisconditionlimitstheavailabilityofforest
nutrients,especiallycalcium,toplantsandcausesthereleaseoftoxicaluminumthatcanhurtvegetation
andstreamlife.Mountainstreamsandforestsoilsarebeingacidifiedtothepointthatthehealthofthe
park’shighelevationecosystemsisinjeopardy.Nitratelevelsinsomestreamsareapproachingthepublic
healthstandardfordrinkingwater.
Federalmandatesforcleanair
CongresspassedtheCleanAirActin1970,establishingnationalpolicyforpreserving,protecting,and
enhancingairquality.The1977amendmentsdesignatedallnationalparksthatexceed6,000acresas
mandatoryClassIareasworthyofthegreatestdegreeofairqualityprotectionundertheAct.Alsounder
theAct,Congressmandatesthefederallandmanager(DepartmentofInteriorAssistantSecretaryfor
Fish,Wildlife,andParks,inthecaseoftheSmokies)to“protectair-qualityrelatedvalues,”including
visibility,flora,fauna,surfacewater,ecosystems,andhistoricresources.Itfurtherdirectstheland
managerto“assumeanaggressiveroleinprotectingtheairqualityvaluesoflandareasunderhis
jurisdiction...Incasesofdoubtthelandmanagershoulderronthesideofprotectingtheairqualityrelatedvaluesforfuturegenerations.”
FindingSolutions
UndertheCleanAirAct,theNationalParkServiceisinvitedtocommentonstateairqualitypermit
applicationsformajorfactories,powerplants,andotherairpollutionsourcesproposedforlocationnear
ClassIareas.Since1980,theParkServicehassentcommentstonearbystateandlocalagenciesonover
twodozenpermitapplicationscoveringnewpollutionsourcesnearthepark.TheParkServicehas
workedwithstateauthoritiestotrytoensurethatanyincreasesinpollutionbe“offset”byreductionsin
pollutantoutputelsewhere,andthatthebestavailablecontroltechnologybeusedtominimizethe
amountofnewpollutionproduced.
In1992,theU.S.InteriorDepartmentAssistantSecretaryforFish,Wildlife,andParksrecommendedthat
airpollutionpermittingauthoritiesinfiveneighboringstatesnotissuepermitsfornewmajorpollution
sourceswithin120milesoftheparkunlessmeasuresaretakentopreventincreasingimpactsonpark
resources.
Alsoin1992,theSouthernAppalachianMountainsInitiative(SAMI)wasestablishedasacomprehensive
approachtoimprovingregionalairquality.SAMIisavoluntary,multi-organizationalinitiativechargedto
curtailtheadverseeffectsofairpollutiononthesouthernAppalachians,particularlyinClassIareas.
Membersincludestateandfederalagencies,environmentalgroups,andindustryandutility
representatives.However,untiltheSAMIcompletesitswork,andeffectiveregionalsolutionsare
developedandadopted,theParkServicewillcontinuetoactonindividualpermitsonacase-by-case
basistopreventairpollutionfromworsening.Thelackofanemissionsoffsetrequirementishindering
theairqualityprotectioneffortsforthepark.
ParkServicePosition
ItisthepositionoftheNationalParkServicethatnewemissionpermitsforindustriesandutilitiesinthe
regionthatwilladverselyimpacttheparkshouldbegrantedonlywhen“bestavailablecontrol
technology”isplannedandwhenoffsetreductionsaretakentopreventanynetincreaseinpollutants.
TheParkServicealsosupportsthestrictestpossiblestateregulationsonautoandotheremissions,which
contributetotheproblem.
TheParkServiceisworkingwithstateregulatoryagencies,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,and
industrialandutilityintereststodevelopacomprehensiveplantopreventfuturedamagethroughsuch
measuresasoffsetprograms,theuseofimprovedtechnology,anddeterminationofemissioncapsand
governmentstandardsforvariouspollutants.Toremedyairpollutionproblemsatthepark,additional
reductionsofnitrogenoxidesandsulfurdioxidearenecessary.
Whatyoucando:
•Conserveenergyinthehomeandworkplace
•Useenergy-efficientappliancesandformsoftransportation
•Keepyourmotorvehiclesingoodoperatingcondition
•Letgovernmentofficialsknowthatairqualityisimportanttoyou.
EthicsandtheEnvironmentTemperateRainForest
TheSpottedOwlControversy
ClaireAndreandManuelVelasquez
Forhundredsofyears,ahandsome,dark-brownowlwithwhitespotshasmadeitshomeinthelush,"oldgrowth"forestsofthePacificNorthwest.Underthemultilayeredcanopiesofthese200-year-oldforests,
theowl,knownasthenorthernspottedowl,hasfedofftherichplantandinvertebratelifecreatedby
decayingtimberandhasnestedinthecavitiesofoldtrunks.Butthetoweringcedars,firs,hemlocks,and
spruces,whichhaveservedastheowl'shabitat,alsohavebecomeaprimarysourceoftimberforamultibilliondollarloggingindustry.Overthelast150years,asaresultofheavylogging,theseancientforests
havedwindled.Onlyabout10%oftheforestsremain,mostonfederallyownedlands.Andastheforests
havedwindled,sotoohasthenumberofspottedowls.Biologistsestimatethatonly2,000pairssurvive
today.
In1986,aworriedenvironmentalistgrouppetitionedtheU.S.FishandWildlifeServicetolisttheowlas
an"endangeredspecies,"amovethatwouldbarthetimberindustryfromclearingtheselands.InJune
1990,afteryearsofheatednegotiationandlitigationbetweenthegovernment,environmentalists,and
thetimberindustry,thenorthernspottedowlwasdeclaredathreatenedspecies.Underthisprovision,
timbercompaniesarerequiredtoleaveatleast40%oftheold-growthforestsintactwithina1.3mile
radiusofanyspottedowlnestoractivitysite,aprovisionthatisvehementlyopposedbythetimber
industry.IndustryrepresentativesclaimthatthemeasurewillleavethousandsofNorthwestloggersand
millworkersjobless,andinsistthatsuchprotectionistpoliciesthoughtlesslyfailtotakeintoaccountthe
direeconomicconsequencesofpreservation.Environmentalists,ontheotherhand,arguethatsociety
hasafundamentalobligationtopreservethisrarespeciesandthewildernessitinhabits.
Thecontroversyoverthenorthernspottedowlfollowsontheheelsofdebatesoverdolphins,whales,
snaildarters,anddeserttortoises,eachraisingquestionsconcerningsociety'sobligationtoprotect
animalsthreatenedbyextinction.Inthecaseofthespottedowl,wemustaskwhetherandtowhatextent
preservingendangeredspeciesandthewildernesstheyinhabitshouldtakeprecedenceoverother
considerations,suchasmajoreconomicdislocations.
WeighingtheCostsandBenefits
Fromtheenvironmentalists'perspective,thebenefitsofpreservingthenorthernspottedowlandits
habitatfaroutweighanyofthecosts.First,savingthespottedowlwillsaveanentireecosystemonwhich
plants,otheranimals,andhumansdepend.Thespottedowlisconsideredanindicatorspecies--agauge
ofthehealthoftheecosystemthatprovidesitshabitat.Thesteadydeclineofthisspeciessignalsthe
demiseofotherspecies,suchaselkandflyingsquirrelthatinhabittheseforestsandthedisruptionofthe
productiveforcesofnaturethatsustainhumanlife.Theancientforestsandthelifetheyharborforma
complexwebofinterdependentrelationshipsthatplayacriticalroleinpreventingsoilerosion,floods,
andlandslides,providingcleanwaterforagricultureandcities,enhancingtheproductivityofsalmon
fisheries,enrichingthesoilwithvitalnutrients,andamelioratingthegreenhouseeffect.Noamountof
reforestationcanreplacethishighlydevelopedanddiversesystem,whichhastakenmillenniatoevolve.
Second,societyoughttopreservethisspeciesandtheuniqueecosystemitrepresentsbecauseoftheir
aestheticvalue.Whatkindofsocietywouldtradethemagnificenceofthesevirginforestsandthe
splendorofthelifethatinhabitsthem--owl,elk,baldeagles,andmountaingoats--forpapercupsand
two-by-fours?Toallowsuchatradeoffisequivalenttodestroyingagreatworkofartthathastaken
centuriestocreate,andthatwillbeasourceofrichexperienceforgenerationsofhikers,backpackers,
bird-watchers,andmillionsofothersseekinganaturalworldawayfromourteemingconcretecities.
Finally,theowlanditshabitatareofimmensescientificvalue,providingopportunitiesforinquiryandfor
increasingourunderstandingofthisuniqueecosystemanditsroleinourlivesandinthoseoffuture
generations.Todate,littleresearchhasbeendoneontheseforests.Toallowtheirdemiseisto
permanentlyforeclosethepossibilityofexplorationandthebenefitsgeneratedbynewdiscoveries.Had
theobscureorganismknownaspenicillinbecomeextinctbeforeitsdiscovery,millionsofhumanlives
wouldhavebeenlost.Whoknowswhatsecretstheseforestsmayhold?
Environmentalistsadmitthatsavingtheowls'habitatcouldcostjobs.But,theyargue,thesejobswill
vanishnomatterwhat.Forifcuttingcontinuesatitscurrentrateof125,000acresayear,theold-growth
forestswillbegonewithinthirtyyearsandthemillsforcedtocloseanyhow.Manyofthejobsinthe
PacificNorthwestcouldbesavedsimplybyrestrictingtheexportofrawtimber,apracticedrivenbythe
higherprofitsmadethroughsalesoutsideoftheU.S.In1988,nearly4billionboardfeetofrawlogswere
exportedfromWashingtonandOregon.HadthoselogsbeenprocessedintheU.S.,thousandsofjobs
couldhavebeengenerated.
Thetimberindustry,ontheotherhand,maintainsthatthebenefitsofsavingthespottedowlare
negligiblecomparedtotheharmthatwillbedone.Reducedloggingintheold-growthforestswillharm
allAmericansandbeparticularlydevastatingtocommunitiesinthePacificNorthwest.Theseforestsare
aprimarysourceoftimberformostindependentlumbermillsintheNorthwest,whichaccountforabout
65%ofWesternwood.Manyofthesawmillsareentirelydependentonold-growthcutsbecausetheir
equipmentcanonlyhandletreeswithlargedimensions.Accordingtoonereport,ifthevolumeofold
growthdeclines,upto28,000jobscouldbelost,leadingto"increasedratesofdomesticdisputes,divorce,
actsofviolence,delinquency,vandalism,suicide,alcoholism,andotherproblems."Nationwide,consumer
pricesforwoodproductswillrisesubstantially.And,lumber-poornations,suchasJapan,whichdepend
onmassiveamountsoftimberfromtheU.S.,willsuffer.
Second,timberindustryofficialsstatethatcuttingtheoldgrowthisessentialifpresentandfuture
generationsaretobeprovidedwiththewoodandpaperproductstheyneed.Oncethesetreeshave
reachedtheirmaturity,mostoftheirenergyisspentsimplymaintainingthemselves,ratherthaninnew
growth.Itisinsociety'sbestinteresttoreplacethesestaticforestswithhealthy,youngtreesthatwill
provideanadequatesupplyoftimber.
Theindustrycounterstheenvironmentalists'claimthatpreservationmeasuresoughttobesupported
becauseoftheaesthetic,scientific,andecologicalbenefitsthatwouldresult.Hundredsofthousandsof
acresofold-growthforests,theyargue,havealreadybeensetasideasnationalparksandwilderness
areas.HalfofOregon'sthreemillionacresofoldgrowthisnotbeingloggedbecauseithasbeen
designatedaswildernessorisunsuitableforlogging.Also,loggingsitesarecontinuallybeingreforested.
Oldgrowthandsecond-growthforestsprovideampleopportunitiesfor"aestheticexperiences,"
recreation,andbiologicalexploration.Moreover,ourdesireforaestheticexperiencesorthevaluewe
placeonthepursuitofknowledgeshouldnotbeallowedtooverridemorebasicneedsofpersons,suchas
theneedforjobsorhousing.
Thetimberindustrydisputestheenvironmentalists'callfortheuseofalternativesourcesofwood.
Second-growthwood,theypointout,islessstrong,andisknottyandtwisted.Itcan'tbeusedtoproduce
manyproducts,suchasfinefurnitureandmusicalinstruments,requiringthehighqualityoldgrowth
woodthatischaracterizedbyfine,straightlinesandfewknots.Untilsubstitutescanbefound,societyhas
nochoicebuttorelyonwoodfromold-growthforests.
AnimalRights
Preservationistsalsodefendtheircaseonthebasisofanimalrights.Everylivingcreature,theyargue,has
arighttolife.Anowl,likeanyotheranimal,isthesubjectofalifethathasintrinsicvalue.Todeliberately
destroythisanimal'shabitatviolatesitsrighttoexist.
Thoseopposingprotectionistpoliciesclaimthatwhilehumansmayhaveadutytopreventunnecessary
harmtoanimals,theyarenotobligedtoforegotheirowninterestsinordertoprotecttheinterestsof
animals.Weslaughtercattle,pigs,andsheeptomeetourneeds.Whyshouldanowl,whosehabitatisa
sourceofmaterialneededforhousing,begivenspecialconsideration?
ADutytoPreserveRareSpecies
Someenvironmentalistscounterthatwealsohaveanobligationtopreservespecies.Aspeciesrepresents
avital,non-reproduciblecombinationofgeneticprocessesthathasevolvedovermillionsofyears.Ithas
anintegrityandpotentialityofitsown,manifestinitsuniquestagesofdevelopmentanditsintriguing
adaptiontotheenvironmentaroundit.Therarityofsomespecies,suchastheregalspottedowl,only
increasesitsvalue.Wehaveadutytoprotectsuchgeneticallyuniquespeciesandtoensuretheir
continuedexistence.
Opponentsofprotectionistpoliciesreplythatitmakesnosensetosaythatwehaveadutytopreserve
speciesbecausespeciesisonlyacategoryinventedbyhumanstogroupindividualmembers.Inreality,
thereareonlyindividualanimalsthataremembersofaspecies.And,theinterestsoftheseindividual
animalsmustsometimesbeoverriddenbytheweightierinterestsofindividualhumanbeings.
Moreover,simplybecausesomethingisraredoesn'tmeanitismoredeservingofpreservation.Leprosyis
rare,butwedon'tvalueit.Rarityonlyintensifiesthevalueofvaluablethings.Finally,itisargued,the
extinctionofspeciesisanaturalandnormalevent.Arecentreportonendangeredspeciesestimatesthat
bytheyear2000,600,000plantsandanimalswillbecomeextinct.Extinctionscausedbythepracticesof
humans,whoarepartofnature,arenomore"unnatural"thanextinctionscausedbyotherpredators.
Asgovernmentofficials,environmentalists,andindustryrepresentativesworkoutthedetailsof
implementingthenewregulationsdesignedtopreservetheowl,wecanexpectthedebateoverthe
spottedowltosubside.Buttheethicalissuesitraiseswillrepeatedlyappearasournaturalresources
dwindle.Howweresolvetheseissueswilldependonhowweweightheecological,aesthetic,and
scientificbenefitsofpreservation,therightsofanimals,andanobligationtopreservespecies,against
economicinterestsandhumanneeds.
TropicalRainForest-
Madagascarisamongtheworld'spoorestcountries.Assuch,people'sday-to-daysurvivalisdependent
uponnaturalresourceuse.MostMalagasyneverhaveanoptiontobecomedoctors,sportsstars,factory
workers,orsecretaries;theymustliveoffthelandthatsurroundsthem,makinguseofwhatever
resourcestheycanfind.Theirpovertycoststhecountryandtheworldthroughthelossoftheisland's
endemicbiodiversity.
DEFORESTATION
DeforestationinMadagascarislargelytheresultofthreeactivities:
Tavyorslash-and-burnagriculture
TavyisthelifebloodofMalagasycultureandtheMalagasyeconomy.Tavyismostlyused
forconvertingtropicalrainforestsinMadagascarintoricefields.Typically,anacreortwoofforest
iscut,burned,andthenplantedwithrice.Afterayearortwoofproductionthefieldisleftfallow
forfourtosixyearsbeforetheprocessisrepeated.Aftertwoorthreesuchcycles,thesoilis
exhaustedofnutrientsandthelandislikelycolonizedbyscrubvegetationoraliengrasses.On
slopes,thenewvegetationisofteninsufficienttoanchorsoils,makingerosionandlandslidesa
problem.
TavyisthemostexpedientwayformanyMalagasytoprovidefortheirfamilies,andwhereday-todaysubsistenceisaquestionthereislittleconcernforthelong-termconsequencesoftheactions.
Fromthisperspective,aslongasthereismoreforestlandfreelyavailableforclearing,youmight
aswellusethelandbeforeaneighbordoes.Tavyforricealsohasspiritualandculturaltiesthat
transcendtheeconomicandnutritionalvalueofriceasacrop.
Loggingfortimber
LoggingfortimberisespeciallyaproblemintherainforestsofeasternMadagascar,particularlyon
theMasoalapeninsula.ThehighvalueforMalagasyhardwoods(mostlyebonyandrosewood,
whichmayfetch$2,000atonininternationalmarkets)makesillegalloggingasignificantproblem
insomeprotectedareas.
Fuelwoodandcharcoalproduction
TheendemicspinyforestsofMadagascararebeingcutatanalarmingrateforcharcoal
production.Inekingoutalivingsellinglittlepilesofcharcoalalongroadsinsouthwestern
Madagascar,localpeopleturntowardsthenearestplantsource,whichinthiscaseis
oftenAlluaudiatrees.
AGRICULTURALFIRES
EveryyearasmuchasathirdofMadagascarburns.Firessetforland-clearingandpasturelandspread intoadjacentwildlands,causingdamagetotheisland'suniqueecosystems.
EROSION
WithitsriversrunningbloodredandstainingthesurroundingIndianOcean,astronautshaveremarked
thatitlookslikeMadagascarisbleedingtodeath.Thisinsightfulobservationhighlightsoneof
Madagascar'sgreatestenvironmentalproblems—soilerosion.DeforestationofMadagascar'scentral
highlands,plusweatheringfromnaturalgeologicandsoilconditions,hasresultedinwidespreadsoil
erosion,whichinsomeareasmaytop400tons/haperyear.ForMadagascar,acountrythatrelieson
agriculturalproductionforthefoundationofitseconomy,thelossofthissoilisespeciallycostly.
OVEREXPLOITATIONOFLIVINGRESOURCES
Madagascar'snativespecieshavebeenaggressivelyhuntedandcollectedbypeopledesperatelyseeking
toprovidefortheirfamilies.Whileithasbeenillegaltokillorkeeplemursaspetssince1964,lemursare
huntedtodayinareaswheretheyarenotprotectedbylocaltaboos(fady).Tenrecsandcarnivoresare
alsowidelyhuntedasasourceofprotein.
Reptilesandamphibiansareenthusiasticallycollectedfortheinternationalpettrade.Chameleons,
geckos,snakes,andtortoisesarethemosttargeted.
ThewatersaroundMadagascarserveasarichfisheryandareanimportantsourceofincomefor
villagers.Unfortunately,fishingispoorlyregulated.Foreignfishingboatsencroachonartisanalfishing
areastothedetrimentoflocalsandthemarinefauna.Sharks,seacucumbers,andlobstermaybe
harvestedatincreasinglyunsustainablerates.
INTRODUCTIONOFALIENSPECIES
TheintroductionofalienspecieshasdoomedmanyofMadagascar'sendemicspecies.Thebestexample
ofdamagewroughtbyintroducedspeciescanbefoundintheisland'sriversandlakes.Adaptableand
aggressivetilapia,introducedasafoodfish,havedisplacedthenativecichlids.
ThereisreallylittleusebemoaningpastenvironmentaldegradationinMadagascar.Nowtheconcern
shouldbehowtoslowthisecologicaldeclineandhowtobestutilizelandsalreadydegradedsothey
supportproductiveactivitiestodayandforfuturegenerations.Withoutimprovingthewell-beingofthe
averageMalagasy,wecannotexpectMadagascar'swildlandstopersistasfullyfunctionalsystemsand
continuetocatertotheneedsoftheirpeople.
THREATSTOTHEBOREALFOREST
Severalformsofindustrialdevelopmentareincreasingpressureontheborealforest
Industrialdevelopmentisandwillcontinuetobeanimportantsourceofjobsandincomeformany
communitiesthroughouttheborealforest.
However,alongwithclimatechange,developmentposeslong-termimplicationsonthefuturehealthof
theborealforest.Thefootprintofnaturalresourceextractionindustriestheborealforestalready
encompassesanareaofatleast730,000km2(180millionacres),largelyfromforestry,hydropower,
miningindustries,andoilandgasextraction.
Morethan30%oftheCanadianBorealForesthasbeenreservedforsomeformofcurrentorfuture
industrialdevelopmentoverall.Newresourceroadsarepushingfurtherandfurthernorthintotheheart
oftheborealeachyear,demonstratingtheneedtoconservelargeportionsoftheforesttocreatea
balanceintheborealforest.
Herearethe4primarytypesofindustrialactivitytakingplaceintheborealinnoparticularorder:
1
LOGGING
Between1990and2008,around46millionacresofforestwereharvestedinCanadaatanaverageof
morethan2.5millionacresperyear,withhistoricratesestimatingaround65%comingfromtheboreal
forest.MorethanhalfofCanada'sborealforestproductsgodirectlytotheUnitedStates,withthe
majoritycomingintheformofpulpforpaperandmanufacturing.Harvestrateshaveslowedinrecent
years,howevertheextentofborealforestreservedforfuturetimberoperationsmeansthatlong-term
planningandsustainablemanagementisneeded.
Therearesignsforhopewhenitcomestotimberharvestpracticesintheboreal.TheForestStewardship
Councilprovidesthird-partysustainablecertificationandevenoffersaboreal-specificstandard.More
than100millionacresofborealforestfallunderaformofsustainablecertification,ensuringthatthese
forestproductsareremovedwithcareandaneyeonecologicalhealth.Additionally,the
historicCanadianBorealForestAgreement—anagreementbetween19forestcompaniesand9
environmentalorganizationsthatwassignedin2010—sawnearly110millionacresplacedintospecial
sustainabilitymanagementareasandthesuspensionofoperationsonadditional72millionacrestoallow
fordecliningwoodlandcariboupopulationstostabilize.
2
MINING
Formorethan200years,explorershavebeensettingoutupontheborealforestwiththehopesof
discoveringmineralriches.Manyofthemdid,andtothisdayminingcontinuestoplayalargeroleinthe
Canadianeconomy.Unfortunately,manyofthesemineswereconstructedwithlittletonoenvironmental
oversightorwiththelong-termhealthoftheforestinmind.Today,morethan7,000abandonedmines
canbefoundscatteredthroughouttheforest,withmorethan3,000ofthemwithin1kilometer(0.62
miles)ofalake,river,orstream.Somewereleftinsuchbadconditionthatcontaminantscouldstillbe
foundleakingintonearbywaterwaysdecadesafterclosure.
Manyprovincesstillfeatureantiquated'free-entry'miningsystems.Theseessentiallypermitmineral
stakingalmostanywhereintheborealforestand,inmanycases,giveswhoeverownsthosestaked
tenurestheprimaryrightsoverusingthelandregardlessofwhoorwhatisnearby.Thishasledto
numerousconflictswithnearbyaffectedAboriginalcommunities,whichinmanycaseswereofferedno
sayinapprovingtheprojectsoranytangiblebenefits—jobs,communityfunds,etc.—fromthenew
developments.Alessdiscussedthreatposedbyminingisthe'spiderweb'effectofaccessroads.Inmany
casesaroadtoasingledevelopmentsiteopenstheareauptoanewwaveofexploration,eventually
leadingtoaspider'swebofnewroadsanddevelopmentsinthesurroundingareaovertime.
3
OIL&GAS
Whenmostpeoplethinkofoilextractionintheborealforest,they'rethinkingabouttheoilsandsregions
ofAlbertaandSaskatchewan.Thiswide-sweepingregioncontainsbitumen(whichcanbeprocessedinto
oil)belowthesurfacewhereitisextractedvialargestripminesornetworksofpipesthatpumpitoutof
thegroundusingsteam.Oilsandsactivityhasalreadydirectlyimpacted175,000acresofAlberta'sboreal
forestwiththepotentialtogrowmuchlargerinthecomingdecades.Morethan66%ofthe140,000km2(34million-acre)regionhasbeenleasedtocompaniesforextraction.
However,oilsandsextractionisfarfromtheonlythreattotheborealforestwhenitcomestooilandgas.
Morethan155,000activegaswellsarecurrentlyoperatinginCanada'sborealforestwhileanadditional
117,000gaswellsremainscatteredthroughouttheboreal,around87ofwhichfallwithin5kilometers
(3.1miles)ofalakeorriver.Thewesternborealhasbeenhardesthit,withexpansiveregionsinBritish
Columbia,theNorthwestTerritories,Alberta,andSaskatchewanalreadyexperiencingheavydrillingwith
morewellsplannedforthefuture.
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HYDRO
Althoughoftenthoughtofasarelatively'green'formofenergyproductioncomparedtooilor
coal,hydroelectricdevelopmentcomeswithitsownfairshareofenvironmentalconcerns.Migratoryfish,
includingsalmonandothers,becomeblockedfromaccessingtheirspawninggroundsupriver.Decreases
inwaterflowoftenleadtoincreasesinthedistanceofsaltwaterintrusionintorivermouthsaswellas
slumpinganderosionofriverbanksdownstream.Andtheareasabovedamsthatbecomefloodedwith
waterremovelargeareasofproductivehabitatforawiderangeofspecies—fromfishandbirdstolarge
mammalssuchascaribouandwolves.
Canada'sborealforesthasbeenconsiderablyaffectedbyhydroelectricdevelopmenttodate.Morethan
625largedamsarecurrentlyproducinghydropoweracrossCanada,withatleast40%ofproduction
comingfromriversoriginatinginorflowingthroughtheborealforest.Largedamshavebeenestimated
tohaveaffectedmorethan130,000kilometers(80,000miles)ofrivers,whilemorethan52,000
km2(12.9millionacres)ofterrestrialhabitathasbeenlostduetoassociatedfloodingabovedams.
Tundra
UnifyinginOpposition
Differentconservationgroupshaddifferentobjectives,butthe800-mileTrans-Alaskapipelineproject
ralliedtheenvironmentalcommunityinawaynootherprojecthaddonebefore.Thegroups'common
goalwastochallengethegovernmentonlegalground,usingthenewlypassedNationalEnvironmental
PolicyActof1969,abasiccharterfortheprotectionoftheenvironment.
DelayingConstruction
Theenvironmentalistswenttofederalcourtclaimingtheoilcompanieshadprovidedneitheran
adequateenvironmentalimpactstudynoranyalternativeplansasrequiredbyfederallaw.Thejudge
ruledinfavoroftheenvironmentalists.Fornearlyfouryears,theywereabletodelayconstruction,until
theoilcompaniescameupwithacomprehensiveimpactstudyandadesignthattookintoaccountthe
environmentandtheneedtoprotectwildlife.Forexample,theengineerswerecompelledtodesigna
pipelinethatdidn'tdamageAlaska'sdelicatepermafrost.
AssessingthePipeline'sPerformance
It'sadifficulttasktowriteanunbiasedreportcardofthepipeline'sperformance.Itdependsonwhether
youaskoilindustryexperts,governmentofficialsorenvironmentalists.Theanswersarealwaysdifferent.
In30yearsofoperationtheTrans-AlaskaPipelineSystemhashaditsshareofmishaps.Apumpstation
blewupin1977,spilling300barrelsofoil.In2001amanshotaholeinthepipeline;beforethehole
couldbeplugged,nearly300,000gallonsofoilhadbeendumpedintothewilderness.Andin2002,a7.9
magnitudeearthquakedamagedseveralverticalsupportsthatholdthepipeinplace.Some
conservationistsandwatchdogssaythereisatleastonespilladay,whileoilindustryexpertshailthe
pipelineasoneoftheworld'scleanest.
TheImpactonCaribou
OneparticularconcernwastoprotectAlaskanwildlife.Conservationistshadfearedtheworstforcaribou
herds.Theybelievedthepipelinewoulddisrupttheanimals'migrationroutes.Whentheengineers
designedthepipe,theyadded554elevatedsections(tenfeethigh)sotheanimalscouldcrossunder.The
engineersalsoburiedthepipein23locationssothecariboucouldcrossoverit.Again,reportsofhowthe
cariboufaredaredifferent.Oilindustryexpertssaycariboupopulationshavedoubled,whilesome
wildlifebiologistssaythiscouldbeduetolongtermfactorslikeclimatechange.
ADisastrousSpill
Criticsofthepipelineproposalrepeatedlypointedoutthelargelyunexaminedrisksofmarinespillsin
theplan.Butnooneseemstodenythatthebiggestoversightintheprojectwastheoceanlinkbetween
Valdez,theTrans-Alaskapipeline'smarineterminalinsouthernAlaska,andthelower48states.In1989
theExxonValdezwentagroundonBlighReefnearValdez,spilling11milliongallonsofcrudeintothe
pristinewatersofPrinceWilliamSound,threateningsalmon,birds,whales,seaotters,andbaldeagles.It
wastheworstoilspillinU.S.history.Sincetheaccident,alltankersarerequiredtohavedoublehulls.
Some32,000people,includingcommercialfishers,foodprocessorsandAlaskaNatives,arestillbattlingit
outincourtforasettlement.Theyareseeking$4.6billioninpunitivedamages,anamountExxonsaysis
excessive.
LegacyofProtectedWilderness
AftertheTrans-Alaskapipelinewascompletedinthelate1970s,therewasafrenzyofinterestin
preservingwildernessareasinAlaska.Inparticular,conservationistsfocusedonlandssetasideforstudy
aspartoftheAlaskaNativeClaimsSettlementActof1971.Section17,claused(2)ofthatlawallowedthe
U.S.SecretaryoftheInteriortosetasidelandtobeconsideredfornationalpark,wilderness,ornational
foreststatus.Therewerestillmillionsofacresofunreservedland.Thecrusadetosavethesewilderness
areasbecameasuccessfulnationwidegrassrootscampaign.ItwouldtakenineyearsforCongresstopass
theAlaskaNationalInterestLandsConservationAct,butin1980,104millionacresoflandcameunder
federalprotection.ThelegislationconstitutedthegreatestactofwildernesspreservationinAmerican
history.
Deserts
It'shardtoimaginethatglobalwarmingwouldhavemucheffectontheworld'salreadyhotdeserts.But
evensmallchangesintemperatureorprecipitationcoulddrasticallyimpactplantsandanimalslivingin
thedesert.Insomecasesglobalwarmingispredictedtoincreasetheareaofdeserts,whichalreadycover
aquarterofEarth.
Humanactivitiessuchasfirewoodgatheringandthegrazingofanimalsarealsoconvertingsemiarid
regionsintodeserts,aprocessknownasdesertification.Populationgrowthandgreaterdemandforland
areseriousobstaclesintheefforttocombatthisproblem.
Threats
Globalwarmingisincreasingtheincidenceofdrought,whichdriesupwaterholes.
Highertemperaturesmayproduceanincreasingnumberofwildfiresthatalterdesertlandscapesby
eliminatingslow-growingtreesandshrubsandreplacingthemwithfast-growinggrasses.
Irrigationusedforagriculture,mayinthelongterm,leadtosaltlevelsinthesoilthatbecometoohighto
supportplants.
Grazinganimalscandestroymanydesertplantsandanimals.
Potassiumcyanideusedingoldminingmaypoisonwildlife.
Off-roadvehicles,whenusedirresponsibly,cancauseirreparabledamagetodeserthabitats.
Oilandgasproductionmaydisruptsensitivehabitat.
Nuclearwastemaybedumpedindeserts,whichhavealsobeenusedasnucleartestinggrounds.
Solutions
Moreefficientlyuseexistingwaterresourcesandbettercontrolsalinizationtoimprovearidlands.
Findnewwaystorotatecropstoprotectthefragilesoil.
Plantsand-fixingbushesandtrees.
Plantleguminousplants,whichextractnitrogenfromtheairandfixitintheground,torestoresoilfertility.
Useoff-roadvehiclesonlyondesignatedtrailsandroadways
Digartificialgroovesinthegroundtoretainrainfallandtrapwindblownseeds.
CHAPARRALBIOMEDESCRIPTION
Thechaparralbiomeisonethatisfoundinareasofeverysinglecontinent.However,manypeopledon’t
realizeitisthesame.Thatisbecausethereareseveraldifferenttypesofterrainthatthisparticularbiome
isassociatedwith.Insomeareastheyareflatplainsbutinotherregionstherearehills.Stillyet,others
consistofmountainterrainareas.Theyreallyarelovelyareaswithlotstooffer.
Achaparralbiomeiscreatedwhencoolwaterfromanoceanmergeswithalandmassthatisatahigh
temperature.Youwillfindthemabout30to40degreesbelowandabovetheequator.Theyarefoundjust
beyondtheTropicofCancerandtheTropicofCapricorn.Themajorchaparralbiomesarefoundalongthe
coastofBajaandCalifornia.TheyarealsofoundinvariousareasaroundtheMediterraneanSea.
CHAPARRALBIOMECHARACTERISTICS
Withachaparralbiomeyouwillfindthatthereisaverywetwinterandalsoaverydrysummer.The
climatechangesoftenwiththeemergenceofdifferentseasons.Theysummerscanbedryenoughto
createadrought.Thisdryperiodcanextendforuptofivemonthsoutoftheyear.Thesedryconditions
maketheriskoffiresbreakingoutveryhigh.
Thesefiresareusuallytheresultoflightningstrikinginthearea.However,therearetimeswhentheyare
startedbypeoplebeingcareless.Occasionallythosefiresmaybesetintentionallytoo.Whileitcanbe
hardtogetthefiresundercontrol,studiesshowtheyreallyareanessentialpartofcontrollingthe
balanceoflivingthingsinthisparticularbiome.
ThefactthatmanyhomeshavebeenbuiltontheedgesofthesebiomessuchasinCalifornia,itcanbea
hugethreatwhensuchfiresbreakout.Evacuationsmayberequiredandhomesmaybedamagedor
destroyed.Evenso,manypeoplelovethebeautyofthechaparralbiomeandwanttobeabletobe
surroundedbyit.
Whatisinterestingisthatmanyoftheplantsfoundinthechaparralbiomehaveleavesthataremade
fromhighlyflammablematerials.Thatiswhythefiresareabletospreadsoquicklyratherthanjustfrom
thedryconditions.Whatisalsointerestingthoughisthatthosearealsotheplantsthathavetheabilityto
withstandthefires.Theyhaveheavybarkanddeeprootssoitisn’tlongafterthefirethattheyareableto
thriveagain.
Thetemperaturesinthechaparralbiomeisabout30degreesinthewintertime.Itcanbeupto100
degreesinthesummermonths.Thereisfrom10to17inchesofrainfallannuallyinthechaparralbiome.
Theyarefoundinamidlatitudeclimate.Theaveragetemperatureintheseareasis64degrees.
Mostoftheanimalsfoundinthechaparralbiomeareactiveatnight.Itistoohotforthemtobevery
activeduringtheday.Therearesomeexceptionsthoughsuchasthevariouslizards.Reptilesseemtodo
verywellintheheat.
CHAPARRALBIOMEFLORAANDFAUNA
Theextremeconditionsfoundinthechaparralbiomeareverydifferentjustlikedayandnight.Asa
result,animalsandplantsthatliveherehavetobehighlyadaptable.Therearequiteafewdifferenttypes
ofanimalsthatdoverywellintheconditionsofthechaparralbiome.TheyincludetheJackal,MuleDeer,
andCoyotes.
TherearesmallerlivingcreaturestooincludingtheLadyBugandPrayingMantis.Honeybeesarevery
popularinthechaparralbiome.Theanimalsthatliveinthisbiomeareabletosurvivewithverylittle
water.Theyarealsoabletodowellintheheatofthesummerandthecoolerwintertemperatures.Some
ofthemthoughincludingspeciesofbirdsmigrateduringthewintermonths.
Thereareacoupleofdifferenttypesofplantsthatareabletodoverywellinachaparralbiome.
Sclerophyllplantsareoftenfoundinthewoodlandareasofsuchabiome.Theeucalyptusareabletogrow
intheforests.ThisisverytypicalalongthechaparralbiomeofAustralia.Cactusisplentifulinthe
chaparralbiome.
Youwillnoticethatmanyoftheformsofplantsthatliveinthisparticularbiomehaveleavesthatare
smallandhard.Theyareabletoretainwaterduetothedesign.Thathelpsthemtosurviveintheveryhot
anddrysummerconditions.Othershaveneedlelikeleavesthatallowthemtodrawmoistureoutofthe
air.
Ifthatremindsyouofplantsyoufindinthedesertbiomesyouareveryright.Infact,thechaparralbiome
usuallybordersadesertbiome.Thereisoftenagreatdealofoverlapping.Infact,thisiswhysomepeople
thinkthatitdoesrainofteninthedesert–theyaremisinformedabouttheparticularbiometheyare
referringto.
Whileyouwillfindsomeplantsinthisbiomeaswellasthedesertbiome,theyareusuallygoingtobe
largerinthisone.Thatisduetotheadditionalamountofrainfall.Thereareplentyofshrubsthatare
foundinthistypeofenvironment.Therearetreestoobutmanyofthemareconsidereddwarfsduetothe
smallsizeofthem.Thereareplentyofdifferenttypesofgrassesthatcangrowinthechaparralbiome.
Evenplantswithseedshavebecomehighlyadaptivetothechaparralbiomefires.Someoftheseplants
onlywillspoutafterthedormantseedshavebeentouchedbyfire.Thisisagreatexampleofhowthe
livingelementsofabiomeareabletofitverywellwithwhattheyhavetoworkwith.
TEMPERATEGRASSLANDS
Location
TemperategrasslandsarelocatednorthoftheTropicofCancer(23.5degreesNorth)andsouthofthe
TropicofCapricorn(23.5degreesSouth).ThemajortemperategrasslandsincludetheveldtsofAfrica,
thepampasofSouthAmerica,thesteppesofEurasia,andtheplainsofNorthAmerica.
Plants
Grassesarethedominantvegetation.Treesandlargeshrubsarelargelyabsent.Seasonaldrought,
occasionalfiresandgrazingbylargemammalsallpreventwoodyshrubsandtreesfrombecoming
established.Afewtreessuchascottonwoods,oaksandwillowsgrowinrivervalleys,andafewhundred
speciesofflowersgrowamongthegrasses.Thevariousspeciesofgrassesincludepurpleneedlegrass,
bluegrama,buffalograss,andgalleta.Flowersincludeasters,blazingstars,coneflowers,goldenrods,
sunflowers,clovers,psoraleas,andwildindigos.
Animals
Temperategrasslandshavealowdiversityofwildlife,butahighabundanceofwildlife.InNorthAmerica
thedominantgrazinganimalsarebisonandpronghorn.Rodentsincludepocketgophersandprairie
dogs.Carnivoresincludewolves,coyotes,swiftfoxes,badgersandblack-footedferrets.Birdsinclude
grouses,meadowlarks,quails,sparrows,hawksandowls.
Climate
Temperategrasslandshavehotsummersandcoldwinters.Summertemperaturescanbewellover100
degreesFahrenheit,whilewintertemperaturescanbeaslowas-40degreesFahrenheit.Theytypically
havebetween10and35inchesofprecipitationayear,muchofitoccurringinthelatespringandearly
summer.Snowoftenservesasareservoirofmoistureforthebeginningofthegrowingseason.Seasonal
droughtandoccasionalfireshelpmaintainthesegrasslands.
Soil
Temperategrasslandshavesoilsthatarenutrient-richfromthegrowthanddecayofdeep,manybranchedgrassroots.Therottedrootsholdthesoiltogetherandprovideafoodsourceforlivingplants.
Theworld'smostfertilesoilsunderlietheeasternprairiesoftheU.S.,thepampasofSouthAmerica,and
thesteppesofUkraineandRussia.
Threats
Overgrazingbylivestockandplowingarethetwogreatestthreatstotemperategrasslands.Sincethe
developmentofthesteelplowmuchofthesegrasslandshavebeenconvertedtoagriculturallands
becauseoftheirrichsoil.About47percentoftemperategrasslandshavebeenconvertedtoagriculture
orurbandevelopment.Lackoffireandfragmentationarealsothreats,asispastandpresentwildlife
eradication(includingthebisonslaughterofthe1800sandongoing