Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Marine Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / m a r g e o
Influence of sediment transport dynamics and ocean floor morphology on benthic
foraminifera, offshore Fraser Island, Australia
Claudia J. Schröder-Adams a,⁎, Ron Boyd b,1, Kevin Ruming b,2, Marianne Sandstrom c
a
b
c
Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B6
Earth Sciences, University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia
Australian School of Petroleum, University of Adelaide, Australia
A R T I C L E
I N F O
Article history:
Received 29 November 2007
Received in revised form 22 April 2008
Accepted 7 May 2008
Keywords:
foraminifera
sediment transport
benthic
seafloor morphology
sea-level highstand
Fraser Island
Australia
A B S T R A C T
The extensive longshore sediment transport system along the SE margin of Australia transports yearly 500,000 m3
of sand from the Gold Coast of southern Queensland north towards Fraser Island. Fraser Island, which consists of
203 km3 of quartz sand, is presently not increasing in size and north of the island quartz sand is replaced by
carbonate sand. Recent multibeam sonar seafloor imagery and sediment analysis has established that the
transported sand is being diverted by strong ebb tidal flow over the continental shelf edge onto the Tasman
Abyssal Plain through a series of active gullies that incised the continental slope. Foraminiferal distribution
patterns on the shelf and slope are closely linked to the variable ocean floor morphology and associated physical
processes. In sample locations outside the continental slope gullies, areas unaffected by downslope sediment
transport, foraminiferal assemblages gradually change in accordance with bathymetric zones and their prevailing
ecological parameters. Species diversity, evenness, the proportion of infaunal species and the abundance of
agglutinated taxa all increase with depth. Assemblages within gullies of the clastic sand transport route are
significantly different. Estuarine and shelf species are transported over the shelf break and mix with typical slope
species along the transport path, resulting in continued high species diversities. As the sediment and faunal load
enters the abyssal plain, a faunal portion continues to travel within the Capricorn Sea Valley to over 4000 m depth.
The erosional nature of gullies results in reduction of agglutinated species. Subtle topographic features such as
ridges or levees within the canyon and deep-sea valley act as protection from the main erosional sand transport
pathway and support the presence of fragile and erect suspension feeders. Foraminiferal distribution patterns
would have received an entirely different biofacies interpretation without linking them to ocean floor processes as
revealed through multibeam sonar imagery.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Benthic foraminiferal assemblages play a valuable role in paleoenvironmental reconstructions of ancient marine settings. In assigning a
depth range to a taxon, we often rely on studies of modern settings
where bathymetry and a suite of related ecological parameters are
accurately measured. These bathymetric ranges are then applied on a
generic level to the fossil record. When determining paleobathymetries
it becomes crucial to distinguish in-situ from transported faunal
elements. Gravity processes on continental margins transport benthic
and planktic foraminifera downslope together with sediment particles.
Foraminiferal tests may suffer abrasion or dissolution when deposited
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 613 520 2600ext.1852, fax: +1 613 520 5613.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.J. Schröder-Adams).
1
Present address: ConocoPhillips Company, 600 North Dairy Ashford, Houston, Texas
77079 USA.
2
Present address: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Maitland,
NSW, Australia.
0025-3227/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2008.05.002
close to or beneath the calcite compensation depth. Downslope
transport of sediment and associated foraminiferal assemblages are
well studied where turbiditic flows are active, such as the Quaternary
margin of California (Brunner and Normark, 1985) or the Upper
Cretaceous Apennines of Italy (Zuffa et al., 2002). Agglutinated
foraminifera in particular have received special notice in studies of
flysch deposits (e.g. Gradstein and Berggren, 1981). More recently,
hyperpycnally generated turbidity currents that occur during times of
major meltwater production have been given increased attention
(Brunner et al., 1999; Geirsdottir et al., 1999; Zuffa et al., 2000). In
these studies, foraminifera have been used either for event dating or as
evidence for transport of materials from shallower water environments.
The SE margin of Australia offers another unique setting of
sediment transport processes by being the site of the most extensive
longshore transport system in the world. Sand derived from the
Sydney Basin is transported over 1500 km northward along the SE
Australian coast (Boyd et al., 2008). This system is operating since at
least the last 750,000 yr and has built the world's largest sand islands of
SE Queensland including Fraser Island (Tejan-Kella et al., 1990; Roy and
48
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
Thom, 1991). The margin of Fraser Island, its sediment distribution and
current regime has been studied by Harris et al. (1996), who worked on
a shelf to upper slope transect offshore Fraser Island at about 25°S but
did not address the fate of the sand in the longshore transport system.
Recently, Boyd et al. (2008) conducted a multidisciplinary investigation, including a detailed multibeam acoustic survey of the region, in
order to develop an accurate picture of the seafloor morphology and
sediment dynamics taking place at the northern tip of Fraser Island.
Their model suggests that during present high sea level, sands derived
by a wave-driven coastal transport system interacting with estuarine
ebb tidal flows reach the shelf edge to be transported into deep water
through a series of gullies cutting the continental slope. The Boyd et al.
(2008) model contrasts with previous established models that propose
sand delivery to the shelf edge predominantly during times of sea-level
lowstand (e.g. Porębski and Steel, 2003) or by canyons incising the
shelf such as the Monterey Canyon (Normark et al., 1984). Recently,
Mitchell et al. (2007) produced high-resolution imagery of the offshore
Gippsland Basin and Bass Canyon, SE Australia where several tributary
canyons breach the shelf and gain access to the shelf carbonate factory
that feed self-sustaining and erosive sediment gravity flows. Their
associated sediment core analysis predicts highest sedimentation rates
on the slope and within the Bass Canyon during highstand and
regressive system tracts.
The present study is linked to Boyd et al. (2008) by using samples
that were taken during the two research voyages that conducted the
multibeam acoustic survey. Linking the two studies allows for: a) a
Fig. 1. A) Location map of study area north of Fraser Island, offshore southern Queensland, Australia. B) Environmental factors: the southeastern Australian margin has low
accommodation space and is influenced by a strong southeasterly wave climate causing the longshore drift. The south flowing East Australian Current provides warm water along the
outer shelf and upper slope. (MOR: Mid-Ocean Ridge).
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
first account of highly diverse benthic foraminiferal assemblages
along the margin of southern Queensland from estuary to lower
continental slope; b) study of the effect of sediment dynamics and
downslope transport on foraminiferal distribution pattern during sealevel highstand and c) a close investigation of how subtle morphological features on the seafloor influence foraminiferal colonization
and persistence. The unique combination of micropaleontological data
and detailed seafloor imaging in this study improves our understanding of faunal controlling factors, further enhancing our use of
microfossils in paleoenvironmental and biostratigraphic analyses.
2. Study site
The continental shelf and slope adjacent to Fraser Island (Fig. 1A) is
a site of variable oceanographic, sedimentological and morphological
controls that create a diverse range of environments for benthic
faunas. The shelf adjacent to Fraser Island is situated in a transition
zone between tropical carbonates (Great Barrier Reef) to the north and
cool-water carbonates to the south (Fig. 1B; Harris et al., 1996).
Carbonate production along the SE Australian margin is supported by
the East Australian Current (EAC), a south flowing, warm-water
western boundary type current on the western side of the Tasman Sea
(Fig. 1B; Godfrey et al., 1980).
49
2.1. Ocean floor morphology and sediment transport processes
Sediment distribution on the shelf is highly influenced by the
prevailing energy regime. On the inner and outer shelf, mud are prevented from settling out due to high wave energy and the EAC
respectively. Current velocities of the EAC have been measured in
order to establish the preferred energy regime of pebble and cobble
sized rhodoliths that have been discovered offshore Fraser Island near
Gardner Bank on the outer shelf 50 km south of our study area. Speeds of
up to 130 cm/s have been reported. The episodic appearance of
rhodoliths to a depth of 80 m is regarded as intrusions of the EAC onto
the shelf (Harris et al., 1996).
The prevailing wave direction is from the SE, causing the East
Australian Longshore Transport System that carries approximately
500,000 m3 of sand per year from the Gold Coast north towards Fraser
Island, an island made of 203 km3 of nearly pure quartz sand. Less than
100 km north of the island, tropical carbonate deposits predominate
(Marshall, 1977), indicating a diversion of the transported sand. The
sand transport pathway was the subject of two research voyages of the
Southern Surveyor that undertook a detailed sampling program of
surficial sediments coupled with a multibeam acoustic survey (Boyd
et al., 2008). Results show that sand is transported beyond Fraser
Island in a northwestern direction by wave-generated currents. The
Fig. 2. Composite image of the seabed north-east of Fraser Island derived from Landsat data (less than 30 m depth), regional bathymetry from the Royal Australian Navy and
multibeam echosounding (from Boyd et al., 2008). Foraminiferal sample localities are colour coded based on their cluster association (see Fig. 3). Three samples listed in Table 1 are
not covered by this map. These are samples 05/1, 05/32A and 03/83, all located in Hervey Bay between Fraser Island and the mainland. Note confined region of downslope sediment
transport indicated by black arrows.
50
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
sand is reworked by tidal ebb flow out of Hervey Bay, which is the
estuary behind Fraser Island (Fig. 2).
Hervey Bay is sedimentologically classified as a shoreline divergent
estuary (Boyd et al., 2004) and hydrographically as an inverse, laterally
inhomogeneous estuary (Ribbe, 2005). A regional, high-salinity watermass that is produced at the southern end of the estuary (Ribbe, 2005)
by high evaporation rates and limited rainfall enters the open ocean
north of Fraser Island where it encounters the EAC.
The reworking of sand results in the 30 km long northward
subaqueous extension of Fraser Island called Breaksea Spit (Fig. 2). In
this region, the Australian coast experiences an orientation change
from NE to NW, causing Breaksea Spit to eventually intersect the shelf
break. Sampling revealed that the quartz-rich sand intersects the shelf
edge only over a 25 km zone where concentrated ebb-tidal currents
aid in sand delivery. South of that zone subtropical carbonate prevails
on the outer shelf, whereas further north tropical carbonate persists
(Marshall, 1977; Boyd et al., 2008).
The ocean floor survey of Boyd et al. (2008), using deep-water
multibeam and seismic reflection data, surveyed an area of 5360 km2
from 20 m depth on the shelf to 4700 m depth on the Tasman Abyssal
Plain. The 20–30 km wide continental slope is characterized by a steep
gradient of 6.5–10° and numerous incised submarine canyons
perpendicular to the continental margin (Fig. 2). The dense cluster
of gullies provides evidence of intensive erosion and sediment bypass.
Fig. 3. Q-mode cluster analysis indicates greatest dissimilarity between the shelf and slope/abyssal assemblage. The shelf region shows two clusters of which one is excluded from the
analysis due to low foraminiferal numbers (see text for detail). The slope/abyssal assemblage is subdivided into two sub-assemblages that are broadly depth related. Samples
indicated by a bold ‘C’ indicate location within canyons or gullies. The sample indicated by a bold ‘D’ is outside clusters due to a strong dominance of one species.
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
51
On the abyssal plain, canyons finally feed into the north-south
oriented Capricorn Sea Valley (Fig. 2).
body, the reader is referred to Loeblich and Tappan (1994), Yassini and
Jones (1995) and Albani et al. (2001).
2.2. Sediment distribution
4. Benthic foraminiferal assemblage distribution
A suite of 95 samples from both voyages was subject to
sedimentological analysis (Davies, 2004; Sandstrom, 2005). On the
basis of grainsize distribution, percentage carbonate and percentage
quartz Sandstrom (2005) distinguished five facies. These include: 1)
Hervey Bay Facies, consisting of fine sands with a small gravel
component and low carbonate, sourced from within Hervey Bay; 2)
‘River of Sand’ Facies consisting of fine sand with minor silt and low
carbonate, sourced from the SE Australian coast, associated with the
sand transport route that runs along the seaward inner shelf and
down the active gullies into the Capricorn Sea Valley; 3) Modern
Tropical Reef and Temperate Carbonate Facies, mainly poorly-sorted
medium-grained carbonate-rich sand; 4) Mixed Sandy Continental
Slope Facies, mainly poorly sorted very fine sand with an average of
25% carbonate, associated with the upper slope; and 5) Mixed Muddy
Continental Slope Facies with up to 21% clay and 43% carbonatederived foraminiferal ooze, associated with the lower slope. Foraminiferal assemblages in the present study have been compared with
and correlated to the facies distribution of Sandstrom (2005).
In oceanic areas with significant downslope sediment and faunal
transport, autochthonous groups have to be carefully distinguished from
allochthonous assemblages. The cluster tree in Fig. 3 shows two broad
categories that are characterized by greatest dissimilarity, the continental shelf assemblage (including the estuarine fauna of Hervey Bay)
and the continental slope and abyssal plain assemblage. Both can be
divided into sub-assemblages. Species that occur with 2% and greater
relative abundance demonstrate that most species occur over a large
depth range, although many show more confined increased abundance
peaks (Appendix, see Supplementary data). On a continental slope that
is scoured by abundant gullies and canyons, artificial extensions of the
bathymetric ranges of species cannot be excluded.
3. Material and methods
The first voyage on RV Southern Surveyor was undertaken in 2003
and sampled several transects along the shelf/slope region, with a few
deep water samples to establish bathymetric coverage of the area. With
a better understanding of the sea-floor morphology through multibeam
acoustic data and associated sedimentary processes, the sampling
program on the 2005 voyage was designed to investigate the area of the
sand transport route (Fig. 2) by sampling within and outside active
gullies. A selection of 61 samples from both voyages is included here,
covering a depth range from 24 to 3920 m (Fig. 2, Table 1, see
Supplementary data). Bottom samples were taken with a SmithMacIntyre grab sampler, which covers an area of 20 cm2 to a depth of
approximately 15 cm. Samples were subdivided and a subsample of
approximately 100 ml was reserved for foraminiferal analysis, but
unfortunately not stained for detection of live populations. In the
laboratory, samples were washed through a 0.063 mm sieve and
residues were dried. Benthic foraminifera (11,605 specimens in total)
were then picked onto microslides and identified. Foraminiferal
abundance varied widely, and so, whenever possible, at least 150
specimens or more were counted per sample. As the pure quartz sands
in the inner shelf region seawards of Fraser Island, where waves create
an unstable substrate, make for an inhospitable environment for benthic
foraminifera, recovery was poor in some instances.
Statistical analysis was performed with the PAST software by
Hammer et al. (2001) and described by Hammer and Harper (2006).
Samples with less than 50 specimens were excluded from the analysis.
Species diversity is expressed in two ways. The Fisher Alpha Index is
defined by the formula S =α ln(1 +n/α) where S is the number of taxa, n
is the number of individuals and α is the Fisher's alpha (Murray, 1991).
The Shannon Index is defined by H = −Σ ni /n ln (ni /n) where ni is the
number of individuals of taxon i. The Shannon Index indicates also the
evenness of species distribution. In order to confirm assemblage groups,
Q-mode cluster analysis was performed (Fig. 3) by using the paired
group algorithm with the Morisita similarity index (Krebs, 1989;
Hammer and Harper, 2006).
A total of 378 benthic foraminiferal species were identified. Only a
few species are illustrated in order to support the main objective of
this study, the documentation of faunal transport. Illustrations were
produced using either a JEOL 6400 Scanning Electron Microscope or a
Nikon Coolpix 995 digital camera mounted on a binocular microscope.
For illustrations and taxonomic remarks of nearly the entire species
4.1. Continental shelf assemblage
The continental shelf assemblage is subdivided into two subassemblages. Sub-assemblage A is part of the cluster tree (Fig. 3) and
Sub-assemblage B, whose samples were excluded due to low
foraminiferal counts, is nevertheless mentioned here due to a distinct
ecological association.
Sub-assemblage A includes samples associated with the tropical
carbonate sediments to the north, low energy estuarine setting of
Hervey Bay and the subtropical carbonates along the most southern
transect encompassing a depth range from 24 to 85 m (Fig. 2, Table 1,
see Supplementary data). Common species include Textularia foliacea,
Amphistegina lessonii, Cibicides marlboroughensis, Cibicides refulgens,
Elphidium advenum, Elphidium macellum, Peneroplis pertusus, Calcarina mayori and several miliolids (Appendix, see Supplementary data).
The tropical and temperate carbonate substrates have numerous
species in common; only C. mayori seems to prefer the temperate
carbonate environment. Sub-assemblage A corresponds to the Hervey
Bay Facies and the Tropical and Cool Water Carbonate Facies of
Sandstrom (2005). Sample 32A (36 m) at the mouth of Hervey Bay falls
outside this cluster by being dominated by Reophax scorpiurus (68.4%).
Sub-assemblage B, not in the cluster tree, is characterized by low
numbers of foraminifera and low species richness. Species occurring
are Reophax scorpiurus, Amphistegina lessonii, Assilina ammonoides,
Peneroplis pertusus and Elphidum macellum with some poorly
preserved tests. Specimens are associated with sediment containing
over 90% quartz and are located on the flanks of Breaksea Spit (Fig. 2),
an area of sediment reworking by waves and ebb tidal flow. The
calcareous species observed in sub-assemblage B also occur in subassemblage A, where they occur in higher numbers due to more
hospitable, more stable conditions. Sub-assemblage B is associated
with the ‘River of Sand’ Facies, but only in its shallow water portion.
4.2. Continental slope and abyssal plain assemblage
The continental slope and abyssal assemblage is subdivided into
two sub-assemblages, which are roughly depth related, but have to be
carefully interpreted with regard to sediment transport processes.
Sub-assemblage C occurs mainly on the upper slope with some
additional middle slope locations (175 to 980 m) mainly inside active
gullies with regard to sand transport (Fig. 2). The upper slope samples
reflect the area north of Breaksea Spit where sediment travels over the
shelf break into slope canyons. Dominant species include Chilostomella
ovoidea, Cymbaloporetta squammosa, Nonionoides grateloupi, Melonis
barleanus, Quinqueloculina seminula, Cibicides marlboroughensis,
Lenticulina spp. and Lugdunum hantkenianum. The substrate is dominated by quartz with minor carbonate reflecting the Mixed Sandy
Continental Slope Facies of Sandstrom (2005). The deeper samples 9A
52
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
and 14 at 2770 m and 3490 m respectively are from within the active
sediment transport route (Fig. 2) and have received faunal elements
from the shelf and upper slope justifying their cluster position. These
abyssal samples with autochthonous faunal elements relate to the
“River of Sand’ Facies.
Sub-assemblage D occurs on the lower slope and abyssal plain region
(893 to 3920 m). These samples have an increased deep-water agglutinated component, increased diversity and evenness. The substrate varies
from hemipelagic mud and carbonate ooze (Mixed Muddy Continental
Slope Facies) outside canyons and gullies to increased quartz-clastic sand
along the sediment transport route (‘River of Sand’ Facies). Three samples
from the Capricorn Sea Valley contain enough abyssal plain/slope species
to fall into this cluster (samples 4A,15 and 107) contrasting with sample 14
and 9A (Fig. 2) that fall within Sub-assemblage C.
5. Faunal transport
The continental slope off northern Fraser Island is marked by
abundant gullies of various lengths, depth and width that permit
downslope transport of sediment and its benthic fauna. At present,
sediment transport and sand delivery to the abyssal plain is mainly
concentrated in several prominent long canyons originating at the
shelf break just north of the Breaksea Spit. These canyons join at
approximately 3400 m depth where they feed into the Capricorn Sea
Valley (Boyd et al., 2008). Fig. 4 shows proportional changes of
selected benthic foraminiferal species over a transect from the shallow
Hervey Bay over the shelf break into the main canyon and ending with
the deepest sample in the Capricorn Sea Valley. It is important to note
that samples 2 and 7 at 810 m and 1280 m respectively are right at the
edge, but not in the canyon. These samples are characterized by
abundant, minute, fragile foraminiferal tests of genera such as Globocassidulina, Neocassidulina and Nonionoides. Their regular pristine
preservation might indicate transport in a suspended mud cloud that
spills over the levees of the canyon where it deposits these lowdensity forms. A component of large numbers of small, well preserved
tests seems to be unique to samples close to canyon walls as confirmed
also by sample 8 (Fig. 2). Samples 9A and 14 at 2770 m and 3490 m are
directly in the pathway of sediment transport. The sample at 3600 m is
sheltered behind a small ridge (see Section 6). Fig. 4A shows the
relative abundance of Amphistegina lessonii, Calcarina mayori and
various species of Elphidium, all abundant on the shelf and in Hervey
Bay. Amphistegina and Calcarina belong in the group of larger
foraminifera that live with symbiotic algae and are therefore restricted
to the photic zone. A second abundance peak of these taxa occurs at
2770 m and 3490 m, where they constitute the main transported
component. The distribution of shallow versus deep-water agglutinated taxa is shown in Fig. 4B. Two trends are indicated: a) the gradual
increase of agglutinated species with increasing depth is obscured
within the transport route where significant fluctuations are related to
whether the sample is located directly on the sediment transport
route or not; and b) shallow-water agglutinated species are relatively
rare around Fraser Island and; those found are mainly belonging to the
robust genus Textularia. As a result, the transported shallow water
species are dominantly of calcareous nature. The deep-water samples
9A and 14 (Fig. 2) do not only receive shallow water species, but also
faunal elements more common on the slope. Fig. 4C shows the
distributional patterns of three genera (Siphogenerina, Lenticulina and
Cibicides) that have peak abundances on the slope. As sand moves
through this canyon, slope species are incorporated and subsequently
transported into the Capricorn Sea Valley resulting in bimodal
distributions of Cibicides and Lenticulina. On the other hand, Siphogenerina with a lighter, elongated test seems to travel further with
increasing abundance towards the deepest sample 107. Fig. 5 shows
the relative abundance changes of the same taxa over a transect from
Hervey Bay to the lower slope outside the main sand transport route
south of the active gullies. The three shallow water species (Fig. 5A)
Fig. 4. Graphs illustrate the change in relative percent abundance of three parameters
over a transect from Hervey Bay to the Tasman Abyssal Plain within the region of
downslope sand transport. These include abundance of A) three prominent shallow
water species; B) agglutinated taxa and C) three common slope taxa.
experience transport to the outer shelf and upper slope, because
sample 25 at 137 m is below the depth range of living symbiontbearing foraminifera (Hohenegger and Yordanova, 2001). These taxa,
however, do not travel in increased numbers downslope into deepwater regions outside the main sand transport route. Agglutinated
species are dominant in deeper water and form up to 70% of the
assemblage (Fig. 5B). Two of the three selected slope species peak on
the upper slope at 137 m and decline with depth (Fig. 5C) as deepwater agglutinated species increase in relative abundance. Siphogenerina peaks at 802 m and declines towards the lowest slope.
Differences between areas of faunal/sediment transport and in-situ
assemblages are also apparent in other measures of community structure.
Fig. 6 shows two transects; both start at sample 82 in Hervey Bay. The insitu transect is shorter, ending with sample 103 at 2600 m. Fig. 6 plots two
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
53
6. Seafloor morphology and faunal distribution
This study allowed a rare opportunity for an accurate comparison
between foraminiferal composition and seafloor morphology as
provided by the detailed seabed map of Boyd et al. (2008). A good
example for the intimate link between the two is sample 104 collected
at a depth of 3600 m. The sample is within the Capricorn Sea Valley,
but from a locality that was sheltered by a small ridge from the main
sediment transport pathway (Fig. 7A). The foraminiferal assemblage
contains transported components such as shallow-water elphidiids
and upper slope taxa such as Lugdunum and Patellina, however, 30% of
the total assemblage is of an agglutinated nature (Figs. 4B and 6A).
These are fragile deep-water species such as Reophax spiculifer, Saccorhiza ramosa, Pseudonodosinella nodulosa, and Subreophax aduncus
(Fig. 7B). We interpret this composition as being the result of the
sheltering ridge allowing colonization of these fragile species,
combined with turbidity-current, suspended-sediment supply of
transported components. These more sheltered deep-water conditions also account for the peak in species diversity as seen in Fig. 6. In
contrast, the seafloor morphology at sample location 107 (3920 m) is a
broad open valley (Fig. 8A). The assemblage contains mainly shallowwater to slope species with only 6% agglutinated species (Fig. 6A). The
great length of transport from shelf to the Tasman Abyssal Plain takes
its toll on foraminiferal preservation with common broken or abraded
tests, particularly among the shelf species (Fig. 8B).
Fig. 9A shows a close-up map of seafloor morphology contrasting
sample location 103 (2600 m) under fine-grained, hemipelagic
sedimentation with sample locations 9A (2770 m) and 14 (3490 m)
located directly within the sediment transport pass. Sample 15
(3501 m) is located in the Capricorn Sea Valley, but north of the
region where slope-cutting canyons enter the valley. Their respective
assemblages differ significantly despite representing similar water
depths. Fig. 10 assesses the six deepest samples by comparing
percentage abundance of shallow water species, percentage abundance of agglutinated species and percent quartz. All three measures
are a proxy for the degree of transported elements among the substrate. Sample location 103 is outside the sediment transport route
and has no shallow water species but a high percentage of deep-water
agglutinated species (Fig. 9B) and minor quartz. Sample 9A and 14 are
mainly quartz sand with over 30% shallow water species, some of
which show clear signs of erosion and breakage (Fig. 11). In
comparison, the slightly smaller percentage of quartz and smaller
percentage of shallow water taxa in sample 15 (Fig. 10) suggests that
the end of the Capricorn Sea Valley is presently not receiving as much
shelfal material as sample 14. Tests of symbiont-bearing benthic
foraminifera are missing here. The seafloor map (Fig. 9A and the
overview in 2) shows a short canyon above that does not intersect
with the shelf break.
Fig. 5. Graphs illustrate the change in relative abundance of three parameters over a
transect from Hervey Bay to the lower continental slope outside the region of sediment
transport. These include abundance of A) three prominent shallow water species; B)
agglutinated taxa and C) three common slope taxa.
diversity indices and the relative abundance of agglutinated species in
these two areas. Abundance of agglutinated species generally increases
with greater depth below storm wave base (Fig. 6A) where fragile species
and tubular suspension feeders are colonizing. The main gully, however,
does not offer ideal conditions for this group as seen in the two diverging
graphs. Diversity trends were calculated using the Shannon Index
(Fig. 6B) and the Fisher α Index (Fig. 6C). Both indices show similar
trends. In-situ assemblages show a general diversity increase from
estuarine to lower slope settings. This increase is evened out along the
sand transport route through mixing of shallow, slope and finally abyssal
species. The comparisons clearly indicate how sediment transport
processes create faunal patterns that significantly diverge from regular
ones found along a continental margin.
7. Discussion
Studies on benthic foraminiferal assemblages along the eastern
margin of Australia have mainly focused on Great Barrier Reef (e.g.
Horton et al., 2003), estuary, and shelf settings (e.g., Albani, 1968, 1970,
1978; Yassini and Jones, 1995). Much less is known of the continental
slope and deep-water assemblages on the western side of the Tasman
Sea. The oceanographic and sedimentary conditions along the margin of
southern Queensland and the unique physical processes unveiled by the
newly produced seafloor image of Boyd et al. (2008) makes the Fraser
Island region ideal for the study of foraminiferal biofacies. The boundary
position of Fraser Island at the transition from a quartz-clasticdominated sedimentary regime to a carbonate setting produces contrasting ecological conditions.
Benthic foraminifera in wave exposed littoral zones have to cope
with harsh conditions caused by unstable substrates due to year-round
high wave energy and a persistent longshore drift system (Fig. 1B). The
54
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
Fig. 6. Graphs illustrate the changing trend in three key indices of foraminiferal community structure along a depth transect from Hervey Bay to the Tasman Abyssal Plain contrasting
the relatively undisturbed slope region with the quartz sand transport region. Sample stations are marked in C. See text for details.
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
resulting quartz clastic sediments are coarse and offer little organic flux
(Roughan and Middleton, 2002). Estuaries such as Hervey Bay are
common along the coast of SE Australia (Roy et al., 2001) and form a
refuge from the coastal high-energy regime sustaining richer but
generally lower diversity foraminiferal assemblages. Hervey Bay supports a warm-water assemblage mainly consisting of larger foraminifera
55
that house symbiotic algae, miliolids and other epibenthic species who
can adapt to mesotrophic and oligotrophic conditions (Murray, 1991).
Sub-assemblage A occurs along the shelf break where the south flowing
EAC provides warm water along the shelf edge of Queensland and
northern New South Wales supporting the existence of many of these
species along the margin of New South Wales (Schröder-Adams,
Fig. 7. A) Close-up of seafloor morphology around sample 03/104. Note small ridge acting as protection from sediment traveling along the Capricorn Sea Valley. B) Representative
species of sample 03/104 including in -situ deep water agglutinated taxa and shallow water species: 1. Pseudonodosinella nodulosa, 2. Saccorhiza ramosa, 3. Subreophax aduncus, 4. Reophax
spiculifer, 5. Ehrenbergina pacifica, 6. Patellina corrugata, 7. Elphidium crispum, 8. Lugdunum hantkenianum (scale bars of 1 to 3 equal 0.2 mm, of 4 to 8 equal 0.1 mm).
56
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
unpublished data). Beyond the shoreface and below fair-weather wave
base abundance and species diversity increase seawards.
High-energy conditions caused by waves and currents sweeping
the shelf region result in the presence of relict foraminiferal tests in
the Tropical and Cool-Water Carbonate Facies between 50 and 90 m.
There, assemblages consist of pristine, white tests together with
corroded, rust-stained, brown specimens that point towards starved
sedimentation and possibly relicts of lower sea-level stages. Relict
Fig. 8. A) Close-up of seafloor morphology around sample 03/107 located unprotected within the Capricorn Sea Valley. B) Representative species of sample 03/107 including shallow
water species (note degree of corrosion), upper and lower slope species: 1–3 Elphidium macellum, 4. Cymbaloporetta squammosa, 5, 6. Amphistegina lessonii, 7. Lugdunum
hantkenianum, 8. Paracassidulina neocarinata, 9. Siphogenerina striatula, 10. Bulimina striata, 11. Bolivina vadescens, 12. Fontbotia wuellerstorfi (scale bars equal 0.1 mm).
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
species are mainly miliolids and elphidiids giving evidence of
shallower water and possibly lagoonal settings. Yordanova and
Hohenegger (2002) classified reef foraminifera into three groups
that relate to taphonomic stages. In their scheme optimal preservation
reflects the time-averaged biocoenosis; well-preserved specimens are
the result of the taphocoenosis allowing eventually interpretations of
fossil environments; and poorly preserved tests are linked to longdistance transport. Among the latter group coloured tests as the result
of wall structure changes point towards older, mostly Pleistocene
deposits. Exposure of relict faunas were described from the Lincoln
57
Shelf of South Australia (Li et al., 1996), where similar brown
foraminiferal tests indicate lagoonal settings of previous lowstands
in modern mid-shelf regions. Brown bryozoan and bivalve specimens
of the Recent southern Australian shelves have been dated between
17,000 and 30,000 yr old (James et al., 1992). Relict foraminifera
representing predominantly the suborder Miliolina have also been
reported from the Gippsland Shelf. It is inferred that they originated
from lagoonal and inner shelf settings during the last glacial
maximum approximately 19,000 yr ago (Smith et al., 2001). Relict
faunas are common also along the shelf of New South Wales
Fig. 9. A) Close-up of seafloor morphology illustrating region where the active canyons meet the Capricorn Sea Valley with locations for samples 03/103, 05/14, 05/9A, and 05/15.
B) Representative species of Sample 03/103 reflecting the deepest sample outside the sediment transport route: 1. Rhabdammina sp., 2. Hyperammina sp., 3. Tolypammina vagans,
4. Rhabdammina abyssorum, 5. Rhabdammina cornuta, 6. Psammosphaera fusca, 7. Hormosinella distans, 8. Ammobaculites agglutinans, 9. Clavulina multicamerata, 10. Pyrgo murrhina
(scale bars equal 0.2 mm).
58
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
(Schröder-Adams and Boyd, unpublished data) and their significance
will be subject to another study when dates become available.
Foraminiferal assemblages on the continental slope outside the
sediment transport route show typical changes as expected in deeper
water, where colder temperatures, decreased energy conditions and
higher organic flux play an increasing role. The proportion of
morphotypes changes from predominantly epifaunal to a mix of
infaunal and epifaunal. The infaunal bolivinids, for example, occur
mainly in Sub-assemblage D with the exception of Lugdunum hantkenianum forming a flood in three samples between 400 and 500 m
(samples 31, 93 and 20A, Figs. 2, 3). Such unusual abundance peaks of
over 50% of infaunal taxa in Miocene assemblages in Southern Australia
were interpreted as the result of high productivity due to upwelling (Li
and McGowran, 1994). The connection between enrichment of infaunal
species and high organic flux is well documented in other oceanic parts
(e.g. Altenbach and Sarnthein, 1989; De Rijk et al., 2000). Upwelling and
associated nutrient enrichment events are observed along the east coast
of Australia and various driving mechanisms were discussed by Roughan
and Middleton (2002). Their study concentrated on the New South
Wales coast and three suggested mechanisms are linked to the EAC and
therefore might also affect the Queensland coast. For example,
narrowing of the continental shelf was considered a contributing factor
to upwelling events by triggering increased bottom currents that, in
turn, drive an onshore flow from deeper waters. Samples that are
dominated by the infaunal species L. hantkenianum occur seawards of
the most northern tip of Breaksea Spit (Fig. 2), where the spit might form
a topographic obstacle that narrows the pass of the EAC.
The continental slope offshore northern Fraser Island and Breaksea
Spit is relatively steep with a gradient of 6.5–10° and is incised by
many gullies. Sediment analysis in conjunction with seafloor
morphology studies indicates that of the canyons that intersect the
shelf break north of Breaksea Spit only a few are active conduits for
downslope sand transport (Fig. 2). The slope to the south of Breaksea
Spit receives regular hemipelagic sediments and foraminiferal ooze
with little or no addition of shallow water sediment and associated
fauna. There gullies do not reach the upper slope and shelf. The two
distinct sedimentary regimes are entirely mirrored by benthic
foraminiferal distribution patterns. As a result, these two ecological
systems in close proximity support distinctly different foraminiferal
assemblages related to physical processes of canyon formation and
sediment transport. Foraminiferal analysis adds some detail to our
understanding of the transport processes at work. Taphonomic
overprint on shallow water specimens generally increases with length
of transport, although some remarkably well preserved specimens
(e.g. Calcarina mayori) are found in 3490 m water depth (Fig. 11). Tests
of symbiont-bearing benthic foraminifera travel through the main
active canyon and deposit shortly after they enter the Capricorn Sea
Valley. Their response to hydraulic controls seems to prevent them
from traveling along the valley into even deeper areas as observed in
sample 107, possibly due to a reduced gradient. Carbonate preservation is still intact in sample 107 as many smaller fragile calcareous
tests prevail. The foraminiferal fauna at the upstream site of sample 15
suggests a reduced influence by sediment transport when compared
to sample 9A and 14 placing the northern end of the Capricorn Sea
Valley outside of the main transport route. Fragile agglutinated
suspension feeders were found and the shallow water component is
reduced in this area.
Common sequence stratigraphic models describe the delivery of
sands into deep-water environments during sea-level lowstand stages,
when river systems cut through the exposed shelf and feed clastic sands
into canyons (Posamentier and Vail, 1988). Alternatively, numerous
studies have described mechanisms that provide mass-transport from
shelf to slope during highstand phases. Turbidites are one well-studied
mechanism that delivers sands and shallow-water foraminiferal
assemblages into deeper settings. Brunner and Normark (1985) studied
foraminiferal and radiolarian assemblages in turbidite deposits of the
Monterey deep-sea fan off central California, fed by the Monterey
Canyon and active today during sea-level highstand. According to their
findings, hemipelagic and turbiditic muds in core samples taken from
the fan are clearly distinguished by transport-related faunal parameters.
Analysis of Quaternary strata in the Gulf of Mexico relates the majority of
mass-transport to glacial times, but foraminiferal assemblages also
identified muddy mass-transport deposits associated with interglacial
periods (Olsen et al., 2001). Foraminifera also played a role in identifying
transported deposits within mega channels in Pliocene to Pleistocence
glaciomarine strata in the Gulf of Alaska, these being initiated by tectonic
movement not necessarily associated with sea-level lowstands (Eyles
and Lagoe, 1998). This paper in combination with the study of Boyd et al.
(2008) describes a new process that delivers sand and shallow water
fauna into the deep sea at a time of sea-level highstand. The confined,
channelized sediment transport route, as clearly identified from the
detailed seafloor bathymetric models differs from turbidite deposits that
are more sheet like. This study may serve as a modern analogue for one
possible mechanism to bring shallow water indicators into abyssal
depths along confined conduits. In addition, the foraminiferal analysis
provides confirmation of the interpreted transport processes originally
inferred from geomorphology and sediment composition.
Distribution patterns of benthic foraminifera offshore Fraser Island
confirm a complex interaction between ecological parameters and
faunal assemblages that characterize continental margins around the
world. Many species found in this study are cosmopolitan. As in many
other studies species compositions change with depth ranges and
their associated environments. Controlling factors include: a) the
presence of boundary currents as in this case the Long Shore Drift and
the EAC that control energy levels, substrate, sedimentation rates and
temperatures; b) the degree of trophic levels (also influenced by
upwelling events) that influence dominance of foraminiferal
morphologies (infaunal vs. epifaunal or symbiont-bearing); c) salinities that increase in warm, restricted estuaries or lagoons; d)
decreasing energy levels with greater depth that allow colonization of
fragile agglutinated suspension feeders and e) downslope sediment
transport, common on continental slopes triggered by various
processes at various sea-level stages. A high degree of geographic
restriction of faunal overprint as result of downslope sediment
transport is demonstrated in this study. Our results from the
Australian margin complement regional foraminiferal studies of the
Southwest Pacific Ocean that have addressed mainly deep-water to
Fig. 10. Graph comparing percent of shallow water species, agglutinated species and
quartz in the six deepest water samples. See text for detail.
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
59
Fig. 11. Selected species from samples 05/09 and 05/14 located directly within the sediment transport route illustrating the mixed nature of shelf and upper and lower slope species in
these deep-water settings. 1. Amphistegina lessonii, 2. Planorbulinella larvata, 3, 4. Elphidium crispum, 5. Baculogypsinoides spinosus, 6. Quinqueloculina sp. 7, 8. Heterolepa
margaritifera, 9. Uvigerina auberiana, 10. Amphistegina lessonii, 11. Elphidium macellum, 12. Elphidium crispum, 13, Elphidium advenum, 14, 15. Calcarina mayori, 16. Peneroplis pertusus,
17. Lenticulina domantayi, 18. Challengerella persica, 19. Cibicides refulgens, 20. Cibicides marlboroughensis, 21. Lenticulina suborbicularis (scale bars equal 0.1 mm).
abyssal assemblages and their dependence on water-mass distribution and bottom water oxygen availability (e.g. Clark et al., 1994).
8. Conclusions
1. The system of longshore drift along the coast of New South Wales and
southern Queensland transports large volumes of quartz-clastic
sands that have built Fraser Island. Just north of the island, sand
reworked by southeasterly waves and strong ebb tidal flow reaches
the shelf break where it diverts into the deep sea through a series of
canyons running roughly perpendicular to the shelf break. This
diversion process allows for the production of tropical carbonate in
the outer shelf north of Fraser Island. The system provides a model for
sand delivery to the deep sea during sea level highstand contrary to
the sequence stratigraphic interpretation commonly applied.
2. The benthic foraminiferal distribution responds to two sedimentary regimes, the in-situ sediments and those of the confined
sediment transport route. The in-situ assemblage can be subdivided into the shelf, upper slope, middle slope and lower slope/
abyssal assemblages. The shelf assemblage, encompassing the
Hervey Bay Estuary, consists of epifaunal, miliolids and symbiontbearing benthic foraminifera. The continental slope fauna includes
60
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
increasingly more infaunal species signaling increased organic flux.
Agglutinated species increase in abundance with deeper water.
Species diversity and evenness also increase with depth.
3. Foraminiferal assemblages along the sediment transport route
differ significantly from in-situ faunas. Shelf species travel over the
shelf break, mix with slope species along the way and travel down
the active canyons, which feed their sediment load into the
Capricorn Sea Valley. Symbiont-bearing benthic foraminifera are
deposited early in the valley whereas small tests tend to travel
further. Agglutinated species are relatively minor elements along
the sediment transport route.
4. The detailed seafloor bathymetric model allows assignment of faunal
patterns to broad and subtle topographic features. Within the sediment transport route, small ridges form areas of refuge for more
fragile agglutinated species of which some are suspension feeders.
These generally do not occur in exposed segments along the path.
5. Results have implications for paleoenvironmental interpretations
of ancient marine settings, estimation of paleobathymetry, establishment of allochthonous versus autochthonous elements and
placement of paleocommunities and their associated substrate
within past sea-level cycles.
Acknowledgements
Bruce Hayward and Johann Hohenegger are thanked for their
constructive reviews that improved this manuscript. Financial support
to Schröder-Adams was provided by a Discovery Grant from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
Funding to Boyd was provided by the Australian Research Council
and ConocoPhillips Company. We would like to acknowledge the
important contributions made by the crews of RV Southern Surveyor
voyages 2003/4 and 2005/1. The authors wish to thank the contribution of the Queensland Department of Natural Resources, Mines and
Energy and Queensland Parks and Wildlife for provision of digital
geological data and sediment samples. The assistance of S. Davies, B.
Healy, S. Lang, T. Payenberg, J. Roberts, A. W. Stephens, M. R. Jones and
K. Sircombe on various aspects of the project is gratefully acknowledged. Simon Lang, Tim Rolph, Richard Bale, Vince Thorogood, Geoff
Taylor, Jon Olley, Tim Pietsch and the personnel of GEMOC are
acknowledged for assistance with collection and processing of data.
CSA likes to thank Katrina Adams for laboratory assistance.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2008.05.002.
References
Albani, A.D., 1968. Recent foraminiferida from Port Hacking, New South Wales. Contrib.
Cushman Found. Foraminifer. Res. 19, 85–119.
Albani, A.D., 1970. A foraminiferal fauna from the Eastern Continental Shelf of Australia.
Contrib. Cushman Found. Foraminifer. Res. 21, 7–71.
Albani, A.D., 1978. Recent foraminifera of an estuarine environment in Broken Bay, New
South Wales. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 29, 355–398.
Albani, A.D., Hayward, B.W., Grenfell, H.R., Lombardo, R., 2001. Foraminifera from the
South West Pacific. Australian Biological Resources Study. CD-ROM — ISBN 0 7334
1835 X.
Altenbach, A.V., Sarnthein, M., 1989. Productivity record of benthic foraminifera. In:
Berger, W.H., Smetacek, V.S., Wefer, G. (Eds.), Productivity of the Ocean: Present and
Past. Wiley, New York, pp. 255–269.
Boyd, R., Ruming, K., Davies, S., Payenberg, T., Lang, S.C., 2004. Fraser Island and Hervey Bay — a
classic modern sedimentary environment. In: Boult, P.J., Johns, D.R., Lang, S.C. (Eds.),
Eastern Australian Basins Symposium II: Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia. Spec.
Publ. , pp. 511–521.
Boyd, R., Ruming, K., Goodwin, I., Sandstrom, M., Schröder-Adams, C., 2008. Highstand
transport of coastal sand to the Deep Ocean: a case study from Southeast Australia.
Geology 36, 15–18.
Brunner, C.A., Normark, W.R., 1985. Biostratigraphic implications for turbidite
depositional processes on the Monterey deep-sea fan, central California. J.
Sediment. Petrol. 55, 0495–0505.
Brunner, C.A., Normark, W.R., Zuffa, G.G., Serra, F., 1999. Deep-sea sedimentary record of
the late Wisconsin cataclysmic floods from the Columbia River. Geology 27,
463–466.
Clark, F.E., Patterson, R.T., Fishbein, E., 1994. Distribution of Holocene benthic
foraminifera from the tropical Southwest Pacific Ocean. J. Foraminiferal. Res. 24,
241–267.
Davies, S., 2004. A New Mechanism to Supply Sand to the Deep Ocean. Unpublished
Honours thesis, University of Newcastle.
De Rijk, S., Jorissen, F.J., Troelstra, S.R., 2000. Organic flux control on bathymetric
zonation of Mediterranean benthic Foraminifera. Mar. Micropaleontol. 40, 151–166.
Eyles, C.H., Lagoe, M., 1998. Slump-generated megachannels in the Pliocene–Pleistocene
glaciomarine Yakataga Formation, Gulf of Alaska. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 110, 395–408.
Geirsdottir, A., Jennings, A.E., Lacasse, C.M., Hardardottir, J., 1999. Record of jokulhlaup
activities in Iceland during the late Younger Dryas and the Preboreal; evidence from
land, near-shore, shelf and deep-sea sediments. Geol. Soc. Am., Abstr Programs 31,
314.
Godfrey, J.S., Cresswell, G.R., Golding, T.J., Pearce, A.F., Boyd, R., 1980. The separation of
the East Australian Current. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 10, 430–440.
Gradstein, F.M., Berggren, W.A., 1981. Flysch-type agglutinated foraminifera and the
Maestrichtian to Paleogene history of the Labrador and North Seas. Mar.
Micropaleontol. 6, 211–268.
Hammer, Ø., Harper, D.A.T., 2006. Paleontological Data Analysis. Blackwell Publishing.
351 pp.
Hammer, Ø., Harper, D.A.T., Ryan, P.D., 2001. PAST: paleontological statistics software
package for education and data analysis. Palaeontol. Electronica 4 (1) 9 pp.
Harris, P.T., Tsuji, Y., Marshall, J.F., Davies, P.J., Honda, N., Matsuda, H., 1996. Sand and
rhodolith-gravel entrainment on the mid- to outer-shelf under a western boundary
current: Fraser Island continental shelf, eastern Australia. Mar. Geol. 129, 313–330.
Hohenegger, J., Yordanova, E., 2001. Depth-transport functions and erosion-deposition
diagrams as indicators of slope inclination and time-averaged traction forces:
applications in tropical reef environments. Sedimentology 48, 1025–1046.
Horton, B.P., Larcombe, P., Woodroffe, S.A., Whittaker, J.E., Wright, M.R., Wynn, C., 2003.
Contemporary foraminiferal distributions of a mangrove environment, Great
Barrier Reef coastline, Australia: implications for sea-level reconstructions. Mar.
Geol. 198, 225–243.
James, N.P., Bone, Y., Von der Borch, C.C., Gostin, V.A., 1992. Modern carbonate and
terrigenous clastic sediments on a cool water, high energy, mid-latitude shelf:
Lacepede, southern Australia. Sedimentology 39, 877–903.
Krebs, C.J., 1989. Ecological Methodology. Harper & Row, New York. 654 pp.
Li, Q., McGowran, B., 1994. Miocene upwelling events: neritic foraminiferal evidence
from southern Australia. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 41, 593–603.
Li, Q., McGowran, B., James, N.P., Bone, Y., 1996. Foraminiferal biofacies on the midlatitude Lincoln Shelf, South Australia: oceanographic and sedimentological
implications. Mar. Geol. 129, 285–312.
Loeblich Jr., A.R., Tappan, H., 1994. Foraminifera of the Sahul Shelf and Timor Sea.
Cushman Found. Foraminifer. Res., Spec. Publ. 31 661 pp.
Marshall, J.F., 1977. Marine geology of the Capricorn Channel area. Aust. Dep. Nat. Res.,
Bur. Min. Res. Bull. 163 81 pp.
Mitchell, J.K., Holgate, G.R., Wallace, M.W., Gallagher, S.J., 2007. Marine geology of the
Quaternary Bass Canyon system, southeast Australia: a cool-water carbonate
system. Mar. Geol. 237, 71–96.
Murray, J.W., 1991. Ecology and paleoecology of benthic foraminifera. Longman
Scientific and Technical. Avon. 397 pp.
Normark, W.R., Gutmacher, C.E., Chase, T.E., Wilde, P., 1984. Monterey fan: growth
pattern control by basin morphology and changing sea levels. Geo. Mar. Lett. 3,
93–99.
Olsen, H.C., Damuth, J.E., Thompson, P., Moss, G., 2001. Latest Quaternary studies of
downslope transport within a stratigraphic framework, Gulf of Mexico intraslope
basins area. Abstr Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol. 2001, 148.
Porębski, S.J., Steel, R.J., 2003. Shelf-margin deltas: their stratigraphic significance and
relation to deepwater sands. Earth-Sci. Rev. 62, 283–326.
Posamentier, H.W., Vail, P.R., 1988. Eustatic controls on clastic deposition II — sequence
and systems tract models. In: Wilgus, C.K., Hastings, B.S., Kendall, C.G., Posamentier,
H.W., Ross, C.A., Can Wagoner, J.C. (Eds.), Sea Level Changes: An Intergrated
Approach. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineralog., Spec. Publ., vol. 42, pp. 125–154.
Ribbe, J., 2005. A study into the export of saline water from Hervey Bay, Australia.
Estuarine, Coast. Shelf Sci. 66 (3–4), 550–558.
Roughan, M., Middleton, J., 2002. A comparison of observed upwelling mechanisms off
the east coast of Australia. Cont. Shelf Res. 22, 2551–2572.
Roy, P.S., Thom, B.G., 1991. Cainozoic shelf sedimentation model for the Tasman Sea
margin of southeastern Australia. In: Williams, M.A.J., De Dekker, P., Kershaw, A.P.
(Eds.), The Cainozoic in Australia: a Reappraisal of the Evidence. Geol. Soc. Aust.
Spec. Publ., vol. 18, pp. 119–136.
Roy, P.S., Williams, R.J., Jones, A.R., Yassini, I., Gibbs, P.J., Coates, B., West, R.J., Scanes, P.R.,
Hudson, J.P., Nichol, S., 2001. Structure and function of South-east Australian
estuaries. Estuarine, Coast. Shelf Sci. 53, 351–384.
Sandstrom, M.L., 2005. ‘River of Sand’: An Alternative Modern Source to Sink Analogue
for the Highstand Supply of Reservoir Quality Siliciclastic Sands to a Deepwater
Environment, Offshore Fraser Island, Australia. Unpublished Honours thesis,
University of Adelaide, 112 pp.
Smith, A.J., Gallagher, S.J., Wallace, M., Holgate, G., Daniels, J., Keene, J., 2001. The Recent
temperate foraminiferal biofacies of the Gippsland Shelf: and analogue for Neogene
environmental analyses in southeastern Australia. J. Micropaleontol. 20, 127–142.
Tejan-Kella, M.S., Chittleborough, D.J., Fitzpatrick, R.W., Thompson, C.H., Prescott, J.R.,
Hutton, J.T., 1990. Thermoluminescence dating of coastal sand dunes at Cooloola
and North Stradbroke Island. Aust. J. Soil Res. 28, 465–481.
C.J. Schröder-Adams et al. / Marine Geology 254 (2008) 47–61
Yassini, I., Jones, B.G., 1995. Foraminiferida and Ostracoda from estuarine and shelf
environments on the southeastern coast of Australia. The University of Wollongong
Press. 484 pp.
Yordanova, E.K., Hohenegger, J., 2002. Taphonomy of larger foraminifera: relationships
between living individuals and empty tests on flat reef slopes (Sesoko Island,
Japan). Facies 46, 169–204.
Zuffa, G.G., Normark, W.R., Serra, F., Brunner, C.A., 2000. Turbidite megabeds in an
oceanic rift valley recording jokulhlaups of late Pleistocene glacial lakes of the
Western United States. J. Geol. 108, 253–274.
61
Zuffa, G.G., Fontana, D., Morlotti, E., Premoli Silva, I., Sighinolfi, G.P., Stefani, C., Fontani,
L., 2002. Anatomy of carbonate turbidite mega-beds (M. Cassio Formation, Upper
Cretaceous, Northern Apennines, Italy. Mem. Descrittive della Carta Geol. d'Italia 61,
129–144.