Journal of Research in Reading, ISSN 0141-0423
Volume 24, Issue 2, 2001, pp 135±153
Extensive reading in English: habits
and attitudes of a group of Italian
university EFL students
Belinda Crawford Camiciottoli
Faculty of Economics, University of Florence, Italy
ABSTRACT
Although extensive reading is now recognised as an important element of language
instruction, it appears that EFL students specialising in business studies do little
reading in English beyond course requirements. This study illustrates the findings of
a survey of reading frequency and attitudes related to extensive reading in English. A
questionnaire administered to 182 Italian EFL students at the University of Florence
showed that even if frequency of reading in English is quite low, attitude towards it is
clearly favourable. In addition, multiple regression analysis was used to determine
potentially influential factors. Reading in Italian and experience abroad were significantly correlated with both reading frequency and attitude. The correlation between
past access to English books and reading attitude approached the significance level.
A negative correlation was found instead between the number of years of past
English study and reading attitude. These findings are useful for defining appropriate
instructional actions and identifying areas for further research, with the aim of more
effectively promoting extensive reading in English.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years educators involved in foreign language instruction have become
increasingly aware of the importance of extensive reading, defined by Hafiz and
Tudor (1989, p. 4) as `the reading of large amounts of material in the second
language (L2) over time for personal pleasure or interest, and without the addition of
productive tasks or follow-up language work'. A major benefit of extensive reading
is incidental vocabulary learning, referring to the ability to acquire the meaning of
unknown words when reading, without any direct or specific instruction (Konopak
et al, 1987). Krashen (1989, p. 440) explains this phenomenon with his `Input
Hypothesis' which `assumes that we acquire language by understanding messages',
and further suggests that reading is one of the most effective sources of input in the
subconscious process of incidental vocabulary learning. This theory has its roots in
# United Kingdom Reading Association 2001. Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road,
Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA
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CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI
vocabulary acquisition at the level of native language (L1), but as pointed out by
Krashen (1989) and Dupuy, Tse and Cook (1996), there are many shared aspects in
the development of reading skills in L1 and L2. Two related studies have addressed
incidental vocabulary learning in L2 contexts. In a replication of a study done at
the level of native language (Saragi, Nation and Meister, 1978), Pitts, White and
Krashen (1989) found that adult ESL students demonstrated significant levels of
incidental learning of unknown words measured by a test given after reading two
chapters from A Clockwork Orange. Day, Omura and Hiramatsu (1991) observed
that the scores of Japanese students in high-school and college-level EFL classes were
significantly higher than those of control groups on a vocabulary test given after
reading an assigned mystery story.
In the specific context of free extensive reading in L2, other studies have suggested
further benefits. Both Robb and Susser (1989) and Mason and Krashen (1997)
conducted experiments with Japanese EFL college students to investigate the effects
of reading self-selected books on comprehension. In both studies, reading comprehension post-test scores indicated that the extensive reading method produced
superior results compared to more traditional approaches to L2 reading instruction.
In research investigating the effect of voluntary reading of various types of materials
(e.g. books, magazines and newspapers) on spelling skills (Polak and Krashen, 1988),
positive correlations were shown between the volume of voluntary reading and
spelling accuracy. An experiment with a group of 10-year-old Pakistani pupils in
Britain found that the experimental group which had participated in an extensive
reading programme had significant improvements in post-test scores for reading and
writing skills as compared to two control groups (Hafiz and Tudor, 1989).
With specific reference to reading frequency and attitudes, there is a paucity of
research at the level of EFL instruction in higher education. The few studies relating
to this topic were, in fact, conducted in somewhat different instructional contexts.
Mokhtari and Sheorey (1994) investigated the reading habits of international
students enrolled in ESL courses at an American university, in relation to educational level (undergraduate/graduate) and high/low English proficiency levels. Their
findings indicated that these variables did not significantly influence the volume of
non-academic reading. Davis et al (1992) conducted a survey of the attitudes of
American college students enrolled in foreign language courses (Spanish and French)
towards the study of foreign language literature. While the correlation between selfperception of reading ability and attitude approached the level of significance, they
were surprised to find that contact with the culture of the target language did not
significantly influence attitudes towards foreign literature study. In a study that dealt
with students' perceptions of the importance of pleasure reading in the native
language, White et al (1987) found that college freshman were keenly aware of its
efficacy as a means of vocabulary acquisition. However, the same authors also
mentioned previous research they had carried out in which US college students
studying Spanish as a second language did not place much value on reading as an
effective way to learn new vocabulary.
Although limited in number and scope, the above studies support the case for
extensive reading in L2 contexts. In spite this evidence, most teachers would
probably agree that, generally speaking, EFL students do little reading in English
that goes beyond required course textbooks. Yet I occasionally encounter students
who demonstrate a superior level of vocabulary. When asked where they learned
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these words, the answer usually refers to some sort of leisure-time reading in English,
often totally unrelated to the course curriculum. Unfortunately, these students
represent the exception and not the rule. This perception is, in fact, the inspiration
for this exploratory classroom study undertaken at the Faculty of Economics at the
University of Florence (Italy), with specific reference to students enrolled in the twoyear English course in fulfilment of the foreign language requirement for a degree in
Business Administration. The English course is mainly content-based and successful
completion requires a proficiency level ranging from upper intermediate to advanced.
About 90% of the students have studied English for five years or more. The students
generally appear to be quite motivated toward improving their language skills.
Moreover, most students demonstrate personal initiative, perseverance and good
self-management skills. This is probably due to the typically unstructured study
experience of Italian universities as compared to their Anglo-Saxon counterparts. In
most courses, class attendance is not mandatory. Students may prepare for final
examinations on their own on the basis of a course syllabus and reading materials
list, with essentially no formal feedback on progress throughout the term. Therefore,
academic success is closely linked to self-discipline and self-monitoring. Given this
scenario, there would seem to be a great deal of potential for extensive reading
in English. However, informal observations in this teaching environment suggest
that reading frequency is indeed quite low, with very few `exceptions'. The first step
towards understanding this apparent discrepancy is to achieve a clearer understanding of the actual reading frequency and attitudes relating to reading in English.
This knowledge may then be used to develop measures to effectively implement an
extensive reading programme, with particular emphasis on encouraging students to
read books, in addition to other less voluminous types or reading materials such as
magazines or newspapers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gain further
insight by conducting a survey that addressed the following research questions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
How frequently do students read in English?
What are students' attitudes toward reading in English?
What are the reasons that may limit frequency?
Which factors may influence frequency and attitudes?
METHOD
Subjects
The subjects of the study were a group of 182 EFL students (93 males and 89
females), corresponding to nine regularly-scheduled classes.
Survey instrument
A 22 item questionnaire was designed specifically for this study to collect data on
frequency and attitude (dependent variables) relating to extensive reading in English,
and the factors (independent variables) believed to influence them:
a. Years of previous English study (items 3±4)
b. Past access to English books (item 5)
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c.
d.
e.
f.
CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI
Encouragement to read in English for pleasure (item 6)
Self-perception of reading ability in English (items 7-8)
Experience in an English-speaking culture (items 9±10)
Frequency of reading books in Italian (items 11±12).
These variables were selected on the basis of indications from previous research
(Walberg and Tsai, 1985; Greaney and Hegarty, 1987; Davis et al, 1992; Mokhtari
and Sheorey, 1994), as well as from personal teaching experience. For example,
variables a and d involve aspects of English proficiency level, which would presumably play a role in reading frequency and attitude. The remaining variables (b, c,
e and f ) were identified with particular reference to this learning environment:
experience in the Anglo-Saxon culture (which many Italian students have) and
factors related to the value of reading both in English and Italian, which appeared to
be important with these business students who may not be especially literatureoriented.
The questionnaire was formulated in the native language of the students in an
effort to avoid possible failure to completely understand items (a complete English
translation is provided in the Appendix). It was structured into three parts. Part 1
included general data and probed for baseline information relating to the first five
independent variables. Part 2 was dedicated to frequency. It included the last
independent variable (frequency of reading books in Italian) and three items (13±15)
on frequency of reading in English. The latter was measured also in terms of reading
volume and the types of materials read, which in addition to books, included
magazines, newspapers and lyrics to pop/rock songs. Part 3 inquired about attitude
(items 16±21), measuring such aspects as the desire to read more, the degree of
willingness to find time to read and an awareness of the value of reading in English.
Reasons for not reading were also surveyed since they imply a certain attitude,
especially from the viewpoint of reading potential. For example, a student who reads
little in English primarily because of lack of access to reading materials or knowledge
of what to read would presumably have a more favourable attitude than one who
does not read because of low interest or unwillingness to find time. The last item of
the questionnaire (22) was included simply as a source of information for future
library acquisitions about the genres of books students would be interested in reading
(results not reported in this paper).
The validity of the questionnaire was addressed in several ways. Ten-minute faceto-face interviews were carried out with 20 students in a preliminary phase one
month prior to development of the survey instrument (methodology suggested by
Converse and Presser, 1988). The purpose was to obtain some general indications
concerning frequency/attitude and to inquire about what types of English materials
students may read in order to focalise the most important variables and discover
possible new ones. In fact, it was through these interviews that the four types of
reading materials (books, magazines, newspapers and lyrics to pop/rock songs) were
identified and the variables `past access to English books' and `encouragement to
read' emerged. According to a technique suggested by Gambrell et al (1996) for the
confirmation of construct validity, a preliminary version of the questionnaire was
submitted to six colleagues of university-level EFL instruction who were asked to
sort the items into categories according to the dependent and independent variables
they were intended to measure. Incorrectly sorted items were either rephrased or
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eliminated. In order to lower the risk of automatic response patterns, a 4-point
response scale which deliberately omits a middle, non-committal option was
implemented, rather than a 5-point Likert-type scale (McKenna and Kear, 1990).
Similarly, the response alternative order was purposely varied. Some options proceed
from most frequent/positive to least frequent/positive, while others follow a reversed
pattern from `least' to `most' (Gambrell et al, 1996). Finally, the questionnaire was
piloted with a group of 15 students.
To confirm the reliability of the instrument, the test-retest method was used (as
described by Best and Kahn, 1993). The questionnaire was administered a second
time to 20 students from the original group of 182 six weeks after the first administration. The reliability coefficient (Pearson r) was 0.89.
Administration procedures
The questionnaire was administered to students during the last 20 minutes of regular
class periods. Students were first given a brief verbal explanation of the purpose of
the survey, followed by specific clarification of the term `leisure-time reading in
English' (i.e. voluntary reading done during free time without any type of academic
or work-related follow-up activity). All of the completed questionnaires were
collected immediately at the end of the class. None of the students declined to
participate.
Analysis
The 4-point response scale operationally defined all variables. Four points were
awarded for the highest frequency/quantity/intensity or most positive degree of the
characteristic measured and one point was assigned for the lowest frequency/
quantity/intensity or least positive degree. For example, items 9 and 10 measured
experience in an English-speaking country according to length and purpose of stay;
tourism/vacation was considered the least intense language contact and was assigned
one point, while conducting real-life business was considered the most intense and
was assigned four points. Most items offered a closed response format from four
options, although three items asked students to rank options. In item 14, students
were asked to rank the four types of reading materials (books, magazines, newspapers and lyrics to pop/rock songs) according to which they read most often. The
maximum score of 4 was given if `books' were ranked highest, 3 for `magazines', 2 for
`newspapers' and 1 for `lyrics to pop/rock songs'. The rationale behind this scoring
criteria is based on the connection between volume and frequency in the context
of extensive reading. For example, it is assumed that most books that an adult
would read would be more voluminous with a more extensive development of a given
topic than articles from magazines, newspapers or lyrics found on compact disks.
Therefore, a student who reads books more frequently than other less voluminous
materials is likely to dedicate more time to reading, and thus was assigned maximum
points for frequency. Items 17 and 20 asked subjects to rank three options from a list
of six: three reasons that limit book reading in English and three reasons why they
consider reading in English important. In scoring these items, it was necessary to
make certain assumptions based on the underlying implications of the options
selected. For example, with reference to item 17, a person who has a relatively
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CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI
favourable attitude toward reading books in English should be willing to find some
time for it. Moreover, a student who cites `lack of time' as the reason for limited
reading implies lower reading potential than a student who instead cites `no access to
books' or `not knowing what to read'. Therefore, the three reasons (a, c and e ± Type
A) which were not time-related were assumed to reflect a more favourable attitude.
The remaining three reasons (b, d, and f ± Type B) based only on lack of time or
disinterest were considered to indicate a relatively less favourable attitude. Similarly,
for item 20, three options (b, d and f ± Type A) revealed a broader awareness of the
value of reading in English and its importance in ongoing literacy. The other three
options (a, c and e ± Type B) corresponded to an essentially short-term or utilitarian
view. These two items were scored as follows:
4
3
2
1
points:
points:
points:
point:
all option Type A responses
two option Type A responses/one option type B response
two option Type B responses/one option type A response
all option Type B responses
RESULTS
The descriptive data collected from the questionnaires provided information concerning the actual reading frequency and attitudes, as well as the reasons that might
limit reading (research questions 1±3).
Figure 1. L2 reading frequency index
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To measure L2 reading frequency, the scores of the three corresponding items
(13, 14 and 15) were added together for each questionnaire. Scores ranged from a
minimum of 1 (1 point for item 13, while skipping items 14 and 15) to a maximum of
12 (4 points for each item). The mean score was 4.7. Figure 1 shows the resulting
reading frequency index.
The same procedure was used to measure L2 reading attitude, based on the
combined score of the six items (16±21) designed to measure different aspects of
reading attitude. Scores ranged from a minimum of 3 (1 point for items 16, 19 and 21,
while skipping items 17, 18 and 20) to a maximum of 24 (4 points for each item). The
mean score was 18. The reading attitude index is illustrated in Figure 2.
The individual scores of the frequency and attitude sub-scales were then compared
in order to understand how these two variables might interact in forming student
reading profiles. Ranges were established by taking into consideration the mean
scores of the two subscales and an analysis of what various scores actually revealed.
The following sub-scale score ranges resulted, indicating high versus low frequency
and positive versus negative attitude:
.
.
.
.
high frequency score of 8 or above
low frequency score of 5 or below
positive attitude score of 18 or above
negative attitude score of 12 or below
Figure 2. L2 reading attitude index
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CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI
Thus, for the frequency sub-scale, a score of 5 was considered to indicate low
frequency. This is because it was possible to score up to three points by only
occasionally reading lyrics to pop songs, and no books, magazines or newspapers
whatsoever. Instead, to score 8 or above it was necessary to read magazines or books
at least twice a month. For the attitude sub-scale, a score of 12 or below (an average
score of 2 or below on each of the 6 items) essentially expressed a less favourable or,
at best, uncertain view of reading in English. A score of 18 or above (an average score
of 3 or above on each item) indicated a positive attitude.
On this basis, frequency counts of various sub-scale combinations were taken and,
as illustrated in Figure 3, three key student reading profiles emerged. The profile of
low frequency/positive attitude (41.8%) represents the largest group of students.
Relatively few students correspond to high frequency/positive attitude (12.1%) and
low frequency/negative attitude (6.6%). As to be expected, the remaining 39.5% fall
somewhere in the `middle ground' of frequency and attitude. However, keeping in
mind the instructional aims of this study, the more sharply defined reading profiles
provide clearer indications in terms of reading potential.
A separate analysis of item 17 which identified reasons that limit reading in
English resulted in further attitudinal indications. Percentages and ranking of
reasons are shown in Table 1. The data indicate that lack of time is perceived as the
most important reason for limited reading in English. In fact, the two combined
time-related options account for almost half of the total responses (48.1%).
Moreover, with reference to the 29.4% who had cited `lack of time due to studies',
61.9% of them ranked it as the first reason. The third and fourth most frequently
cited reasons referred to `logistical' problems, such as `no access to books' and `not
knowing what to read', which together represent almost 30% of the total responses.
Figure 3. Key L2 reading profiles
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Relatively few students indicated `too difficult to understand' (12.5%) and `no desire
to read in English' (8.1%).
Further analysis of item 20 revealed a different aspect of student attitudes: their
level of awareness of the broader value of reading in English, as opposed to a shortterm pragmatic view. Table 2 illustrates that when students were asked why they
considered it important, the two reasons most frequently cited were `to acquire a
wider vocabulary' and `to enhance literacy in general', accounting for about 58% of
the total responses. These two reasons, together with the other reason indicating a
broader awareness ('to learn about other cultures'), represented over 70% of all
responses. In addition, 73.2% of the students who had cited `to acquire wider a
vocabulary' ranked it as the first reason.
In order to gain further insight into factors that may have some influence on
reading frequency and attitudes in this instructional context (research question 4),
multiple regression analysis was carried out. In the process of selecting variables as
best predictors for the regression model, correlations were first obtained. On this
basis, two questionnaire items were then selected to represent the dependent variable
frequency: item 13 (frequency of reading any type of English materials) and item 15
(number of English books read in the last 12 months). Another two were selected for
the dependent variable attitude: item 17 (attitude based on reasons cited for limited
reading) and item 19 (opinion expressed on the importance of reading). Separate
regression analyses were run for the two items representing each of the dependent
variables as a way to reinforce any significant relationships if the same items
representing independent variables were correlated with both.
Table 1. Reasons limiting extensive reading in English (item 17).
1. Reasons cited
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
%
29.4
18.7
17.2
12.5
12.5
8.1
1.6
lack of time due to studies
lack of time in general
not knowing what to read
no access to English books
too difficult to understand
no desire to read in English
other reason
Total
2. Ranking of reasons
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
lack of time due to studies
lack of time in general
not knowing what to read
no access to English books
too difficult to understand
no desire to read in English
other reason
100
1st reason
%
2nd reason
%
3rd reason
%
Total
%
61.9
32.0
16.9
7.7
52.3
9.5
12.5
32.2
51.5
33.7
29.2
16.9
31.0
12.5
5.9
16.5
49.4
63.1
30.8
59.5
75.0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
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CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI
Table 2. Reasons why reading in English is important (item 20).
1. Reasons cited
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
%
acquire wider vocabulary
enhance general literacy
useful for career
learn about other cultures
useful for English course
useful for other courses
other reason
31.4
26.1
14.8
12.8
10.7
3.6
0.6
Total
2. Ranking of reasons
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
acquire wider vocabulary
enhance general literacy
useful for career
learn about other cultures
useful for English course
useful for other courses
other reason
100
1st reason
%
2nd reason
%
3rd reason
%
Total
%
73.2
22.1
14.3
14.9
7.1
5.3
33.3
20.7
50.0
28.6
31.4
41.1
36.8
±
6.1
27.9
57.1
53.7
51.8
57.9
66.7
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Table 3 illustrates the results of regression analysis with the two items representing
the dependent variable frequency. The same two independent variables (represented
by items 9 and 12) correlated significantly with both items. `Time spent in an Englishspeaking country' (item 9) was significant (t = 2.478, p50.05 [item 13] and t = 2.087,
p50.05 [item 15]) as was item 12 `number of books read in Italian in the last 12
months' (t = 3.608, p50.05 [item 13] and t = 3.282, p50.05 [item 15]). This means
that the more time spent abroad and the more books read in Italian, the more
frequently students read in English. For item 15, the independent variable `past
access to English books' was very close to the significance level (t = 1.960, p % 0.05),
suggesting that students who were provided with English books to read in the
past, may tend to read more frequently in English in the present. In addition, for
item 13, the attribute variable `sex' was also significant (t = 2.094, p50.05). Further
separate analysis of this item revealed that the males were much more frequent
readers of other types of materials, in particular magazines and newspapers, than the
females.
Table 4 shows the results of regression analyses for the two items representing
attitude. The independent variable `years of previous study in English' (item 3) was
negatively correlated with both items (t = 2.095, p50.05 [item 17] and t = 2.231,
p50.05 [item 19] ); the more years students had studied English at school or
university, the less willing they are to find time for reading and the less they consider
it important (and vice versa). For item 17, again the independent variable `number of
books read in Italian' (item 12) was significantly correlated (t = 2.832, p50.05),
suggesting that the more books students read during leisure time in Italian, the more
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Table 3. Multiple regression: frequency of extensive reading in English.
1. Frequency of reading any type of English materials (item 13)
Independent variables
a. Intercept
b. Sex
c. Age 1: 20±25
d. Age 2: 26±30
e. Private course/lessons
f. Past access to English books
g. Self-rating of reading ability
h. Time spent in English-speaking country
i. N. of books read in Italian in last 12 months
R = 0.4332
R2 = 0.1876
Adjusted R2 =0.1500
F (8,173) = 4.9955 p50.00001
Std. error of estimate: 0.82150
Beta
B
SE of B
t(173)
p-value*
0.1500
70.2965
70.4661
70.0444
0.0299
0.1087
0.1844
0.2714
1.6951
0.2667
70.5738
70.9168
70.0378
0.0268
0.1309
0.1485
0.2058
0.5781
0.1273
0.5060
0.5091
0.0661
0.0677
0.0863
0.0599
0.0571
2.2932
2.0943
71.1340
71.8010
70.5714
0.3952
1.5173
2.4782
3.6081
0.0038
0.0377*
0.2584
0.0735
0.5684
0.6932
0.1310
0.0141*
0.0004*
2. Number of English books read in the last 12 months (item 15)
Independent variables
a. Intercept
b. Sex
c. Age 1: 20-25
d. Age 2: 26-30
e. Private course/lessons
f. Past access to English books
g. Self-rating of English ability
h. Time spent in English-speaking country
i. N. of books read in Italian in last 12 months
R = 0.4525
R2 = 0.2047
Adjusted R2 = 0.1680
F (8,173) = 5.5684 p50.00000
Std. error of estimate: 0.68672
Beta
B
SE of B
t(173)
p-value*
0.0012
70.0495
70.1450
0.1102
0.1469
0.0261
0.1537
0.2443
0.2733
0.0018
70.0809
70.2410
0.0792
0.1110
0.0266
0.1046
0.1565
0.4832
0.1064
0.4230
0.4256
0.0553
0.0566
0.0721
0.0501
0.0477
0.5655
0.0167
70.1913
70.5662
1.4331
1.9603
0.3686
2.0874
3.2821
0.5724
0.9867
0.8485
0.5720
0.1536
0.0516
0.7129
0.0383*
0.0012*
n = 182
* Significant at p50.05
willing they are to find time to do the same in English. For item 19, the independent
variable `purpose of stay in an English-speaking country' (articulated into vacation,
study, part-time work or business) emerged as significantly correlated (t = 2.593,
p50.05). More specifically, students whose stay in an English-speaking country was
for reasons of study or work consider reading in English more important than
students who had never been abroad or if so, only for tourism or vacation.
With reference to the results of regression analysis in general, it should be noted
that, in any case, correlation does not suggest cause, but merely indicates a more or
less strong relationship.
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Table 4. Multiple regression: attitude toward extensive reading in English.
1. Attitude based on degree of willingness to find time to read as implied by reasons cited for limited
extensive reading (item 17)
Independent variables
a. Intercept
b. Sex
c. Age 1: 20±25
d. Age 2: 26±30
e. Years of previous study
f. Past access to English books
g. Self-rating of reading ability
h. Purpose of stay in English-speaking country
i. N of books read in Italian in last 12 months
R = 0.3671
R2 = 0.1348
Adjusted R2 = 0.0948
F (8,173) = 3.3696, p50.00129
Std. error of estimate: 0.80830
Beta
B
SE of B
t(173)
p-value*
70.1159
0.0382
0.1001
70.1579
70.0989
70.1107
0.0702
0.2204
2.8986
70.1964
0.0705
0.1878
70.1651
70.0843
70.1271
0.0629
0.1594
0.5723
0.1253
0.4895
0.4959
0.0788
0.0653
0.0869
0.0663
0.0563
5.0649
71.5681
0.1440
0.3786
72.0951
71.2904
71.4629
0.9483
2.8322
0.0000
0.1187
0.8856
0.7054
0.0376*
0.1986
0.1453
0.3443
0.0052*
2. Opinion on importance of extensive reading in English (item 19)
Independent variables
a. Intercept
b. Sex
c. Age 1: 20-25
d. Age 2: 26-30
e. Years of previous study
f. Past access to English books
g. Self-rating of reading ability
h. Purpose of stay in English-speaking country
i. N. of books read in Italian in last 12 months
R = 0.3178
R2 = 0.1010
Adjusted R2 =0.0594
F (8,173) = 2.4299 p50.01633
Std. error of estimate: 0.62554
Beta
B
SE of B
t(173)
p-value*
70.0919
70.3765
70.2142
70.1714
0.0312
0.0060
0.1957
70.0860
4.3726
70.1182
70.5274
70.3050
70.1361
0.0202
0.0052
0.1330
70.0472
0.4429
0.0969
0.3788
0.3838
0.0610
0.0506
0.0672
0.0513
0.0436
9.8727
71.2193
71.3922
70.7948
72.2312
0.3994
0.0778
2.5937
71.0843
0.0000
0.2244
0.1656
0.4278
0.0269*
0.6900
0.9381
0.0103*
0.2797
n = 182
*Significant at p50.05
DISCUSSION
The reading frequency and attitude indexes, in addition to the three key reading
profiles identified, indicate that while most students have not developed the habit of
reading in English (low mean frequency score of 4.7), their attitude toward it is
actually quite positive (high mean score of 18.0). In order to find a plausible
explanation for the low frequency, it is necessary to examine further the data
collected on the reasons why students do little reading in English for pleasure. Since
almost half the students cited time-related reasons for limited reading in English,
# United Kingdom Reading Association 2001
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it would seem that this is a question of low priority among these students who are
apparently unable or unwilling to find sufficient time for it. It is interesting to note
that reading frequency in the native language is also relatively low. A separate
descriptive analysis of item 11 revealed that 11% never read books in Italian for
pleasure and only 23.6% are regular book readers in Italian. Thus, low reading
frequency in L1 may also carry over into L2. With reference to both frequency and
attitude, the fact that about one-third of the students indicated `logistical' reasons for
limited reading (`no access to English books' and/or `not knowing what to read') is
quite encouraging. It might be assumed that if these obstacles were overcome, at least
some students could be `won over' to reading.
An explanation for the generally favourable attitude and high level of awareness of
the value of reading English, reaching far beyond a short-term utilitarian vision, can
perhaps be found in the growing Anglo-Saxon influence on the Italian culture. For
example, the Italian language is full of English loanwords and previously unknown
concepts such as `fast food' and `shopping malls' are now widespread. This trend,
together with an understanding of the increasing importance of international
relations in relation to employment prospects, may be responsible for this positive
outcome.
From the multiple regression analysis, it seems that two factors have a determining
influence since they were significantly correlated with both attitude and frequency.
The first, relating to the habit of reading books in Italian, would seem to support the
idea that the factors that apparently contribute to moulding a person into a `reader'
in L1 can also be transferred into reading in a foreign language. Studies in the native
language with children have suggested that home environment factors (e.g. parental
encouragement and modelling, and availability of reading materials in the home)
also influence reading attitude and frequency (Walberg and Tsai, 1985; Greaney and
Hegarty, 1987). The strength of the second factor ('experience in the target language
culture') can perhaps be explained in two ways. First, students who take advantage
of an opportunity to spend some time in an English-speaking country are probably
already more motivated toward the language and culture to begin with. This
motivation is likely to be enhanced by the experience itself, which could in turn spark
more interest in reading in English. Second, the cross-cultural experience helps
students build schemata for the English language and culture that they can draw on
in order to increase their comprehension and enjoyment when reading. Davis et al
(1992) instead found no significant correlation between contact with target culture
and attitude towards reading foreign language literature among American college
students. They suggest that the content of much foreign language literature may be
too far removed from the authentic cultural experiences of students who have
travelled. Therefore, it provides few opportunities for activating schemata and may
thus constitute a source of frustration. However, this study was undertaken in a
clearly different context and with a genre restriction that is incompatible with the
concept of extensive reading.
The most unexpected finding was the negative correlation of years of previous
English study in both of the attitude items regressed. I had anticipated that the longer
students had studied English at school or university (probably corresponding to
higher ability level and more exposure to the language and culture), the more positive
their attitude toward reading would be. Perhaps the attitude of students who have
studied English for many years has become `fossilised' and inclined towards defeat# United Kingdom Reading Association 2001
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CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI
ism. This notion seems to be supported by a separate analysis of the two questionnaire items dealing with self-perception of reading ability. Despite several years of
language study, 57.1% of the students perceived their general comprehension level as
ranging from average to low (item 7). Only 53.8% felt that they could almost always
`get the gist' of what they read in English (item 8). Thus, the rather low confidence
level may discourage students from associating reading in English with a pleasant
leisure-time activity, causing them to be less willing to find time to read and less
convinced of its importance. This idea would also be supported by the other side of
the negative correlation: fewer years of previous English study are related to more
positive attitudes. Students who have studied English for fewer years were older and
more mature when they began studying, and freer from possible conditioning
experiences of middle and high school. However, it would be necessary to investigate
further both attitudes about the quality of past EFL instruction and the specific
nature of students' reading problems in order to better understand this seemingly
paradoxical outcome.
Two variables were consistently and surprisingly non-significant and often poorly
correlated with both frequency and attitude: `self-perception of reading ability in
English' and `past encouragement to read in English'. I had expected the first variable (probably corresponding to more/less confidence and ease in reading) to have a
significant positive correlation with frequency and attitude. The lack of correlation
with both variables may be connected to the low level of confidence in reading ability
and the implied negative perception of previous English instruction mentioned above.
The significant correlation of the attribute variable `sex', indicating that the males
were much more frequent readers of other types of materials (in particular, magazines and newspapers) than the females could be related to what I have noticed as
different career aspirations. The males seem to be more interested in international
business enterprise which is often addressed in the British and American business
press. On the other hand, the females tend to aspire to careers in accounting or public
administration, normally in an Italian context.
CONCLUSIONS
From an instructional point of view, the most encouraging result of this survey was
the approaching significance level of the variable `past access to English books' for
frequency. The only previous related research that had taken access into consideration involved children at the level of native language (Walberg and Tsai, 1985;
Greaney and Hegarty, 1987). However, the results of this study suggest that access
(both past and present) may continue to have an important role at the level of higher
education and perhaps deserves more attention. Moreover, unlike other factors
which were shown to have some influence, access to reading materials is something
that can be more easily controlled in the learning environment. Therefore, priority
should be given to furnishing classrooms and libraries with a wide variety of books
and other types of literature as a means of encouraging students to read in English.
To deal with the problem `lack of time', which was the most cited reason for limited
reading in English, it is important to investigate ways of integrating an extensive
reading programme into the curriculum. Since the current syllabus already focuses
on reading strategies for the business press and economics textbooks, an extensive
# United Kingdom Reading Association 2001
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reading programme would constitute a further application and consolidation of these
skills. For example, students could be required to read a self-selected English book
during a semester and then have the opportunity to participate in informal discussion
groups.
Once an extensive reading programme has been implemented, research in this area
should continue. Previous reports on extensive reading programmes (Davis, 1995;
Constantino, 1994) have indicated some beneficial effects, mainly with reference to
attitudes. However, since these were of an essentially non-empirical pre-experimental
nature, it would be worthwhile to set up an experimental study in an effort to
quantify improvements in reading skills and vocabulary acquisition. Moreover, it
might also be interesting to conduct a second survey to determine student reactions
to the programme and then compare it to this study to identify possible changes in
reading attitudes.
Finally, the dearth of studies on reading habits and attitudes in the specific context
of EFL instruction in higher education indicates that considerably more research is
warranted. This study was limited to Italian business majors; a survey of students of
other nationalities and disciplines could produce entirely different results. Moreover,
the diverse findings of the few existing studies in related contexts suggest that learning environment (EFL versus ESL versus native English-speakers learning a foreign
language) may have an important influence. Further studies would allow a comparison of the results of different settings that could give important instructional
insight on the potential role of environmental variables.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank Francesca Pierotti and Giampiero M. Gallo of the
University of Florence Department of Statistics for their assistance and advice.
REFERENCES
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sciences: n. 63. Survey questions: handcrafting the standardized questionnaire. Beverly Hills: Sage
Publications.
CONSTANTINO, R. (1994) Pleasure reading helps, even if readers don't believe it. Journal of Reading, 37, 504±
505.
DAVIS, C. (1995) Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance? ELT Journal, 49, 329±335.
DAVIS, J. N., KLINE R. R., CARBON GORELL, L. and HSIEH, G. (1992) Readers and foreign languages: a survey of
undergraduate attitudes toward the study of literature. The Modern Language Journal, 76, 320±332.
DAY, R. R., OMURA, C. and HIRAMATSU, M. (1991) Incidental EFL vocabulary learning and reading. Reading
in a Foreign Language, 7, 541±549.
DUPUY, B., TSE, L. and COOK, T. (1996) Bringing books into the classroom: first steps in turning college-level
ESL students into readers. TESOL Journal, 5, 10±15.
GAMBRELL, L. B., MARTIN PALMER, B., CODLING, R. M. and ANDERS MAZZONI, S. (1996) Assessing motivation to
read. The Reading Teacher, 49, 518±533.
GREANEY, V. and HEGARTY, M. (1987) Correlates of leisure-time reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 10,
3±20.
HAFIZ, F. M. and TUDOR, I. (1989) Extensive reading and the development of language skills. ELT Journal,
43, 4±13.
BEST, J. W.
CONVERSE, J.
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and THAMES, D. (1987) Incidental
vs. intentional word learning from context. Reading Psychology, 8, 7±21.
KRASHEN, S. (1989) We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: additional evidence for the input
hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 73, 440±463.
MASON, B. and KRASHEN, S. (1997) Extensive reading in English as a Foreign Language. System, 25, 91±102.
MCKENNA, M. C. and KEAR, D. J. (1990) Measuring attitude toward reading: a new tool for teachers. The
Reading Teacher, 43, 626±639.
MOKHTARI, K. and SHEOREY, R. (1994) Reading habits of university EFL students at different levels of
English proficiency and education. Journal of Research in Reading, 17, 46±61.
PITTS, M., WHITE, H. and KRASHEN, S. (1989) Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading: a
replication of the Clockwork Orange Study using second language acquirers. Reading in a Foreign
Language, 5, 271±275.
POLAK, J. and KRASHEN, S. (1988) Do we need to teach spelling? The relationship between spelling and
voluntary reading among community college ESL students. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 141±146.
ROBB, T. N. and SUSSER, B. (1989) Extensive reading vs. skills building in an EFL context. Reading in a
Foreign Language, 5, 239±251.
SARAGI T., NATION, P. and MEISTER, G. (1978). Vocabulary learning and reading. System 6, 70±78.
WALBERG, H. J. and TSAI, S. (1985) Correlates of reading achievement and attitude: a national assessment
study. Journal of Educational Research, 78, 159±167.
WHITE, H., VIERMA, G., HEE-WON, K., KRASHEN, S. and TRITICA D. (1987) Attitudes toward vocabulary
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KONOPAK, B., SHEARD, C., LONGMAN, D., LYMAN, B., SLATON, E., ATKINSON, R.
Address for correspondence: BELINDA CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI, Faculty of
Economics, University of Florence, Via Curtatone, 1, 50123 Firenze ± FI (Italy).
E-mail: [email protected]
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APPENDIX: ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF EXTENSIVE READING
QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTIONNAIRE ON READING IN ENGLISH
The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect information on the habits, motivations and opinions of the
students enrolled in the current English course of the Faculty of Economics concerning reading in English
during leisure time. This means reading in English that is not for academic purposes (for course requirements or exam preparation) and not for professional reasons.
The questionnaire has 22 items and takes 10-15 minutes to fill out. Please do not sign your name. All
answers will be anonymous. Thank you for taking the time to answer these questions thoughtfully and
sincerely.
Instructions: please place a check ([) in the space before the option that applies to you
PART 1 ± GENERAL INFORMATION AND BASELINE DATA
1. Sex: ____ M ____ F
2. Age: ____ 20-25 ____ 26-30 ____ over 30
3. How many years have you studied English? (sum together past and present studies)
____ 2-4
_____ 5-6
____ 4-5
_____ more than 6
4. Have you ever attended private or extra-curricular English courses or lessons?
____ yes, for more than a year
_____ yes, for a few weeks
____ yes, for a few months
_____ no, never
5. During your previous studies, did you have access to books in English to read for
pleasure?
____ yes, often
_____ rarely
____ sometimes
_____ no, never
scoring
area
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
6. In the past, were you ever encouraged to read for pleasure in English by a teacher?
____ no, never
_____ sometimes
____ hardly ever
_____ yes, very much
[_]
7. In reading for pleasure in English, how would you rate your comprehension level?
____ low (wide use of dictionary)
_____ good
____ average
_____ very good (little use of dictionary)
[_]
8. If you do not know the meaning of all the words when reading in English, are you able to
understand the gist of what you read?
____ yes, almost always
_____ rarely
____ sometimes
_____ no, I always need to use a dictionary
9. Have you spent any time in a country where English is the dominant language?
____ no, never (skip to question n. 11) _____ yes, 2-4 weeks
____ yes, 1-15 days
_____ yes, more than a month
10. What was the purpose of your stay?
____ tourism/vacation
_____ part-time work
____ study
_____ business
____ other (write your answer) ____________________________________________
[_]
[_]
[_]
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CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI
PART 2 ± EXTENSIVE READING HABITS: FREQUENCY AND PREFERENCES
scoring
area
11. In your leisure time, how often do you read books in Italian
____ at least once a week (or more often)
____ once every 1-2 months
____ sometimes (for example, during vacation periods)
____ never, I prefer to do other things during my leisure time (skip to question n. 13)
[_]
12. In the last 12 months, how many books have you read for pleasure in Italian?
____ 1±2
____ 3±5
____ 6±8
____ more than 8
[_]
13. How often do you read something in English for pleasure?
____ at least once a week (or more often)
____ once every 1-2 months
____ sometimes (for example, during vacation periods)
____ never (skip to question n. 16)
[_]
14. What do you usually read in English during your leisure time?
Rank according to what you read most frequently. Write 1 for the type of reading material
you read the most frequently, 2 for the second type and 3 for the third.
____ lyrics of pop, rock songs
____ newspapers
____ magazines
____ books
[_]
15. In the last 12 months, how many books in English have you read for pleasure?
____ 0
____ 1±2
____ 3±4
____ more than 4
[_]
PART 3 ± READING FOR PLEASURE IN ENGLISH: MOTIVATIONS AND
OPINIONS
scoring
area
16. Would you like to read more books in English for pleasure than you do now?
____ definitely yes
____ probably yes
____ not sure
____ no, I'm not interested in reading more in English (skip to question n. 19)
[_]
17. Why don't you read more books in English for pleasure?
From the list below, rank at least three reasons in order of importance. Write 1 for the most
important reason, 2 for the second and 3 for the third.
a. _____ it's too difficult because of my limited level of comprehension
b. _____ lack of time due to university studies
c. _____ I don't know which books to read
d. _____ lack of time (work, family commitments, etc.)
e. _____ I don't have access to books in English
f. _____ I don't want to read in English during leisure time
g. _____ other reason (write here)____________________________________________
[_]
(continues)
# United Kingdom Reading Association 2001
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PART 3 ± READING FOR PLEASURE IN ENGLISH: MOTIVATIONS AND
OPINIONS (continued)
scoring
area
18. If you had access to interesting books that were suitable to your comprehension level,
how many hours per week would you be willing to dedicate to reading in English?
____ 0
____ 1
____ 2±3
____ more than 3
[_]
19. Do you think reading books for pleasure in English is important?
____ yes, very important
____ fairly important
____ not sure (skip to question n. 21)
____ no (skip to question n. 21)
[_]
20. Why do you think reading books for pleasure in English is important?
From the list below, rank at least three reasons in order of importance. Write 1 for the most
important reason, 2 for the second and 3 for the third.
a. _____ could be useful also in other academic subjects
b. _____ to acquire a wider range of vocabulary
c. _____ could be useful for the English course
d. _____ to learn more about other cultures
e. _____ could be useful for my career
f. _____ to enhance my knowledge and literacy on a general level
g. _____ other reason (write here) __________________________________________
[_]
21. Without considering possible lack of time or limited comprehension, would you find
reading books in English for pleasure a personally rewarding experience?
____ yes, very rewarding
____ yes, fairly rewarding
____ not sure
____ no (end of questionnaire)
[_]
22. What type of books in English would you like to read?
From the list below, rank three preferences. Write 1 for your first choice, 2 for your second
and 3 for your third.
____ mystery, spy or detective stories
____ adventure
____ science fiction
____ romance
____ hobbies, travel
____ fiction, novels
____ non-fiction
____ poetry and theatre
____ social sciences (history, philosophy, sociology, economics, etc.)
____ classics
____ other book types (write your answer) _________________________________
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
[_]
# United Kingdom Reading Association 2001