International Agriculture
Research - Initiatives and Ethics
International Agriculture Research - Initiatives and Ethics
M.S.Punia (2006)
MANUAL1
International Agriculture Research Initiatives and Ethics
Chapter
Topic
History of Agriculture
Page
1-5
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4
5.
6.
History of Agriculture in India
National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) In India
Global Agricultural Research Systems
Role of The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Agriculture
Development
The green revolution and the evolution of agricultural education and
research in India
7.
8.
9.
Biodiversity and its conservation
10.
11.
12.
13.
14
15
16.
Environmental protection
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Indian Agriculture at a Glance
Agriculture in China…………………not included
Agriculture in Israel…………………not included
Agriculture in Turkey…………………not included
Agriculture in Argentina…………………not included
Agriculture In Denmark…………………not included
Agriculture in Russia…………………not included
Agriculture in the United States of America (USA) ………not included
Global scenario of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)/biotech crops
Food Security and Poverty Alleviation in Developing Countries including
India
Ethics and Standards in Agricultural Research
Computer Ethics for Agriculture Database and communication
Safety in Research Laboratory
Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing and Education
Intellectual Property Rights
Implication of WTO for Indian Agriculture: The case of Intellectual Property
Rights and Emerging Bio-safety Protocol
International Programme On Water Resources – Use and conservation
6-15
16-33
34-38
39-46
47-54
55-69
70-81
82-89
90-94
95-106
107-111
112-116
117-124
125-140
141-151
152-156
157-162
163-169
170-173
174-179
180-185
186-190
191-194
195-204
International Agriculture Research - Initiatives and Ethics
M.S.Punia (2006)
History of Agriculture
2
1
First hominid life forms 4 million years ago. The world was formed about 4, 600 million years
ago. Eukaryotic life formed about 1,000 million years ago. It is supposed that man was evolved on earth
about 15 lakh years ago. This man was evolved from the monkey who started to move by standing erect
on his fact. Such man has been called Homo erectus or Java man. Later on Java man transformed into
Cro-Magnan; and Cro-Magnan into modern man. The modern man is zoologically known as Homo
sapiens ( Homo – continuous, sapiens – learning habit). In the beginning such man had been spending his
life wildly but during the period 8700-7700 BC, they started to pet sheep and goat although the first pet
animal was dog, which was used for hunting.
Before agriculture, people lived by hunting wild animals and gathering edible plants. These
nomadic people moved from one place to another place as they depleted the resources of an area. In such
conditions of trial-and-error experimentation and manipulation of species, the scene was set for
domestication of plants and animals. In addition, these hunter-gatherer societies probably paved the way
for domestication by developing: social structure (promote cooperation); knowledge of cultivation
techniques; specialization on particular plant/animal foods. Mankind has been a farmer for 0.5% of
human history.
When the herds were plentiful and the plants flourishing, life was good. But, when the herds
migrated elsewhere, people had to follow them and often discover a whole new set of plants to
supplement their diet. This "feast or famine" lifestyle had its definite drawbacks including starvation.
Fortunately, several geniuses throughout the world eventually discovered how to preserve meat by drying
it, smoking it over a fire, or cooking it. Some others realized that they took the seeds of the plants they
had been eating and scattered them about, they grew into new plants. Eventually, people decided that life
would be a lot easier if they always had the animals with them and if edible plants or their produce were
always available. Settling down seemed like a good idea.
The history of agriculture and civilization go hand in hand as the food production made it
possible for primitive man to settle down in selected areas leading to formation of society and initiation
of civilization. The development of civilization and agriculture had passed through several stages.
Archeologist initially classified the stages stone age, Bronze and Iron age. Subsequently the scholars split
up the stone age into Paleolithic period ( old stone age), Neolithic age ( New stone age) and Mesolithic
age ( Middle stone age). Each of three ages, saw distinct improvements. The man fashioned and
improved tools out of stones, bones woods etc to help them in day-to-day life. They started growing food
crops and domesticated animals like cow, sheep, goat, dog etc.
Paleolithic age ( old stone age): This period is characterized by the food gathers and hunters. The man
started making stone tools, choppers and crude choppers.
Mesolithic period : The transitional period between the end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the
Neolithic is called Mesolithic. It began about 100000 BC and ended with the rise of agriculture. This
period is characterized by tiny stone implements called microliths. People lived as food gathers and
hunters. The domestication of the dog was the major achievements of the Mesolithic hunter.
Neolithic Agricultural Revolution ( 7500 BC – 6500 BC) : While people were hunting wild animals
and subsisting on leaves and fruits of the jungle trees in India, a remarkable development took place in
Wastern Asia viz., the discovery of Agriculture. The birthplace of the Neolithic agriculture revolution
was Western Asis ( Israal, Jordan, Irag etc.). It is in this region that wild ancestors of two major cereals,
wheat and barley and of domesticated animals like goat, sheep, pig
and cattle are found. The period from 7500 – 6500 BC was in real sense of discovery of agriculture.
Polished stone axe and sickle were used for the cultivation of crop like wheat, barley, rice, maize and
millets. Domesticated horse and ass were used as draught and transport animals. A distinctive feature of
Neolithic culture was the development of house built of locally materials. The development of agriculture
and the practice of food grain in sizeable quantities led to the problem of storage. Pots were required not
only for storing of food grain but also for cooking. Weaving was another landmark made possible due to
abundant supplies of flax and wool. Thus, Neolithic revolution brought a major change in the techniques
of food production which gave man control over his environment and saved him from the pre carious
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existence of mere hunter and gather of wild berries and roots. For the first time, he lived in settled
villages and apart from security from hunger he had leisure time to think and contemplate.
Bronze age ( Chalcolithic culture 3000 – 1700 BC) : The term Chalcolithic is applied to communities
using stone implements along with copper and bronze ones. In more advanced communities, the
proportion of copper and bronze implements is higher than that of stones. The Chalcolithic revolution
began in Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C. from this area it spread to Egypt, and Indus valley.
The significant features were :
1. Invention of plough
2. Agriculture shifted from hilly area to lower river valley
3. Flood water were stored for irrigation and canals were dug
4. Irrigated farming started in this period.
5. Sowing of seed by dibbling with a pointed stick
6. Salinity problem and water logging were noticed due to canal irrigation.
The main features of Neolithic culture in India
1. Neolithic culture denotes a stage in economic and technological
development in India
2. Use of polished stone axes for cleaning the bushes
3. Hand made pottery for storing food grains
4. Invented textile, weaving and basketry
5. Cultivation of rice, banana sequence and yams in eastern parts of India
6. Cultivation of millets and pulses in South India
7. Discovery of silk.
Iron age
In India it started from early 1000 BC. The iron age immediately succeeded. The pre historic age
in south India. The Aryans know the use of iron. We entered the iron age during vedic period. The iron
age has already commenced when the rigveda was composed. Men started using iron for mahing weapont
of implements. Iron implements have been found in changelpure district. They have developed fairly
gord means of high culture and civilization in this age.
Early Farming: -1650
Around 12-10,000 years ago human being started farming. The roots of farming began in the
present day Turkey and the Middle East, called as Fertile Crescent around the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers. Cultivation involves the deliberate sowing or other management of plants, which do not
necessarily differ from wild populations. The beginning of farming is primarily associated with the
domestications of species; it involves genetic change of wild varieties through conscious or unconscious
human selection. Two of the earliest settlements are known as Catal Huyuk and Jericho. Catal Huyuk
had by 6000 B.C., more than 1000 houses. It is at this place where people taking wild grasses and using
the seeds for food and planting for the next years food. These seeds are now known as cereals and make
up a large percentage of the worlds food supply. Jericho, like many early cities was located around a
consistent water source, a spring which produced over 1000 gallons every minute. Around two to three
thousand people lived there. Farming of wheat, barley, peas, and lentils supported these people.
Almost at the same time agriculture developed in India, China, and about 5,000 years later in
Andes and Mesoamerica. In Southwest Asia the crops (including animals) were wheat, barley, peas,
muskmelon, flax, sheep and goats. In China, they were rice, soybeans, hemp, silk, and chicken. In the
Andes and Mesoamerica they were corn, beans, potatoes, cotton, and turkeys. Note that in each case
these agricultural systems provided vegetables, meat, and materials to make clothing.
The use of crops and animals for food spread over thousands of years from the Near East, China,
and Mexico to nearby regions and around the world. These crops spared most rapidly to areas with
similar climates. They, therefore, tended to follow longitudinal lines east and west to areas with similar
climates, for example from the Near East to Africa or from southern Mexico to North America was slow
because the main routes were latitudinal, north and south, rather than east and west. Movement along
latitudinal lines would require that the crops had to become adapted to new climates.
The move from shifting agriculture to domesticated agriculture was preceded and made possible
by the millennia of accumulated experience of wild plants and animals, and trial- and-error
experimentation. The shift was gradual and slow. The techniques were old. Most agricultural societies
developed Slash and Burn technique, utilization of fallow lands etc. There were some early massive
engineering projects to dam water for later use, including the digging of canals to distribute water to
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normally dried fields. The first known examples of this process were built by farmers near Euphrates
valley. Finally there was almost complete reliance on agriculture as the major source of nutrition.
However, even today in some areas of the world, primitive methods are still the most effective.
Development of agriculture was followed by domestication of animals. This benefits in different
ways: transport, draft, food and wool, hides, dung etc. The consequences of the development of farming
are: Increased carrying capacity of the land; development of sedentary societies; changes in social
structure; craft specialization; civilization etc. When agriculture became established humans started to
live in larger groups. They stopped living as hunter-gathering groups and formed cities and states. The
largest of these appeared closet to sites where agriculture had developed much, for example in Egypt and
China, and the empires (Inca, Mayan, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, Aztec) of South and Central America. Quite
obviously, more complex civilizations require more food. Thus there appears to have a direct relationship
between the development of agriculture and the appearance of more complex societies.
The Origins of Agriculture
Recent archaeological finds place the beginning of agriculture before 7000 B.C. and animal
domestication (mostly dogs used as hunting aids) thousands of years before that. There is some evidence
that the people of Shanidar, in Kurdistan, were domesticating sheep and planting wheat as long ago as
9800 B.C. Intensive food gathering, in which the local inhabitants of a region set up permanent
residences and made extensive use of already present plants, seems to have started in the Near East
around 9000 - 7000 B.C.
Barring the use of time machines, there is no way to know for sure how planting really got
started. But archaeologists have lots of theories. One theory suggests that some seeds were spilled in a
memorable manner during a migration. When the tribe next passed the same place, they might have
correlated the spill of seeds with the sudden abundance of the plant. They could then have realized that
they could store seeds and plant them, and be assured of having a food supply. later they began selecting
and planting the seeds from plants with the highest yield. In this way, plants were domesticated, changed
and controlled to benefit man rather than just exist in the wild. At about the same time as the agricultural
advances described above, people started to domesticate the wild ox and gather sheep into herds.
Remains of a hunting dog, dated back to 8500 B.C., have been found in North America.
Towns and Cities Develop From Farming
The abundance of the harvest from domesticated plants allowed major increases in population.
Having all of one's plants and animals in one place allowed the agriculturist to move from random caves
and makeshift huts into permanent or semi permanent villages with homes made from stones, wood, or
wattle. An early example is the Biblical city of Jericho. It started as such a village around 9000 B.C., and
has been a settlement of one sort or another ever since.
One of the earliest recorded towns is Catal Huyuk established on the Konya Plain in Turkey. It is a vast,
fertile expanse ideal for primitive agriculture. The earliest buildings date from 6500 B.C. and are similar
to those found in the oldest Jericho settlements. You entered the mud brick buildings from the top. Catal
Huyuk is notable for the number of shrines used for a variety of purposes, including burial and possible
propitiation of deities of the hunt and the harvest. This implies an early religious organization and a way
of life that left enough time for some members of the society to concentrate on religious duties. There
was also time for crafts. some of the earliest known pottery was found in Catal Huyuk. There is also
evidence of copper smithing and rope making, and some ovens were big enough to imply that some
residents were full time bakers.
By 5000 B.C., the Euphrates Valley was full of villages and townships. The townships provided
central services of storage, religious observance and administration that the villages could not handle.
These townships developed into the Sumerian civilization.
At about the same time, similar villages were beginning in the Nile Valley and the river valleys of china
and India.
Early Farming Techniques
The initial approach to farming was to remove some of the seeds from food plants before eating
them, then scatter the seeds back into the same area they came from.
Later, the planters realized that other (non -food) plants were competing with their plants for the field, so
they took to weeding the fields to make sure the only their plants were growing there. Everything else
was left to nature.
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Eventually it became obvious that this constant replanting resulted in stunted crops and low yields. The
first response was simply to find a new field. After all, the land was vast and people were few. After
awhile, though, the obvious fields were used up. Then potential farmers looked to the forests.
Slash and Burn
Most agricultural societies discovered the slash and burn technique. First, all the foliage in a
section of a forest was cut down, creating a field. The remains were left on the ground. Then the field was
set on fire, and the ash from the cut foliage enriched the soil. After many uses even this enriched soil
became barren, and farmers were forced to find new fields.
As the population of the world grew and more fields were slashed and burned, the walk to a newly
burned field became longer and longer and other cultures could claim these unattended fields. The tribe
would then have to move to new sections of forest. In some areas, such as Madagascar, slash and burn
agriculture is still practiced and the land is becoming less and less fertile.
Fallow Fields
A fallow field is one that is not planted for a period in hopes that it will regain its fertility. It is
believed that the practice of leaving fields fallow originated because some cultures were forced to return
to their old fields, and found that the infertile fields they left behind had become more productive.
This led to the establishment of a rotation system where each growing season certain fields would be left
alone or tilled but not planted, extending the useful production life of a set number of fields. sometimes
the fallow fields were used for pasturage for animals, which had the incidental benefit of fertilizing the
soil. It was later found that certain plants, thought useless except perhaps for animal fodder, were
beneficial to a field's productivity, and seeds for these plants were planted in fallow fields.
Irrigation
As populations grew and competed for the best growing lands some cultures were forced to try to
farm normally arid areas. Some of these cultures died trying; others discovered the principles of
irrigation. There were some early massive engineering projects to dam water for later use, including the
digging of canals to distribute water to normally dry fields. The first known examples of this irrigation
process were built by farmers who colonized the Euphrates River Valley around 4000 B.C.
In most cases, irrigation involves trapping and storing water that appears for a short period, such as the
spring flooding of the Euphrates and Nile, or the winter rainstorms of the American desert, so that it can
be used later in normally dry periods. In almost all cases, early irrigation made the desert flower for a
couple of centuries, then the water dried up in some climatic change or the fields grew barren because the
irrigation had washed away all the good soil and the culture died. Both the Pueblo dwellers of the
American desert and the inhabitants of Petra in the Middle East flourished and then died with their
irrigation systems. Other areas, such as the very fertile Nile Valley and the Tigris-Euphrates Fertile
Crescent, were big enough and had a sufficiently dependable source of water so that they remained
productive until the present day, though even these areas have undergone a decline in fertility and might
be barren if not for modern agricultural techniques.
Global Agricultural Evolution 1650-1850
Farming changed very little from early times about 1700. In the 1700’s an agricultural revolution
took place that led to a large increase in the production of crops. This increase of crops came about in a
large part by little more than the final destruction of medieval institutions and more general adoption of
techniques and crops that had been known for a long time. Included in some of these changes was also
the adoption of crops from the “new world” such as corn and potatoes that produced a very large yield.
This phase was characterized by:
New rotations with leguminous and root crops; Scientific method employed in agricultural research; Use
of fossil fuels, increased yields and labor productivity;
Intervention of mechanized farm equipment; Beginning of food-processing industries; Transfer of crops
and livestock from lands of origin as part of the era of European exploration.
From Farming to Manufacturing: 1850-1950
In the 1850’s, the industrial revolution spilled over to the farm with new mechanized methods
that increased production rates. Early on, the large changes were in the use of new farm implements.
Most of these early implements were still powered by horse or oxen. The advent of steam power and later
gas powered engines brought a whole new dimension to the production of crops. These new implements
combined with crop rotation, manure and better soil preparation lead to a steady increase of crop yield in
Europe. At the latter part of this period, more and more people from the rural areas migrated to the urban
areas to add fuel to the industrialization. Farmers were forced to abandon farming through progressive
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impoverishment; they had to invest heavily in expensive new technologies and found themselves unable
to pay their debts to the banks because they prices what they produced were kept low to keep the
industrial wages low.
This was the time when family farm in western industrialized countries started declining and giant food
companies like Uni-Lever Nestle were established.
Modern Agricultural Evolution: 1950-present
There were massive changes in world economy after the Second World War. The changes are:
interdependent expansion of capital and consumer goods industries, huge increase of technical and
consumer goods industries, rapid technical change and productivity growth, monopoly market structures,
the transformation of production and exchange, and mass consumption of standardized commodities.
Commodity relations penetrate all spheres of consumption as use values are commoditized and mass
produced, leading to the concomitant decline of domestic labor and non-capitalist goods and services.
The increasing commoditization of the domestic labor process associated with new food preparation
technologies and the diffusion of ‘white goods’ has transformed women’s working lives inside and
outside the home, freeing them to enter the labor market.
This also brought changes in the social relations as well as changes in the life styles and consumption
patterns. There was trade off between earning and giving time in the family, houses became full of home
appliances, food went into the fridges and a huge surge of fast food chains.
In the 50 years since 1950, global agricultural production has increased by 60 per cent whereas the 1950
level production had been reached only after 10,000 of agricultural development. This recent acceleration
of production is due to the use of mechanization, chemicals, specialization, selection of high-yielding
cereals, expansion of irrigated areas and arable lands, and the development of specific farming system.
Unfortunately, this positive trend seems to have reached a steady state, and farmers cannot perpetually
raise yields, particularly where natural capacity has already been exceeded. The situation is worsened by
widespread soil degradation, erosion, and shortage of new arable land. Current farming actively
compared to mining, because it is a nutrients that are not usually replaced.
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2
History of Agriculture in India
Agriculture has been a indispensable to the subsistence of the people of India in general
and farmers in particular. It has naturally remained the basis of Indian economy since time
immemorial and agriculture has played a dominant role in the country’s economy from the very
beginning. About 65 % of the Indian population either directly or indirectly employed in
agriculture sector. The well being and progress of the nation is closely connected with
agriculture. Therefore, farming and agriculture profession deserve to be highly respected for the
prosperity of the nation.
Mohenjodaro to Harappa territory was the center of agricultural revolution in Indus
Velley. Archaeological excavations at Mohenjodaro ( meaning a mound of dead, in sind in
Pakistan) and at Harappa on the river Ravi in Punjab were the sites of ancient civilization, which
flourished more than five thousand years ago; reveals that the Indus Velley Civilization has
witnessed among others the use of plough and the wheeled cart in raising the production of the
wheat, barley, rice, maize, millets, cotton etc. Horticulture was concentrated around the urban
centers with a preponderance of people, not directly enganged in agriculture. They observed that
the people utilized the pots, utensils and ornaments. These cities were built along the river Indus
and hence this civilization is known as Indus valley civilization. It is also known as Harappan
culture and occupied the area stretching from Delhi to Gujarat. It was the Indus Valley
civilization that spread to Punjab, Haryana, Jammu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Gujrat
and Madhya pradesh.
Harappans raised bread wheat, barley sesame, peas, melons, cotton, rapeseed and
mustard. Cattle, buffalo, goat, sheap, pig, camel, donkey, dog and cat have special mention in the
list of domesticated animals. The Harappans chalcolithic culture (2500-1500 B.C.) is rightly
called the age of irrigated farming. Harappans agriculture also spread to Andhra Pradesh,
Karnatka and adjoining areas. It is quite clear from the archaeological excavations that the
agriculture and animal husbandary went together. India was also regarded as the home of Mung
and Mash. In the Vedic and the post Vedic period, mash enriched the Indian diet, cookery and
religious ceremonies to great extent. It is thought that rice had originated and cultivated in India ,
Burma or Indo-China. India had 4000 varieties of rice. Eastern India is considered as a true home
of rice. The major achievements of the Neolithic revolution was the discovery of agriculture,
horticulture and animal husbandary.
About 1800-1600 B.C., Aryans migrated to India and overwhelmed to Harappans.
Horses were the main domesticated animals besides cattle. Agriculture was the very important
profession during Vedic age (1500-1000 B.C.). The word “ Veda “ is derived from “Vid” which
means “Knowledge” Veda is the only literary source from which we know about the Aryans in
India. Aryans were more prevalent during vedic time which extends from casten Affhanistan,
Kashmir, Pubjab and Parts of Sind and Rajasthan. The land of Aryans are called land of seven
rivers i.e., ( Satluj, beas, Ravi, Chennab, Jhelum, Indus and Saraswathi. The Rig-veda was the
oldest book of Aryans.
Use of iron implements, particularly iron plough became prevalent. Besides barley,
wheat bean sesame, millets and rice find frequent reference in Vedas written during this period.
Moreover, the Vedic literature indicates that the farmers during the Vedic period possessed a fair
knowledge of soil fertility, selection and treatment of seeds, sowing and harvesting seasons, crop
rotations and other cultural practices of crops, manuring for increasing crop productions etc.
Jaittiriva Samhita mentions that rice would be sown in summer and pulses (gram and lantil) in
winter on the same field. The vedic Aryans were primarly pastrol. When they settled in the
Punjab, they cut the jungles and built their villages. They grazed the animals in jungles and
cultivated barley nearest to houses to protect from wild animals. Vedic people realized the
importance of off-season ploughing and they started ploughing as and when the rain was
received. The first ploughing of the season was inaugurated amidst much ritual. The plough used
was large and heavy, but a yoke does not seem to have been used. Bullocks and ox were used for
ploughing. With regard to irrigation, channels were formed the rivers. Wells were in use for
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supply of drinking water and irrigation. There were kucha wells, which were just holes dug in the
ground. Even now such wells are in use in the rive rain areas of northern India. In early Vedic
period there is no mention of rice and cotton though there were cultivated in Harappa period. In
the later Vedic period ( 1000 – 600 BC) agricultural implements were improved. Iron
ploughshare was used also improved. The people possessed the knowledge of fertility of land,
selection of seed, seed treatment, harvesting manuring and rotation of crops. Barely sesame and
sugarcane were the main crops. Cucumber and bottle ground were also mentioned in Vedic
period, Aryans were accustomed to barley diet. Barley is good for men cattle and horses. Barley
is used in Hindu rituals even at present. For cloths, wool and cotton were used. The agriculture
implements mentioned in Vedic literature include the plough( langala - a lase pointed type
having smooth handle, Sira – a large and heavy plough). Sickle was used harvesting sieves were
used for cleaning.
In Vedic period the economy of people largely depended on agriculture with cattle
rearing as their main occupation. In all agriculture activities, women took active part as in
sowing, ploughing, weeding, reaping threshing etc. They also assisted their husband went to
fields and performed hard duties with them like harvesting crops with sickle, collecting bundles,
beating them out on the floor of the granary, separating the grains form the chaff by a sieve and
storing the grain safely. Besides these cloth making, stitching weaving spinning dyeing were
some of the subsidiary occupation for women especially in Vedic period. There was also mention
of the work like carpentry gold and black smithy and military training undertaken by women to
earn their livelihood. All the available evidences thus indicated that in vedic period, women
contributed a lot to build the economy not only of their own families but of the country too.
Buddhist period (600 B.C.) marks the importance of trees. It can be called as a period of
Arboriculture (forestry) and Horticulture. During this period, people retained their interest in
agriculture. The usefulness of cattle was fully realized by the people. During this period,
superintendents of agriculture used to look after the agricultural progress. Two annual harvestswinter ( wheat and barley ) and summer (rice and millets)were common. Suitabilty of different
land to different crops was mentioned. Farming operations from ploughing to harvest of crops
were systematically followed. Safflower, linseed and mustard were also under cultivation besides
rice, wheat and millets. Irrigation from rivers, lakes amd reservoirs was practiced and water rate
was one fifth of the produce.
During the Buddhist period people retained their interest in agriculture. The usefulness of cattle
was also fully realized by the people. The evolution of gardening is intimately associated with
Buddhist temples and monasteries. The Mauryan period, a glorious period in the annals of India,
laid great stress on the promotion of agriculture, forest produce, pasture lands, cows, horses and
elephants. The animal husbandry made a tremendous progress and the veterinary service was
made available to the community. Magasthenes, the Greek ambassador at the court of
Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC-297 BC) records that “Famine has never visited India and there
has never been a general scarcity in the supply of nourishing food”.
The Arthashastra, the chief source of all sorts of knowledge of this period, mentions the
name of various crops like Sali (rice), varichi (rice), tila (sesamum), masha, masura, yoda
(barley), godhuma (wheat), atasi (linseed) and sarshapa (mustard). The mash pulse began to be
used as a horse food during the Mauryan and Kushan period.
Ashoka (273 BC – 237 BC) actively promoted horticulture and horticulture. ‘Sanchi’
provides us with a glimpse of this culture. Veterinary hospitals were state institutions and were
functioning all over the empire during the Ashoka period. After the Mauryans (320-180 BC), the
Sungas (184 BC-72 BC) ruled India. In this period brick-wells and improved agricultural
implements of iron were found in abundance. Cultivation of rice and coconut palms was done
extensively.
The people of Deccan, the Satvahans (Andhras) cultivated cotton and Andhra was known
for its cotton cloth, because of extensive cultivation of cotton there. The art of transplanting rice
seedlings was widely practiced in the first two centuries in the deltas of Krishna and Godavari,
which became the rice bowl of south India”. Iron technology made great progress in the age of
Satvahans (235 BC-25 AD) and Kushan (78 AD-200 AD). The south Indian culture, which
broadly fall into two groups, viz, the Tamil group, comprising Pandyas (560-920), Cheras,
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Cholas (850-1311), Hoysala (1022-1342), Kakatiyas (1100-1323) and Pallavas (550-912) and
Rashtrakutas (735-993) is endowed with a powerful originality. Though these states were
engaged in fighting among themselves and nibblings at each others territories, yet their
contribution to agriculture and to the culture of India as a whole is of tremendous importance.
Cultivable land in Tamil Nadu was abundant and the necessities of life plentiful. The fertility of
the lands watered by the Cauvery is a recurring theme of Tamil poets. The poets of the sangam
period counseled the kings as to how to store water, enrich the land and improve the conditions
of the people.The transplanting of paddy seedlings was the most important agricultural
operation.”The Cholas, who unified the warring states of India improved their agriculture by
building up new types of irrigation systems. For irrigation, a great chain of tanks developed in
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Because of this, Telgana is called “The Land of
Thousand tanks”.
During the period of the Guptas (AD 300-550) the Hindu culture was at its peak.
Besides renaissance in art, literature and science, agriculture also flourished greatly. But the land
taxes were heavy. During the Gupta period, land taxes increased and trade and commerce
decreased. Probably, the king collected taxes varying from one-fourth to one-sixth of the
produce. In addition to all this, whenever the royal army passed through the country-side, the
local people had to feed it. The peasants had to supply animals, food grains, furniture etc. for the
maintenance of royal officers on duty in the rural areas.
Information about the life of the people and their agriculture and horticulture in the
Gupta age are Vatsyayana’s, Kamasutra, Varahamihira’s Brhatsamhita and Amarsimha’s
Amarakosa. Varahmihira was an astronomer, astrologer and encyclopaedist. He flourished in
the period AD 505-587. His Brhatsamhita provides information on agriculture, botany and
zoology, apart from astronomy, medicine, metallurgy and geography. It describes specific
characteristics of animals and the treatment of plant diseases. The Brhatsamhita and the Puranas
particularly the Agnipurana, incidentally deal with the selection of land, manuring, cultivation,
collection and the treatment of seeds, sowing, planting, reaping and grafting. The Brhatsamhita
mentions the names of some plants and the method of their propagation.
The Amarakosha of Amarsimha, a scholar in the court of Chandragupta II, contains
information on soil, irrigation and agricultural implements. The Amarkosha describes 12 types
of land in its chapter on Bhumivarga. In the Vaisavarga, different kinds of soils and their
suitability for the cultivation of specific crops are mentioned e.g. ksetram-rice and corn. Kalidasa
in his Raghuvamasa refers to paddy being grown in the fields of Bengal. The technique of
transplanting was known to the cultivators. Wheat was grown in the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Cenral India and Rajasthan as a winter crop.
During the reign of Harshavardana (AD 606-647) Si-yu-ki, the travelogue of Hiuen
Tsang (600-664), a Chinese scholar, who remained in India for fifteen years from 630 AD to 645
AD and Harsha-Charita, a biography of Harsha by his court poet Banabhatta are the main source
of information on agriculture. Hiuen Tsang mentions that the cereals like wheat, rice and millets
and fruits were extensively cultivated. He made very perceptive observations about the fertility
of the soil and abundance of cereals cultivated by the people in different states of south India.
Rajput kingdoms such as Gurjara (550-861), Pratihara (783-1077), Gahadwala (10851193), Chauhans (950-1192), Parmer (949-1035) and Chandellas (930-1023) reigned in northern
India. The Palas (750-1194) and the Sens (1095-1234) dynasties ruled in Bengal. Agriculture
was the mains source of subsistence and revenue. Rice of eight varieties was found in Magadha
and Kalinga. Magadha is mentioned for its richness in rice.
Agriculture during Mugal Period:
During the reign of Mugals, the agriculture was considered to be an insignificant activity
and those who practiced it were regarded as persons of little consequence. Practically, Islam was
an urban religion and it laid emphasis on administration, trade, commerce and urban life. So the
Muhammadan elite emphasized these aspects of social life in India also (Malik, 2002).
Marco Polo (1254-1324), a great Italian (Venetian) traveler, who visited India two times
in 1288 and 1293 wrote that India had the reputation of being one of the chief markets of Asia.
Ibn Battuta (1304-1358), a curious observer, a radiant of Tangier (S. Africa) who belonged to a
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family that produced a number of judges (qazis) and “The Traveler of Islam”, visited Asia and
reached India on September 12, 1333 AD in the region of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1351).
He gives a detailed accounts of cereals like Kudhru (a kind of millet), mash (Vigna radiata),
mung (V. mungo), rice, wheat, barley, chickpea, lentil, sugarcane and sesame etc. As per his
version rice was sown three times a year and it was one of the principal cereals in this country.
He also makes mention of the excellent quality of rice grown in Sirsa (Haryana) area, which was
sent to the capital, Delhi.
Ibn Battuta also visited Malabar area in Kerala. He found
Kerala densely populated and intensively cultivated where pepper, ginger, sugarcane, coconut
and pulse were cultivated in abundance. Further he visited Bengal. He was impressed by the
prosperity of Bengal and cheapness of commodities there. He states, “Bangala is a vast country,
abounding in rice, and nowhere in the world have I seen any land where prices are lower than
there. He remained in India from 1333 to 1342.
Ever since the medieval times we have faced quite a few knowing severe famines. There
was a severe famine in many parts of the country during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tuglaq.
That famine had almost destabilized the Tughlaq dynasty itself. Firoz Shah Tuhglaq (AD 13511388) was a great builder of various palaces, canals and gardens. He got constructed West
Jamuna Canal in 1355 AD. With the result that agriculture was promoted and wheat, gram and
barley etc. were grown in abundance. Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) also showed concern for the
welfare of peasantry and safety of their crops.
The Portuguese (AD 1550-1790) made use of the technique of grafting. They introduced
new crops and fruit plants and thus enriched the agriculture of India.
As mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari, wheat and sugarcane was grown in the provinces of
Lahore, Multan, Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Qudh, Malwa and Ajmer. Barley was grown in almost
all parts of the country, but not in Bengal and Orissa. Chana was produced practically in all the
provinces. The millets, which include jawar, bajra, kodon, sawan, mandeva, and form the kharif
crops, were cultivated in Malwa, Gujarat, Ajmer, Khandesh, Delhi, Lahore, Agra, Allahabad,
Qudh and Multan. Pulses including gram, lentil (masur), pea mung, urd, moth, lubiya, kulthi and
arhar etc. and oil seeds including til, linseed, rape, toria, safflower etc. were grown. Other
popular crops were sugarcane, cotton, hemp, indigo, pepper and betel. The vegetables grown
were melons etc.
Jehangir (1605-1627), the naturalist, was one of the greatest growers of gardens in India.
Fruits and flowers were produced in abundance every year. Shahjahan (1628-1658), whose
primary interest was in architecture and buildings, built Shalimar Garden in Srinagar in 1634. He
also improved irrigation facilities in northern India by restoring the West Yumna Canal. He also
got constructed Hasli or Lahore Canal. During the reign of Shahjahan an appalling famine was
occurred. Deccan and Gujarat were hard hit. “The inhabitants of these regions were reduced to
direst severity. Life was offered for a loaf, but none would buy, rank was to be sold for a cake,
but none cared for it.”. It was this famine which went a long way in weakening the Mugal
empire. Thereafter, a cycle of these famines occured. The condition of the peasantry was very
horrible in spite of extremely fertile land and rice as a major food grain. Practically, the system
of Mughal government and Mughal society was predatory.
The increased land revenue of the Mughal government from Akbar to Aurangzeb
compiled by Lane-Poole, founder of the Department of History, University of Allahabad (1887)
in the following table depicts the distressed position of the peasants (Malik, 2002) .
Akbar
1594 £ 18,650,000
Shahjahan
1655 £ 30,000,000
Aurajgzeb
1697 £ 54,500,000
The alarming increase in revenue was necessitated by various factors. The Mughal
government had a heavy administration at the top i.e. the Emperor, his court comprising
ministers, omrahs, mansabdars, etc. The offices of trust and dignity were held by foreignersPersians, Araba sand Turks. The mansabdars had to maintain a fixed quota of horses and camels
in addition to an army of wives and servants. Besides, they had to make costly presents to the
Emperor at certain annual festivals. The method of leasing land and tax-gathering was invariably
very tormenting. Even the omrahs also enjoy no security of property. Only the Emperor was the
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sole heir of property of the dead officials. The peasants near Agra were treated ‘as Turks treat
Christians’ taking from them all they could get by their labour. The peasants were under great
oppression, the condition of agriculture and peasantry of northern India was barren and bailing.
The wretched peasants had to flee to the territory of the rebel Rajas. As per J.B. Tavernier, the
peasants were reduced to great poverty. Irfan Habib, a reputed historian on Medieval India, also
avers that during the reign of Shahjahan, the peasantry was being robbed and plundered.
At the same time, the upper classes, the omrahs, mansabdars and jagirdars, spent their
incomes on objects of luxury and display. They did not invest money on improvement of land or
on welfare of the peasantry. As a result , the misery of the peasants deepened and their burden
became insufferable in the reign of Aurangzeb and his successors. In fact the Mughal state had
not made any systematic and long term planning to provide relief in the event of these horrible
famines.The bottled up discontent of the peasantry erupted in a series of revolts, first taking the
shape of a class-warfare and later with the ties of caste and religion they enlarged the scale of
these uprisings. When this process was supported by the zamindars’ class of the same caste or
religion, who had their own motives in opposing the Mughal ruling class, a new situation of
disintegrating the empire took shape. The mighty Mughal empire crumbled into pieces i.e. into
native states, Nawab Sahis etc.
Agriculture during British Period
Indian agriculture, till 19th century, was of old traditional pattern. Rice, wheat, barley,
jawar and other commodities like pulses, oil seeds, cotton, jute, in dog and spices had been the
main crops grown in India almost since time immemorial. Land was cultivated wit the help of
the oxen and he-buffaloes, yoked to simple implements. Storing of agricultural commodities was
also defective. Surplus produce if any, was sold in the local or nearby markets. This type of
agricultural activity had been the mainstay of Indian village communities and the source of
government revenue. Industrial Revolution yielded enormous wealth and made England a
powerful nation having a well-equipped army. Their primary concern now, was to promote the
commerce of their country which profoundly affected agriculture in India.
Warren Hastings (1772-1785) an intense lover of horticulture was first appointed as
Governor of Calcutta in 1772. He was promoted as the first Governor-General of India in 1774,
under the Regulation Act of 1773. Memories of the disastrous famine of 1770 were still fresh in
the minds of the company’s administration. So Hastings built a grain gola at Patna for storing
food grains to meet the requirement of food during the years of famine. The credit for producing
a hybrid grain which he called ‘barley wheat’ goes to Hastings for the experiments conducted
during his period.
The climatic, political and economic conditions often pose hurdles in the development of
agriculture in a country. So the first objective of the British administration was that of restoring
law and order and the next was to organize the collection of land revenue. Charles Cornwallis
First Marquess (1738-1805), who was the second Governor-General from 1786 to 1793, accepted
the agrarian structure of Permanent Settlement of the eastern provinces of Bengal and Bihar as it
then existed. The system treated the absentee Zamindars as the real owners of vast estates
whereas the actual cultivators were ignored. The land ownership was given to small groups of
people to collect rent from individual farmers and pay to the Government, a system known as
Zamindari system. There was also Rytwari system in which the rulers used to collect rents
directly from farmers who been settled on the land. Farmers had no security of possession of land
and hence no interest in land development. Irrigation schemes were initiatedin major river deltas
for raising additional revenue.
As such, the problems of feeding and breeding cavalry horses were the concern of army
officers. So an army officer Lieutenant William Frazer (1793-1808) offered a plant for the
improvement of horses in the valley of Ganges suggesting that the horses should be kept in a
stud. He had in mind also the breeding of cattle, using the Nagore bulls on the indigenous
females. Lieutenant Frazer surveyed the area and selected a site for the stud farm. In August,
1795 the Governor-General Sir John Shore (1793-1798) approved the purchase of land at the site
near Pusa as recommended by Frazer. Frazer was promoted to the rank of Captain in 1799 for
the success of the Zamindari of horse-breeding. In 1808 William Moorcraft (1767-1825), first
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veterinary surgeon in India was appointed in place of Frazer, as incharge of Pusa Stud Farm.
Moorcraft was great explorer, ethnologist, ecologist, and a great veterinary surgeon (Randhawa,
1980, 1982, 1983 and 1986).
It was during Moorcraft’s time that the Government Cattle Farm was established in 1809
at Hisar, Haryana, for camel-breeding, because these animals were used for transport work in the
army (Malik, 2002). The breeding of cattle and horses started in 1815 at this farm. It was one of
the largest state Farms in the world that was converted into a Cattle Farm in 1839. In 1853, it
was restricted to the breeding of bullocks for artillery. The farm was meant to breed siege-train
bullocks for the transport of heavy artillery and bulls for the district. Obviously the size of the
bull was the main consideration. The work was based on the local Haryana bred, but bulls of
many of the larger breeds, such as the Kankrej, Gir and Nellore, were introduced and the
resulting product, came to be called Hisar breed. Later on, the breeding of donkey stallions for
mule-breeding was started, as mules were required for ordinary purposes. The farm covered
44000 acres (17806.18 ha), which included 2500 acres (1011.71 ha) irrigated by the West
Jamuna Canal. The rest of the land, left for grazing, was covered by the grass Cenchrus ciliaris,
which is relished by cattle. The famous Haryana breed of cattle is maintained at this farm.
It is on record that during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, six famines occurred
which took a toll of 50,00,000 persons. In the last quarter of the same century there were almost
eighteen famines which took a toll of lives between 1,50,00,000 to 2,60,00,000. In addition to
these losses due to famines, the epidemics which followed in the wake of the famines also took
heavy toll of life. The severity of the sufferings of the people was nonetheless great.
The British rulers of India in the nineteenth century were very much interested in
agriculture. Marquis of Hastings (Second Earl of Moira) (1813-1823), the Governor-General,
under whose patronage the Royal Agri-Horticultural Society, Calcutta was founded in 1820. The
Society published a journal, entitled “The Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of
India”.
Lord William Bentinck (1774-1839), who was Governor-General in India from 1828 to
1835 was a passionate lover of social reforms. He shared Munro’s admiration for bold, sturdy
and independent cultivators in preference to zamindars. The raiyat (peasant) is the main who
feels, as it were, married to his field. In 1830 Bentinck opened the Eastern Jamuna Canal. Two
military engineers, Major Proby T. Cautley constructed the Ganga Canal (1836-1854) and Sir
Arthur Colton conceived and executed the schemes of the Cavery, the Godavari and Krishna
deltas. Bentinck necessitated the passing of Regulation IV of 1833, the basis of Land
Settlements in northern India. In addition, he made English the medium of education and
administration and reformed judicial courts and abolished the practice of sati.
The Royal Agri-Horticultural Society, Calcutta had 460 members in 1839 out of whom
only 29 were Indian. By establishing similar other organizations in various parts of India and by
distributing better seeds, plants, implements and livestock and dissemination of useful
information through transactions, proceedings and information of Branch Societies, the Royal
Society greatly contributed to the state of improved agriculture. The Society formed eight
committees of experts i.e. (i) Cotton committee (ii) Flax and Hemp committee (iii) Sugarcane
committee (iv) Tobacco committee (v) Silk committee (vi) Wheat committee (vii) Livestock and
Implements committee (viii) Horticultural committee.
During the 19th century almost all the varieties of wheat in India were hard and hence
unsuitable for fine flour. So the Royal Society decided to import wheat seeds from Australia,
Europe and Egypt. In 1840 thirty two varieties of wheat were sent to the Society from Europe by
Dr. Royal. Besides, a serious attention was also paid to the improvement of agricultural
implements. From 1846 to 1856, India was ruled by Lord Dalhousie (1812-1860) an innovative,
but ruthless person. He also constructed the Upper Bari Doab Canal to irrigate the waste lands
in Punjab which helped the settlement of the disbanded Sikh soldiers. The Railways gave a new
orientation to Indian agriculture. The export of cotton to England encouraged cotton cultivators.
All these changes which came about after 1850 heralded a new era in the agricultural sector in
India.
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The period from 1860-70 was, indeed, a period of great agricultural prosperity for Indian
peasants. Driven by the exigencies of the American Civil War (1861-65), America stopped the
supply of cotton to the mills of Lancashire in England. To fill the gap, thus created, India began
to supply cotton to England. It created cotton boom in the country. With a view to encouraging
the cultivation of cotton, the Government of India appointed Cotton Commissioner for Bombay
and Central Provinces. The cultivators of Madras, Bombay and Central Pradesh took advantage
of this cotton boom. The prices of raw cotton increased five times within five years i.e. between
1859 to 1864. The export of cotton also increased three times and the area under cotton
cultivation increased rapidly. Such circumstances demanded the establishment of a department
of agriculture in the provinces. Lord Canning (1812-1862) who was Governor-General of India
from 1856 to 1862 also promoted the agricultural wealth of India.
The Earl of Mayo, who was the Governor General of India from 1869 to 1872,
encouraged the digging of canals (Ganga canal, Sarda canal, Western Jamuna canal and Lower
Jamuna canal). He also created a Department of Knowledge and Statistics, Animal Husbandry,
Fisheries and Forests in the Government of India. In 1871, the Imperial Department of
Agriculture was established, but it was abolished in 1878, because the provincial governments
did not heartily cooperate with the Department. The period (1870-80) was indeed, a period of
depression in agricultural sector. The reasons were not far to seek. America resumed the supply
of cotton. Consequently, the export of cotton from India was adversely affected. The prices of
cotton fell down causing thereby a slump in the market. Besides, enhanced revenue, moneylenders loan, increasing burden of taxation of military and public works activities, world wide
depression, the famine of 1873-74, and the all India famine of 1876-78, heavy debts, transfer of
lands into the hands of non-cultivator and unfavourable law were some of the factors which
broke the backbone of the peasants.
Lord Ripon (1827-1909), the Viceroy of India from 1880 to 1884, instituted the Revenue
and Agricultural Department in the Government of India in 1881 and the Directors of Agriculture
were appointed in the provinces. In 1882, a veterinary college was established at Lahore.
During the period of Earl of Elgin II (1894-1899) the Bacteriological Laboratory at Muketshwar
in Kumaon was established in 1895 for the systematic investigations of the diseases of the
animals. The country witnessed disastrous famines in the years of 1877, 1878, 1889 1892,
1897-98 and 1900 which took a heavy toll of about fifteen million lives (Randhawa, 1980, 1982,
1983 and 1986). To meet the grim situation the Sirhind canal (1873-82) in Punjab, the Lower
Ganga and Betwa canal (1881-1893) in the North West Provinces and Mutha (1869-1879) and
the Nira canals (1877-1894) in the Bombay Presidency were constructed.
During the famine of 1876-78, about 60 million people were affected. The deaths that
exceeded 5,250,000 led to the establishing of the institution of the Famine Commission in 1880.
Dr. J.A. Voelcker, the head of the commission, started investigating the question of bringing
about practical improvements in Indian agriculture. He submitted his report in 1883. He revived
interest in improvement of agriculture to ensure security against disastrous failures in food
supply. He recommended the immediate establishment of Department of Agriculture at the
centre as well as in the provinces simultaneously. Initially, the main functions of the Department
of Agriculture were collection of agricultural statistics and organizing famine relief. Even the
Acts of 1883 and 1884 permitting grant of Takhavi loans could not activate the farmers to take
renewed interest in the improvement of agriculture. The agricultural research was still a far cry.
Immediately after the Famine commission 1898 had submitted its report of the famine of
1896-97, there came another famine in 1899-1900 during which the distress was extremely acute
and mortality among cattle was very high. To add to this misery of the people, these famines
were followed by cholera and plague, both taking a heavy toll of human life. Thus the period
from 1896-1900 could be taken as one of the worst periods in the history of Indian agriculture.
Lord Curzon (1859-1925) who was the Viceroy of India from 1898 to 1905, had
to deal with the famine of 1899-1900, the most severe on record. . However, the famine forced
Lord Curzon to realize that the Government of India must pay urgent attention to agriculture.
Accordingly, his first step was to appoint in 1901, an Inspector General of Agriculture to control
and coordinate the working of all provincial departments of agriculture and direct the new policy.
Because of the severity of famine 1899-1900, Lord Curzon appointed an Indian
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Irrigation Commission in 1901 to investigate the irrigation problems. The Commission gave its
report in 1903 after touring throughout the country. As a result of its recommendations a large
number of new works were undertaken.
In 1901, 56 acres (22.7 ha) of land at Lyallpur (now Faisalabad) were turned into a farm
and in 1902 three agriculturists trained at Kanpur started work here. In 1902 the Indian Civil
Veterinary Department was firmly established by the permanent transfer of seventeen officers
from the Army Veterinary Department to the Civil Department. Curzon gave relief to the
peasants in land revenue during the years of draught. Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1901 was
passed which relieved indebted farmers in Punjab
The Inspector-General, Civil Veterinary Department, took over the control of the Hisar
Cattle Farm from the military department in 1898, and in 1907 it was decided to reduce the
mixed stock on the farm and concentrate on the Haryana breed, but the Hisar type of animal
continued to be produced many years later. More attention was paid to the breeding of dualpurpose (milk and draught) Haryana animal, and the Hisar has been removed from the list of
recognized breeds in India. In 1905 the breeding of zebra hybrids was being attempted at Hisar
and more important, a flock of country (Bikaner) ewes was being run with two Merino rams.
This was how the Hisar-dale sheep with a high quality fleece developed.
In 1904, Lord Curzon, with the financial assistance of Mr. Henry Phipps of Chicago,
established Central (Imperial) Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa, with an Experimental
Farm, equipped with laboratories and a Cattle Farm. The establishment of this institute marked
the beginning of systematic agricultural research in India. An Agricultural College was also
attached to it in 1908 and it was upgraded as postgraduate college in 1923. Adequate staff of the
scientific experts was appointed including the Director of Agriculture, who was also to act as
Agricultural Adviser to the Government of India. An All India Board of Agriculture was also set
up in 1905 to coordinate the research and extension programmes. The Board ceased functioning
when agriculture became a state subject.
In the same year 1905, the Government of India decided to establish, with an annual
grant of Rs. 2 million, in each important province, an Agricultural College and research station
fully equipped with laboratories and class rooms, to which would be attached a farm of suitable
size. The superior staff proposed at each of these provincial institutions comprised an expert
agriculturist, an Economic Botanist, an Agricultural Chemist, an Entomologist and a mycologist.
One of the members of this staff discharged the duties of the Principal of the college. The staff
was to combine teaching with research so as to enable the experts to carry on research. It was
proposed that assistants and demonstrators were to be provided to the researchers. They would
also assist in the teaching, so that the time of the experts might not be wasted merely on
providing elementary instructions.
Full-time Directors of Agriculture were appointed in all the major provinces. The
provinces were divided into a suitable number of “Circles” and each circle was to have an
experimental farm on the basis of regional differences of soil and climate under a Deputy
Director of Agriculture. An agricultural college was opened at Poona in 1908 and in subsequent
years agricultural colleges came to be opened at Kanpur, Nagpur, Lyallpur (1909), Coimbatore
and Mandalay (1924). Except Mandalay, all were affiliated to provincial universities.
In 1914, Sardar Jogindra Singh (1877-1946) made experiments on Tractor
cultivation in the United Provinces and in the Punjab, Sir Ganga Ram, a distinguished engineer
and agriculturist, played remarkable role in irrigating the high lying lands in canal colonies of the
Punjab with lift-irrigation.
Under the Montague-Chelmsford Reform Act of 1919, agriculture became a state
subject. The provincial departments were put in charge of agricultural development of their
respective provinces. The Central Department of Agriculture after 1919 concerned itself with
only agricultural problems of all India nature. The Central Department of Agriculture
maintained the institutions: Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, which was transferred (in
1936) from Pusa to New Delhi (now known as I.A.R.I.), Central Institute of Veterinary Research
at Mukteshwar (started in 1893), Central Institute of Animal Husbandry and Dairying,
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Bangalore, Central Cattle-breeding Farm at Karnal, Creamary at Anand, Central Care-breeding
Station at Coimbatore and Sugar Bureau at Kanpur.
In 1925, Lord Reading (1921-1925), the Viceroy woke to the need of giving a new
impulse to the development of agriculture in India. Impetus was also provided by the resolution
of the Working Committee of the Indian National Congress. Fazl-i-Husain, who had joined as
the Member in Charge of the Department of Education, Health and Lands, and had a passionate
desire for the welfare of the rural people, gave strong support to the Viceroy’s proposal, and it
ultimately resulted in the setting up of the Royal Commission on Agriculture which was
appointed in 1926 under the chairmanship of Victor Alexander John Hope, 2nd marquess of
Linlithgow (1887-1952), a Scotch landlord with deep interest in animal husbandry. Now Lord
Irwin (1926-1931) was the Viceroy of India. Lord Linlithgow remained chairman of Royal
Commission from 1926 to 1928.
The very purpose of the Commission was to study comprehensively various aspects of
Indian agricultural problem and make recommendations for agricultural improvements in
agriculture. This was a great event in the history of agriculture in India which had a far-reaching
impact on agricultural production in the country. The Royal Commission on Agriculture, 1928
emphasized that “agricultural development is so vital for the prosperity of India that it is
inconvincible that the Government of India should divest themselves of all responsibility for it.”
The Commission observed that the Central Government should continue encouraging research
and supply of information to the state Department of Agriculture. In the absence of coordination,
there would not only be duplication but also their efficiency would be seriously curbed. The
Commission submitted its report in 1928 and made several recommendations most of which were
accepted and given effect to.
Among other things the Commission recommended the establishment of an Imperial
Council of Agriculture Research to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research
including veterinary research in India and link it up with research in those fields in other parts of
the British empire and other foreign countries, so that research work in India might avoid
duplication and be more effective. It was established with an objective of improving agriculture
for ensuring security against disastrous failures in food supply at that time.
Thus as per recommendations of the Royal Commission, the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research was established on July 16, 1929. The Council did not exercise any
administrative control over the Imperial or provincial research institutions. It was an advisory
body. But it played a very important role. It provided sound information about soil, crops and
animals on the basis of which solutions to the problems were found. The Government, however,
was more concerned for those items which were of great need for the Britons rather than the poor
of the country. The area under improved varieties for the crops which produced cotton, wheat,
jute, groundnut and sugarcane mainly for export increased than the area covered by rice, gram,
jowar and barley, the crops which were needed for the poor.
There was a great depression (1929-33) in agricultural sector throughout the world.
Agriculturists suffered severely because of a fall in agricultural prices. But when the popular
governments took office under the scheme of Provincial Autonomy in 1937, they passed a
number of measures to assist the farmers. Because of World War II, these reformative measured
could not be implemented in most of the provinces. But Punjab Agricultural Produce Market Act
1939, was indeed, very important. This Act supplied a long felt need in the province for
obtaining a fairer-deal in the disposal of farmers produce. Various other Acts passed by the
Unionist Government of Punjab proved very beneficial to the farmers of the state.
During the World War II, the problems of food grains and their rising prices again came
to the fore. The Government had no well thought-out policy and machinery to implement the
policy. Naturally the famine of 1943 created a severe situation. The British policy had already
converted Indian economy into agricultural economy i.e. agriculture had become the base of all
economic activities. The crops falling under non-food group were given high priority from the
beginning of the twentieth century up to the dawn of independence of India. The increase in
area under food crops during the year 1940-41 had been due to the increased demand created by
the war. So, the government was forced to move towards the need for improving food crops.
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The partition gave a big set back to the agriculture of divided India for some time.
Thirteen districts of the east Punjab and the states of Patiala, Nabha, Faridkot, Jind, Malerkotla
and Kapurthla remained a part of India. Sind, Baluchistan, the N.W. Frontier Province,
Bahawalpur state and 16 district of the west Punjab formed the western wing of the Pakistan.
The west Punjab included 55 per cent of the population, 62 per cent of the area and controlled 69
per cent of the income of the old province. On the other hand, the east Punjab obtained 45 per
cent of the population, 38 per cent of the area, and 31 per cent of the income of the original
province. Thus the west Punjab had bigger resources inland, water and income (Randhawa,
1980,1982, 1983 and 1986). So a vigorous developmental approach and policy of the Indian
government was needed to meet out the severe crisis of paucity of food.
The Imperial Council was renamed as Indian Council of Agricultural Research in 1947.
The decision to change the name was taken at a special meting of the Council held on
Wednesday morning (13.3.1947) under the Presidentship of Dr. Rajinder Prasad (1884-1963).
The resolution, moved from the Chair, was seconded by Sir Datar Singh Vice President of ICAR
and President of the Indian Central Jute Committee and was unanimously adopted. Thus the
Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was henceforth to be known as Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. It is an autonomous apex-body responsible for the organization and
management of research and education in all disciplines of agricultural sciences. It aims at
excellence in the agricultural field.
In 1958 under the University Grant Commission, the Institute (IARI) was given
the status of a deemed university. “As an apex organization to conduct, coordinate and support
agricultural research of education, the ICAR today has emerged to be a vibrant organization
providing much needed national food security and overall agricultural development. It has under
its umbrella, 47 Central Research Institutes, 5 Bureau, 10 Project Directorates, 30 National
Research Centres and 80 all India Coordinated Research Projects, that conduct commodity and
system-based research in various agricultural and allied disciplines. Apart from these, there are
33 state agricultural universities (SAUs), 4 deemed universities and one central agricultural
university besides about 40 faculties of agriculture in traditional universities with enrolment
capacity of nearly 64,000 in agriculture and 15,000 in veterinary sciences, provide education at
graduate, master’s and doctoral levels. These institutions include agriculture, veterinary science,
fisheries, forestry, agricultural engineering, home science, dairy technology, sericulture, food
technology, horticulture and agricultural marketing. The agricultural research system in India
includes some 27,500 scientists and
more than 100000 supporting staff actively engaged in
agricultural research, which makes it probably the largest research system in the world. They are
distributed in the ICAR system, Agricultural Universities, General Universities and other
organizations. The deployment of scientific manpower in different organizations participating in
the nation’s agricultural research efforts are indicated below:
Institution
Number of scientists
i)
ICAR system
6500
ii)
Agricultural Universities
18500
iii)
General universities
1000
and affiliated colleges
iv)
Agro-based industries
1000
v)
Voluntary organizations
250
vi)
Related Government
250
Departments
References:
Malik, S.N. (2002). A History of Agriculture in India. In: Ram Dhan Singh : A pioneer
Agricultural Scientist. Shiva-Laxmi Vidya Dham, Hisar. Pp. 17-38.
Randhawa, M.S. (1980,1982,1983, 1986). A History of Agriculture in India. ICAR, New Delhi.,
Vol I to IV.
Voelker, J.A. (1893). Report on improvement of Indian Agriculture. Eyre and Spottiswoode,
London.
International Agriculture Research - Initiatives and Ethics
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3
National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) In India
One of the essential components that ensures required capability to meet the needs of the
increasing population through increased production is an effective agricultural research system that is
sensitive to the needs of time. It should be strong for sustaining a dynamic development programme
and provide for change. The present agricultural research system in India has been developed over
years of experience and experimentation which has undergone some major changes in concept,
organization and activities. Since independence, it has made rapid strides, both in concept and
implementation, towards becoming an effective system. The present system is helping the nation of
optimize the inputs and exploit the genetic and other resource potential. In the present research
system, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the National level mainly aids,
promotes and coordinates research and education activities in the country. The research and
education responsibilities at the state level rest with the Agricultural Universities. In addition to these
two main streams of research, some general universities and other agencies like scientific
organizations related to agriculture, Government Departments, voluntary organizations, private
institutions etc. participate in the nation’s research efforts.
The agricultural research system in India includes some 27,500 scientists and more than
100000 supporting staff actively engaged in agricultural research, which makes it probably the
largest research system in the world. They are distributed in the ICAR system, Agricultural
Universities, General Universities and other organizations.
The early development of agricultural research was associated with the recurrence of famines; a
cruel reminder of the low priority accorded to agricultural research and development during the British
period. The development of agricultural research gained some momentum after the first and the second
world wars. After India became independent, much emphasis was laid on agricultural research, which
has brought rich dividends in terms of increased agricultural production and near self-sufficiency of the
nation in agricultural commodities.
An Account of Agricultural Research In India
The main events in the history of agricultural research in India can be grouped into the following seven
categories (Singh, 2001): (1) establishment of agriculture departments and agriculture colleges, (2)
establishment of the imperial council of agricultural research, (3) initiation of commodity committees, (4)
project for intensification of regional research on cotton, oilseeds and millets, (5) initiation of all India
coordinated crop improvement projects, (6) reorganization of ICAR, and (7) the development of
agricultural universities. The details of these events are given below:
Establishment of Agriculture Departments and Agriculture Colleges
The beginning of primordial department of agriculture in India is as recent as April 27, 1871,
when a Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce was established. The chief function of the
department remained revenue. There was no work on agricultural development, and the sole function of
the department in this area was the collection of statistics.
But this did mark a beginning, and
recognition, howsoever insignificant, of the agriculture sector by the government. The credit for this
humble beginning goes to Lord Mayo, the fourth Viceroy of India, and to A.O. Hume, a civilian of the
Bengal Civil Service and one of the founders of the Indian National Congress. Ironically, the department
was established by the Her Majesty’s Government with a view to supply cotton to the hungry textile
industries of Manchester, and not to feed the famine ravished India.
India faced a severe famine during 1877-78. Based on the report of the Famine Commission, the
government of India resolved to set up a central Department of Agriculture controlled by the Imperial
Secretariat. Simultaneously, agriculture departments were to be set up in the provinces to look after
agricultural enquiry, agricultural development and famine relief. These departments were set up in 1881,
and directors were subsequently appointed in most of the provinces. But the chief duty of the agriculture
departments in the centre as well as in the provinces remained famine relief.
In 1892, an Agricultural Chemist and an Assistant Chemist were appointed to look after research
and teaching. This marked the first scientific staff in the Department of Revenue and Agriculture, as the
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18
department was then known. In 1901, an Inspector General of Agriculture was appointed to advise the
Imperial and the Provincial Governments on agricultural matters. An Imperial Mycologist was appointed
in the same year, and an Entomologist was appointed in 1903. During the years 1899-1900, India faced
the most severe famine on record. Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India, was convinced that the
Government of India must pay an urgent attention to agriculture. As a consequence, an Agricultural
Research Institute (now IARI, New Delhi) was established in 1905 in Pusa, Bihar (then in the Province
of Bengal). The agriculture departments in the provinces were expanded. The provinces were subdivided
into a suitable number of ‘circles’ on the basis of regional differences in soil and climate. Each ‘circle’
had a research farm, and was placed in charge of a Deputy Director of Agriculture. Between 1901 and
1905, Agricultural Colleges were established at Pune, Kanpur, Sabour, Nagpur, Lyallpur (now in
Pakistan) and Coimbatore. It was visualized that the staff at these colleges would combine teaching and
research to the best advantage. But due to the lack of scientific and technical manpower and finance, the
primary function of these colleges remained teaching and training.
Establishment of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (The present day ICAR)
As a result of a constitutional reform in 1919, agricultural development was made a state subject;
centre retained the central agencies and institutes of agricultural research and training. Thus there was no
agency to coordinate the activities of the central institutions and those of the departments of agriculture in
the provinces. This was emphasized by the Royal Commission on Agriculture appointed in 1926, and
headed by Lord Linlithgow. The commission proposed that an Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
should be set up to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research throughout India. The council
was to act as a clearing house for research schemes and information, to provide research scholarships and
to guide the research activities of central and provincial departments of agriculture.
The proposal of the Royal commission on Agriculture was examined and the Government of
India, Department of Education, Health and Lands resolved on 16 th July, 1929 to set up Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research. The first president of ICAR was Khan Bahadur Sir Mohammed
Habibulla; Diwan Bahadur Sir Vijaya Raghavacharya was its first Vice-Present and Mr. S.A. Hydari was
the first Secretary. The governing body of the council had 16 members.
The name of the council was changed from Imperial Council of Agricultural Research to Indian
Council of Agricultural Research in March 1947. The decision to make this change was taken by the
Governing body of ICAR in a meting presided over by Sir Jogendra Singh.
The Commodity Committee
In addition to ICAR, there were several Central Commodity Committees that were concerned
with research and development activities related to specific crops. These committees were started by the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture and were semi-autonomous bodies. They were financed partly by the
government and partly by the taxes collected on the export of the concerned commodities. Some
commodity committees had their own research stations or institutes located in the main growing regions
of the crops concerned (Table 1), while some others financed research schemes conducted by the State
Departments of Agriculture, e.g., Spices and Cashewnut Committee.
The Indian Central Cotton
Committee was the first, commodity committee established in 1921 on the recommendation of the Indian
Cotton Committee (1917-18). The functions of this Central Committee were cotton improvement,
development of improved methods of growing, manufacturing and marketing of cotton. The committee
financed schemes on cotton breeding, diseases, pests, physiology, agronomy, etc. The committee was
responsible for the development of 70 improved varieties of cotton, and the fiber quality of Indian cotton
was considerably improved. In view of the success achieved in research on cotton under the Indian
Central Cotton Committee, commodity committees were set up on other crops, viz., lac, jute, sugarcane,
tobacco, coconut, oilseeds, spices and cashewnut and arecanut (Table 1). As a result of this, the
functions of ICAR became limited to food crops, tuber crops, grasses and fodder crops, horticultural
crops, problems common to all the crops for which commodity committees were set up, e.g., diseases,
pests etc., dry farming and animal research.
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Table 1 : The Indian Central Commodity Committees
of Research institute/station
Name of the Indian Central Year
Commodity Committee
establishment
Cotton Committee
1921
Technological Laboratory (now CTRL)
Lac Cess Committee
1931
Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum,
Ranchi (1936)
Jute Committee
1936
Jute
Agricultural
Barrackpore
Research
Institute,
Jute Technological Research Laboratories,
Calcutta
Sugarcane Committee
1944
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore
Indian Institute
Lucknow
of
Sugarcane
Research,
Coconut Committee
1945
Central
Coconut
Research
Kanyagulam and Kasaragod
Station,
Tobacco Committee
1945
Central
Tobacco
Research
Rajahmundry (8 substations)
Institute,
Oilseeds Committee
1947
Financed research schemes; headquarters at
Hyderabad
Arecanut Research Station, Vittai (Karnataka)
Arecanut Committee
Spices
and
Committee
1969
Cashewnut
1958
Finance research schemes
The Vice-President of ICAR was the President of all the commodity committees. Further, the
research stations for the various crops were located in the region where the crop was the most widely
grown. But the soil and climate vary to a great deal from one region of the country to another, and there
was a great necessity to conduct the researches on various crops within the different agroclimatic regions
of the country. These realizations led to the formulation of the Project for Intensification of Regional
Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets (PIRRCOM), which was the first step in the country towards
coordinated approach to agricultural research. The Central Commodity Committees were later
abolished (beginning in 1965) and the research institutes under their control were transferred to ICAR.
Project for Intensification of Regional Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets (PIRRCOM)
A need was felt to coordinate the research on various crops, e.g., cotton, oilseeds and millets, and
also to conduct the research work in different agroclimatic regions of the country. The first coordinated
research work on regional basis was initiated in 1956 as a joint effort by ICAR and the Indian Central
Commodity Committees on Oilseeds and Cotton. Seventeen centers were established throughout the
country (Table 2) to conduct research on cotton, castor, groundnut, Brassica spp., til, toria, taramira,
jowar and bajra. These research stations, except the one at ICAR, were under the administrative control
of ICAR. The research programme for each region was prepared by a regional coordination committee
headed by the Agriculture Commissioner of India, and approved by the respective commodity
committees. A regional station consisted of full-fledged sections of plant breeding and genetics,
agronomy, agricultural chemistry and soil science, plant pathology and entomology.
Table 2: The centers for the Project for Intensification of Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets
(PIRRCOM)
Location of centre
Province
Research work on
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
Cotton, jowar, groundnut
Bellary
Setaria, rabi jowar
Dhadesagur
Dharwar
Cotton, jowar
Karnataka
Kharif jowar
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Sulakere
Rajendrasagar
Ragi, groundnut
Andhra Pradesh
Amravati
Mohol
20
Castor, groundnut
Cotton, jowar, groundnut
Maharashtra
Junagarh
Rabi jowar
Jowar, groundnut
Surat
Gujarat
Cotton, jowar
Gwalior
Madhya Pradesh
Kharif jowar
Hoshangabad
Linseed
Ajmer
Rajasthan
Jowar, bajra
Kanpur
Uttar Pradesh
Indian mustard, bajra
Patiala
Punjab
Toria, taramira
Sirsa
Haryana
Cotton
IARI
New Delhi
Cotton, jowar, bajra, linseed (fundamental
research on physiology and cytogenetics; linseed
breeding)
Initiation of All India Coordinated Research Projects
The concept of coordinated projects first developed in relation to hybrid maize improvement.
ICAR was interested in utilizing heterosis for maize improvement as this approach was highly successful
in USA and several other countries. Rockefeller Foundation, then actively involved in crop improvement
programmes in Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, was invited to assist in the maize
improvement programme in India. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of India, signed
an agreement with the Rockefeller Foundation in 1956. According to this agreement, Rockefeller
Foundation was to assist in the development of (1) the postgraduate school of Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, and (2) research programmes on the improvement of some crops
(maize, jowar and bajra, initially). Two scientists from the Rockefeller Foundation maize programmes in
Mexico and Columbia came to India to study the position of maize crop and submitted their report. This
report was scrutinized by the Botany Committee of ICAR and then by the Advisory Board of the
Council, and provided the basis for the coordinated maize project.
In the coordinated maize improvement programme, the entire country was divided into major
agroclimatic zones without any regard to state boundaries. Each zone was to have several research
centers. Research centers present in a state would be under the administrative control of that state. ICAR
was to provide a Project Coordinator who would visit all the centers under the project to facilitate a
smooth running of the project. There would be annual workshops of the principal research workers to
review the progress during the year and to formulate the research work for the next year. The
Rockefeller Foundation agreed to provide the world collection of germplasms, and to provide another
Project Coordinator in the early stages of the programme; this coordinator was to work in close
cooperation with the Project Coordinator appointed by the Council. With this set up, the All India
Coordinated Maize Improvement Project was imitated in 1957. This was a landmark in the agricultural
research in India; a coordinated approach for the whole country was initiated in place of the fragmentary
and isolated research programmes in the past.
The coordinated maize project proved to be the turning point in research planning in agriculture.
By 1961, new high yielding maize hybrids became available as a result of the coordinated project.
Spurred by this success of the concept, ICAR decided in 1965 to initiate coordinated projects on other
crops as well as in other areas of research e.g., animal husbandry, soil sciences, etc. Within 3 years of
this decision, 70 coordinated projects on various subjects were launched. The coordinated projects
accounted for 40 per cent of the total outlay for agriculture in the Fourth Five Year Plan. The progress of
the coordinated projects was critically reviews in the Fifth Five Year Plan; some projects were
terminated, some were merged with other projects, some projects were elevated to the level of Project
Directorates and some were changed to Coordinated Programmes. In the Fifth Five Year Plan, there
were 49 coordinated projects and some coordinated programmes.
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Reorganization of ICAR
In 1963, the Agricultural Review Team was appointed by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture
to scrutinize the organization of agricultural research in India. The team was headed by Dr. Marion W.
parker of USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). The team submitted its report in March,
1964. Based on the recommendations of the team, ICAR was reorganized in 1966. ICAR was made a
fully autonomous organization. Various research organizations under the Department of Food and
Agriculture and under the Central Commodity Committees were brought under the control of ICAR. The
Governing Body of ICAR was reorganized to make it primarily a body of scientists and agriculturists.
IARI, National Dairy Research Institute and Indian Veterinary Institute were made National Institutes. A
provision was made for the recruitment of scientists through selection committees of ICAR. It was made
a policy that an agricultural scientist would be appointed as the chief executive of ICAR with the
designation of Director General. In May 1965, Dr. B.P. Pal was appointed as the first Director General
of ICAR; he was simultaneously Vice-President of the Council. Four posts of Deputy Director General
were created to assist the Director General.
In June, 1972, the Government of India appointed a committee to review the recruitment and the
personnel policies of ICAR and its institutes, and to suggest measures for their improvement. The
committee was headed by Mr. Gajendragadkar, retired Chief Justice of India, and submitted its report in
January, 1973. In view of the recommendations by this committee, a Department of Agricultural
Research and Education was created in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in December, 1973. The
Director General, ICAR was made secretary to the new department. The Minister of Agriculture was
designated as the President of the council, while the Director General, ICAR, was made the Chairman of
the Governing Body of the council. The Advisory Board and the Standing Committee were abolished,
and the functions of the Standing Committee were assigned to Scientific Panels. The scientific panels for
different disciplines consider and evaluate the suitability for financial assistance of ad hoc research
schemes. An Agricultural Research Service (ARS) was initiated for the recruitment of scientific
personnel under the Agricultural Scientists’ Recruitment Board (ASRB). A scheme for internal
assessment and promotion was initiated. The credit for these changes goes to Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the
then Director General of ICAR.
The entire country was divided into 8 agroecological zones. For each zone, regional committees
were set up; the Director General of ICAR was made ex-officio chairman of these committees. The
function of these regional committees is to review the status of agricultural research and education in the
concerned regions. The Governing Body of ICAR is assisted by a Norms and Accreditation Committee,
which looks after the development of Agricultural Universities and the grant of fellowships.
At present, the total number of institutes under the Council is 45, those related to crop production
and related subjects. In addition, there are 30 several National Research Centres (NRCs) many of which
are concerned with crop improvement.
List of ICAR Institutes, National Bureau, Project Diretorates and National Research Centres
National Institutes
1. Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Agricultural Sciences
2. Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar (Uttar Pradesh) 243 122
5. Central Agricultural Research Institute
Andaman and Nicobar Group of Islands
P B 181, Port Blair (Andamans) 744 101
3. National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal (Haryana) 132 001
6. Central Arid Zone Research Institute
Jodhpur (Rajasthan) 342 003
4. Central Institute of Fisheries Education
Jaiprakash Road, Seven Bungalow (Versova)
Mumbai (Maharashtra) 400 061
7. Central Institute of
Agricultural Engineering
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Berasia Road, Nabi Bagh
Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) 462 018
20. Central Tobacco Research Institute
Rajahmundry(Andhra Pradesh) 533 105
8. Central Institute for Cotton Research
P B 2255, GPO
Nagpur (Maharashtra) 440 001
21. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
P B 3502, Sreekariyam
Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala) 695 017
9. Central Institute of Post-Harvest
Engineering and Technology
Ludhiana (Punjab) 141 004
22 ICAR Complex for Goa
Ela Old
Goa 403 402
10. Central Institute for Research on Cotton
Technology
PB 16640, Adenwala Road, Matunga
Mumbai (Maharashtra) 400 019
23. ICAR Research Compled for
North-Eastern Region
Umroi Road
Barapani (Meghalaya) 793 103
11. Central Institute for
Subtropical Horticulture
Rae Bareli Road, P.O. Dilkusha
Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) 226 016
24. Indian Agricultural Statistics
Research Institute
Library Avenue, Pusa Campus
New Delhi 110 012
12. Central Institute for Temperate Horticulture
Iqbal Colony, Zainakote, P O HMT Srinagar
(Jammu & Kashmir) 190 012
25. Indian Grassland and Fodder
Research
Pahuj Dam, Gwalior-Jhansi Road
Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh) 284 003
13. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute
Kasaragod (Kerala) 670 124
14. Central Potato Research Institute
Shimla (Himachal Pradesh) 171 001
15. Central Research Institute for
Dryland Agriculture
Santoshnagar, P O Saidabad
Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) 5500 659
26. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
P O Hessaraghatta Lake
Bangalore (Karnataka) 560 089
27. Indian Institute of Pulses Research
Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) 208 024
28. Indian Institute of Soil Science
Z-6, Zone I, Maharana Pratap Nagar
Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) 462 011
16. Central Research Institute for
Jute and Allied Fibres
Barrackpore
Distt 24 Paraganas West Bengal)743 101
29. Indian Institute of Spices Research
P B 1701, P.O. Marikunnu
Calicut (Kerala) 673 012
17. Central Rice Research Institute
Cuttack (Orissa) 753 006
30. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research
P O Dilkusha
Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) 226 002
18. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
Zarifa Farm, Kachwa Road
Karnal (Haryana) 132 001
31. Indian Lac Research Institute
Namkum, Ranchi (Bihar) 843 010
19. Central Soil and Water Conservation
Research and Training Institute
218 Kaulagarh Road
Dehra Dun (Uttar Pradesh) 248 195
32. Jute Technological Research Institute
12 Reagent park
Calcutta (West Bengal) 700 040
33. Sugarcane Breeding Institute
Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) 641 007
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34. Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi
Anusandhan Shala
Almora (Uttar Pradesh) 263 601
41. Central Institute for Research on Goats
Farah, Mathura
Makhdoom (Uttar Pradesh) 281 122
35. Central Avian Research Institute
Izatnagar (Urrar Pradesh) 243 122
42. Central Marine Fisheries Research
Institute
P B 1603, Ernakulam
Kochi (Kerala) 682 014
36. Central Inland Capture Fisheries
Research Institute
Barrackpore (West Bengal) 743 122
37. Central Institute of Brackishwater
Aquaculture
No. 141, Marshal’s Road
Madras (Tamil Nadu) 600 008
38. Central Institute of Fisheries Technology
Willingdon Island
P O Matsyapuri
Kochi (Kerala) 682 029
39. Central Institute of Freshwater
Aquaculture
Kausalyaganga
Bhubaneswar (Orissa) 600 008
40. Central Institute for Research
on Buffaloes
Sirsa Road, Hirsa Road
Hisar (Haryana) 125 001
43. Central Sheep and Wool Research
Institute
Avikanagar, Tehsil Malpura
District Tonk Via Jaipur
(Rajasthan) 304501
44. Officer on Special Duty
National Institute of Animal
Nutrition and Physiology
NDRI Campus
Bangalore (Karnataka) 560 024
Others
45. National Academy of Agricultural
Research and Management
Rajendranagar
Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) 500 030
NATIONAL BUREAU
Animal Sciences
Agricultural Sciences
1. National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources
FCI Building, Pusa
New Delhi-110 012
2. National Bureau of Soil Survey
and Land Use Planning
P B 426 Shankar Nagar,
Amravati Road
Nagpur (Maharashtra) 440 010
PROJECT DIRECTORATE
3. National Bureau of Animal
Genetic Resources
NDRI Campus
Karmal (Haryana) 132 001
4. National Bureau of Fish Genetic
Resources
Radhaswami Bhavan
351/28, Dariya Pur
Talkatoroa Road, PO Rajendranagar
Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) 226 002
Modipuram, Meerut
(Uttar Pradesh) 250 110
Agricultural Sciences
1. Project Director
Directorate of Cropping Systems Research
2. Project Director
Directorate of Oilseed Research
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
(Andhra Pradesh) 500 030
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3. Project Director Directorate of Rice
Research
Rajendranagar
Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) 500 030
5. Project Director
Directorate of Wheat Research
P B 158, Kunjpura Road
Karnal (Haryana) 132 001
4. Project Director
Directorate of Water Management
Mahatma Phule Krishi
Vidyapeeth Campus
Rahuri
Amednagar (Maharashtra) 413 722
6. Project Director
Project Directorate of Biological Control
Bellary Road, P B 2491, HP Farm Post
Bangalore (Karnataka) 560 024
Aggarsain Road, Karnal (Haryana)
7. Project Director
Project Directorate on Maize
Cummings Laboratory
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi 110012
8. Project Director
Project Directorate on Vegetables
No.1 Gandhinagar, Sunderpur (Nasic)
Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) 221 005
Animal Sciences
9. Project Director
Project Directorate on Poultry
Andhra Pradesh Agricultural
University Campus
Rajendranagar
Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)500 030
10. Project Director,
Project Directorate on Cattle
PH-7, Pallavpuram
Phase II, Modipuram
Meerut (Uttar Pradesh) 250 110
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NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRES
Agricultural Sciences
1. National Research Centre for
Agroforestry
IGFRI Campus, Pahuj Dam
Gwalior-Jhansi Road
Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh) 284 003
2. National Research Centre for Aird
Horticulture
C-35, Sadulganj
Bikaner (Rajasthan) 334 003
3. National Research Centre for Banana
No. 4 Ramalingam Nagar, Veluyur Rd.
Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu) 639 103
4. National Research Centre for Cashew
Kamminje, Puttur (Karnataka) 574 202
5. National Research Centre for Citrus
Seminary Hills
Nagpur (Maharashtra) 440 006
6. National Research Centre for Grapes
C/O. IIHR, Hesaraghatta, Lake Post
Bangalore (Karnataka) 560 089
7. National Research Centre for Groundnut
Timbawadi, Ivanagar Road, PB 5,
Junagadh (Gujarat) 362 001
8. National Research Centre for Integrated
Pest Management
Lal Bahadur Shastri Centre
for Biotechnology
IARI, Hillside Road, Pusa
New Delhi-110 012
9. National Research Centre for
Medicinal and Aromatic plants
Boriavi Seed Farm
Boriavi, Anand (Gujarat) 387 310
10. National Centre for Mushroom
Research and Training
Chambaghat
Solan (Himachal Pradesh)
11. National Research Centre for Oilpalm
Ashok Nagar
Eluru (Andhra Pradesh) 534 002
12. National Research Centre for Onion
and Garlic
MF37, Sundarvan Colony
Near Lekha Nagar
Nasik (Maharashtra) 422 009
13. National Research Centre for Orchids
C/P Jt Director, ICAR Complex for
NEH Region, Regional Station, Tadong
Ganagtok (Sikkim) 737 102
14. National Research Centre on Plant
Biotechnology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110 012
15. National Research Centre for
Rapeseed and Mustard
PB 41, Bharatpur (Rajasthan) 321 001
16. National Research Centre for Sorghum
Rajendranagar
Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh 500 030
17. National Research Centre on Soybean
Bhawerkua Farm, Khandwa Road
Indore (Madhya Pradesh) 452 001
18. National Research Centre for
Water Technology
Eastern Region,Chandrasekharpur
Bhubaneswar (Orissa) 751 016
19. National Research Centre for
Weed Science
215, Ravindra Nagar
C/O.Department of Agronomy, JNKVV
Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) 482 004
Animal Sciences and Fisheries
20. High Security Animal
Disease Laboratory
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101, Kalpana Nagar
Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) 462 021
21. National Biotechnology Centre for
Animal Health
Izatnagar (Uttar Pradesh) 243 122
22. National Embryo Biotechnology
Centre for Animal Production
National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal (Haryana) 132 001
23. National Research Centre on Camel
Jorbeer PB 07
Bikaner (Rajasthan) 334 001
24. National Research Centre for
Coldwater Fisheries
Shillwa Hills Nursery,PB 28,Roop Nagar
Haldwani (Uttar Pradesh) 263 139
25. National Research Centre for Equines
Sirsa Road,Hisar (Haryana) 125 001
26. National Research Centre on Meat and
Meat Products
Indian Veterinary Research
Institute Campus
Izatnagar (Uttar Pradesh) 243 122
27. National Research Centre on Mithun
ICAR Research Complex
Jharnapani
Distt Kohima (Nagaland) 797 106
28. National Research Centre on Yak
West Kemeng
Dirang (Arunachal Pradesh) 797 106
General
29. National Centre for Agricultural
Economics and Policy Research
IASRI Campus
New Delhi 110 012
30. National Research Centre for Women
in Agriculture
26
93, Dharam Vihar, P O Khandagiri
Bhubaneshwar (Orissa) 751 00
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Development of Agricultural Universities
Before independence, higher education in agriculture was virtually neglected. In 1948,
there were 17 agricultural colleges in the country, which were under the control of Director,
Department of Agriculture of the respective states. Colleges for animal husbandry were
separate from those for agriculture, and were governed by the Director, Animal Husbandry of
the concerned states. Research and extension were the responsibility of the agriculture and the
animal husbandry departments of the states. The organization, staffing patterns, pay scales of
teachers and financial support (which was solely by the state through the respective
departments) were not suitable for a first grade education and training in agriculture.
The University Education Commission (1948-49) headed by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan,
recommended that rural universities should be established. In 1950, Major H.S. Singh and Mr.
A.N.Jha (Chief Secretary and Development Commissioner, U.P.) visited Land-Grant
Universities of United States. They advised the then Chief Minister of U.P., Pandit Govind
Ballabh Pant, to set up such a university, and he accepted their advice. This event may be
regarded as the one, which led to the initiation of agricultural universities. In 1955, the first
Joint Indo-American Team was set up, which recommended the establishment of rural
universities in each of the states. The team felt that U.P. (Tarai), West Bengal (Haringhatta),
Bihar (Patna), Orissa (Bhubaneshwar), Travancore-Cochin and Bombay (Anand) states were
suitable for starting such universities.
Dr. H.W. Hannah prepared a blue-print for agricultural universities in 1956; this
provided the basis for the proposal by Government of U.P. to the Central Government (in
September, 1956) for starting an agricultural university near Rudrapur in the tarai region of
U.P. The Central Government agreed to the proposal on an experimental basis. The second
Joint Indo-American Team was set up in 1959, which submitted its report in 1960. The team
recommended that the Agricultural Universities should be autonomous; should consist of
colleges of agriculture, veterinary, animal husbandry, home science, technology and basic
sciences; should have inter-disciplinary teaching programmes; and should integrate teaching
research extension. By 1961, there were demands from many states for agricultural universities
and the Government of India accepted the organization of a few more agricultural universities
during the Third Five Year Plan.
In 1960, the Government of India pointed a committee for providing a model for the
necessary legislation by the states for the establishment of agricultural universities. The
committee was headed by Dr. R.W. Cummings and submitted its report in 1962. On the basis
of this report, ICAR prepared the model act for the development of agricultural universities.
During 1960-65, the Fourth Five Year Plan, seven agricultural universities were established in
U.P., Orissa, Rajasthan, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. The United
States Agency for International Development (USAID) contributed significantly to the
development of agricultural universities through the Land-Grant Universities of U.S.A. This
assistance was in the form of training of Indian scientists in U.S.A., stationing of U.S. scientists
for teaching and research in Indian agriculture universities and a limited amount of equipments
for teaching and research.
The Education Commission (1964-66), headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, recommended that
all aspects of agricultural research should be the function of agricultural universities.
Subsequently, the responsibility for research was delegated from State Department of
Agriculture to agricultural universities, but this change was not uniformly implemented in
every state. The Review Committee on Agriculture Universities (1977-78), headed by Dr. M.S.
Randhawa, made many useful recommendations for the development of agricultural
universities. It noted that the quality of leadership and the financial support from the state were
crucial factors in the development of agricultural universities. The committee suggested,
International Agriculture Research – Initiatives and Ethics
M.S.Punia (2006)
28
among other things, that the Director General, ICAR, and Chairman, University Grants
Commission, should be members of the selection committee that appoints Vice-Chancellors for
agricultural universities. The Model Act should be followed faithfully, and states should accept
the responsibility for developing the agriculture universities.
State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) are major partners in growth & development of
Agricultural Research and Education under National Agricultural Research System. The state
agricultural universities are based on Land Grant pattern of USA ( In the year 1862, the Morril
Act,1862 popularly known as the Land Grant Act was signed into a law by Abraham Lincoln,
then President Of America that introduced a radical idea to American education. The Act called
for the federal government to provide each state with a grant of land in aid to establish
university/institution, hence the name “land granr”. Iowa was the first state to accept the
provisions of the Morril Act establishing Iowa State University at Ames in 1862 as the first
Land Grant University of USA. Today, there are 105 land grant colleges and universities
including land grants in US territories such as Guam and the Virgin Islands and 29 Native
American land grant universities).
The list of the state agricultural universities of India is given below:
S.No Name of the SAU
1
Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural
University (ANGRAU)
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.angrau.net/
2
Anand Agricultural University (AAU)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: http://www.aau.in/
3
Assam Agriculture University (AAU)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: http://www.aau.ac.in/
4
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishva
Vidyalaya (BCKVV)
Email: [email protected]
Address
Rajendranagar
Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh PIN
500030
Anand
Gujarat
1969
Haringhatta PO
Mohanpur
Nadia
West Bengal PIN
741246
Kanke
Ranchi
Jharkhand PIN
834006
JROISEMBA
Imphal
Manipur PIN 795001
Palampur
Himachal Pradesh
PIN 176062
1974
Birsa Agricultural University (BAU)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: www.bau.nic.in/
6
Central Agricultural University
(CAU)
Email:
Ch. Sarwan Kumar Krishi Vishwa
Vidyalaya (CSKHPKV)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: http://www.hillagric.org/
Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Kanpur
Agriculrure & Technology (CSAUT) Uttar Pradesh PIN
8
2003
Jorhat
Assam PIN 785013
5
7
Year of start
1965
1980
1995
1978
1975
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9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: csauk.ac.in
Ch Charan Singh Haryana
Agricultural University (HAU)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: hau.nic.in
Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi
Vidyapeeth (KKV)
Email: [email protected]
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi
Vishwa Vidyalaya (PKV)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: pdkv.mah.nic.in
Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar
University of Horticulture & Forestry
(YSPUH&F)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site:
http://www.yspuniversity.ac.in/
Govind Ballabh Pant University of
Agriculture and Technology
(GBPAU&T)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: http://www.gbpuat.ac.in/
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa
Vidyalaya (IGKVV)
Email: [email protected]
29
208002
Hisar
Haryana PIN 125004
1970
Dapoli
Maharashtra PIN
415712
Krishi Nagar
Akola
Maharashtra PIN
444104
Solan
Himachal Pradesh
PIN 173230
1972
Pantnagar
Uttaranchal
PIN 263145
1960
Krishak Nagar
Raipur
Chhattisgarh PIN
492012
Jabalpur
Madhya Pradesh PIN
482004
Junagadh
Gujarat PIN 362001
1987
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa
Vidyalaya (JNKVV)
Email: [email protected]
Junagadh Agricultural University
(JAU)
Email:
Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) Vellanikkara
Email: [email protected]
Trichur
Web Site: http://www.kau.org/
Kerala PIN 680654
University Campus
Maharana Pratap University of
Agriculture & Technology(MPUAT) Udaipur
Email: [email protected]
Rajasthan PIN 313001
Web Site: http://www.mpuat.ac.in/
Seminary Hills
Maharashtra Animal Science &
Nagpur
Fisheries Sciences
Maharashtra PIN
University(MASFSU)
Email:
440006
Rahuri
Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth
(MPKV)
Maharashtra
Email: [email protected]
1969
1985
1964
2003
1972
1986
1965
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21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
Web Site: mpkv.mah.nic.in
Parbhani
Marathwada Agricultural
Maharashtra PIN
University(MAU)
Email: [email protected]
431402
Faizabad
Narendra Dev University of
Uttar Pradesh PIN
Agriculture and Technology
224229
(NDUAT)
Email: [email protected]
Navsari
Navsari Agricultural University
(NAU)
Gujarat
Email:
Bhubaneswar
Orissa University Of Agiculture &
Orissa PIN 751001
Technology (OUAT)
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: bhub.ori.nic.in/ouat
Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) Ludhiana
Email: [email protected]
Punjab PIN 141004
Bikaner
Rajasthan Agricultural University
Rajasthan PIN 334002
(RAU)
Email: [email protected]
Pusa
Rajendra Agricultural University
Samastipur
(RAU)
Email: [email protected]
Bihar PIN 848125
Sardar Vallabh bhai Patel University Modipuram,
Meerut
of Agriculture & Technology
Uttar Pradesh PIN
(SVBPUAT)
Email:
250110
Sardar Krishi Nagar
SardarKrushiNagar-Dantiwada
Banaskantha Gujarat
Agricultural University (SDAU)
Email:
PIN 385506
Camp Office, Railway
Sher-e-Kashmir University of
Agricultural Sciences & Technology Road
Jammu
(SKUAS&T, Jammu)
Email: [email protected]
Jammu & Kashmir
Web Site: http://www.skuastjammu.org/ PIN 180004
Post Box 262, GPO
Sher-e-Kashmir University of
Srinagar
Agricultural Sciences &
Shalimar Campus,
Technology (SKUAS&T, Kashmir)
Email: [email protected]
Srinagar
Web Site:
Kashmir PIN 191121
www.icar.org.in/sherk/welcome.htm
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu PIN
(TNAU)
Email: [email protected]
641003
Web Site: http://www.tnau.ac.in/
Chennai
Tamil Nadu Veterinary & Animal
Tamil Nadu PIN
Sciences University (TNU&ASU)
30
1972
1976
2003
1962
1962
1986
1971
1996
1972
1998
1982
1972
1989
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35
36
37
38
Email: [email protected]
University of Agricultural Sciences
(UAS)
Email:
Web Site: uasbng.kar.nic.in
University of Agricultural Sciences
(UAS)
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
Web Site: http://www.uasd.net/
UP Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay
Pashu chikitsa Vigyan
Vishwavidyalaya evam Go
Anusandhan Sansthan
Email:
Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya
(UBKV)
Email:
West Bengal University of Animal &
Fishery Sciences (WBUA&FS)
Email:
31
600007
Bangalore
Karnataka PIN
560065
Krishi Nagar
Dharwad
Karnataka PIN
580005
1965
1987
Mathura
Uttar Pradesh PIN
281001
P.O. Pundibari,
Distt. Cooch Behar
West Bengal PIN
736165
68, Khudi Ram Bose
Sarani,
Belgachia
Kolkata
West Bengal PIN
700037
One of the original objectives of ICAR was to undertake, aid, promote and coordinate
agricultural education in the country. But this was not put into effective practice until the
reorganization of ICAR in 1966. A full-fledged Division of Agricultural Education was set up
within the ICAR to fulfill this objective. The ICAR has been crucial in the reorganization of
agricultural education in the country by providing the necessary guidance, financial aid (Rs. 41
crores during 1974-75 to 1978-79), and schemes for improving the quality of teaching and
research, e.g., centers of excellence, higher education in new areas, Professor of Eminence,
faculty improvement, scholarships and fellowships.
The total number of agricultural universities is now 38. The agricultural universities
have contributed to a great extent to agricultural education, research and development in the
country. Many improved varieties have been developed in the agriculture universities and they
have made numerous other contributions to some of which we shall return later.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is synonymous to agricultural
research and education in the country. The council is an autonomous society and has played a
crucial role in the development of agricultural research and education. The objectives of the
council may be briefly summarized as follows: 1) to promote, guide and coordinated
agricultural and veterinary research and education throughout India; (2) to train research
workers by offering scholarships; (3) to serve as a clearing house of information in regard to
research and to advise on agricultural and veterinary matters generally; and (4) to undertake the
publication of scientific papers, monographs, etc.
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The Minister and the State Minister of Agriculture and Irrigation are the President and
the Vice-President, respectively, of the council. The Director General is the Principal
Executive of the council; he is also Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of
Agricultural Research and Education. He functions as the principal advisor to the government
in the matters related to agricultural and veterinary research and education. The council
functions through its following bodies.
Governing Body
The Director General presides over the Governing Body, which is the chief executive
and decision making authority. It consists of agricultural scientists and persons with a
knowledge of and interest in agriculture. It makes decisions regarding policies, research
projects and schemes, and controls the budget.
Standing Finance Committee
Standing Finance Committee is a sub-committee of the Governing Body and is
presided over by the Director General. It examines budget proposals before they are put before
the Governing Body.
Norms and Accreditation Committee
The committee consists of 5 Vice-Chancellors of agricultural universities nominated by
the President of the Council, and is headed by the Director General. It is responsible for the
development of agricultural universities, and maintenance of standards of education in
agriculture and animal sciences.
Regional Committees
The country is divided into 8 agroclimatic zones; each zone has a regional committee
headed by the Director General. These committees review the status of agricultural research
and education in the respective zones and make appropriate recommendations.
Scientific Panels
There are 18 scientific panels for individual disciplines, and 5 interdisciplinary panels.
The scientific panels scrutinize research schemes and projects of the disciplines concerned and
advise the Governing Body on the technical matters related to research and education.
The council has four Deputy Director Generals for (1) Crop Sciences; (2) Soils,
Agronomy and Agricultural Engineering, (3) Agricultural Education; and (4) Animal Sciences.
The DDGs are assisted by Assistant Director Generals and other Technical Officers. The DDG
(Crop Sciences) is responsible for all the projects related to crop improvement.
The council receives a lump sum grant from the Government of India, and the receipts
of the agricultural produce cess fund. The council has a separate service cadre, Agricultural
Research Service (ARS), for its scientists. The ARS cadre is designed to encourage research
activities. Every 5 years, an assessment of the performance of each scientist is made and the
scientists are granted either promotion or increments for their achievements.
The crop improvement activities in the country are primarily confined to government
and semi-government institutions; there are also some private organizations engaged in crop
improvement activities. There are four main channels by which the council is involved in crop
improvement activities: (1) central institute on crops, (2) agricultural universities, (3)
coordinated crop improvement projects, and (4) ad hoc research schemes.
In addition, the council awards a number of prizes in the recognition of outstanding
research achievements. The council also provides financial assistance to registered societies in
agriculture and animal sciences for the publication of research journals, for conferences,
seminars and symposia, for summer institutes and short courses, traveling expenses for
attending international conferences etc.
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The All India Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects provide an efficient channel for
multilocation testing of newly evolved strains by the agriculture universities and the central
institutes. The coordinated projects are financed by ICAR on 100% basis, but in the case of
agriculture universities 25% of the expenditure is borne by the state. At present, the
coordinated projects are grouped into three categories: (1) project directorates, (2) coordinated
projects and (3) coordinated programmes. The nature of activities of all the three categories of
projects are the same, only the scope and the magnitude differs. A project directorate is headed
by a full-time Project Director who is assisted by a number of Associate Project Directors or
Associate Project Coordinators and a group of scientists. The project directorates perform the
functions of coordinated projects. In addition, they maintain germplasm, organize off-season
nurseries, monitor pests and diseases and make forecasts etc. A coordinated project is headed
by a full-time Project Coordinator who is assisted by several Zonal Coordinators and a
Principal Investigator for each discipline. The functions of the Project Coordinator are to plan,
guide, supervise, coordinate and monitor the programmes of the research work under the
project.
Coordinated programmes are smaller than coordinated projects; they are headed by a
Principal Investigator (not a Project Coordinator), and do not have a coordinating unit. The
coordinating units of the projects are located in agriculture universities or in central crop
institutes.
Functions of Coordinated Projects for Crop Improvement
The coordinated projects serve two basic functions:
1.
To evaluate the materials generated by central institutes and agriculture universities
under a wide range of agroclimatic conditions and under uniform management.
2.
To make recommendations on the suitability of new strains for release as varieties. This
is done after a thorough testing for all the important characteristics of new strains, e.g.,
yielding ability, disease resistance, quality etc.
In addition, the coordinated projects provide a forum for the scientists working on related
problems to exchange their view, a means of critical review and replanning the research
programmes, and an opportunity for the scientists under the project to initiate breeding
programmes of their own. A large number of high yielding, disease resistant varieties have been
released through them. The projects are now placing a greater emphasis on minor millets,
pulses and oilseeds, and on the improvement of protein content and quality. The factors
responsible for the success of coordinated projects are briefly summarized below:
1.
The country was divided into eight zones on the basis of soil and climate without any
reference to political boundaries. This has been able to generate considerable enthusiasm
among the workers, thus eliminating isolation.
2.
Appointment of full-time coordinators of high competence has been responsible for a
uniform experimentation of high order.
3.
A world collection of germplasm was made available to the breeders at the beginning of
the projects. This provided the wide genetic base required for effective crop
improvement programmes.
4.
The annual (in some cases half-yearly, e.g., rice, pulses) workshops provide an excellent
forum for discussion, critical review and reppatterning of programmes of the projects.
This has enabled the projects to remain flexible and to make necessary changes as
needed.
5.
A close interaction between scientists working in different disciplines is an integral part
of the coordinated projects. This has enabled the breeders to perform their tasks more
easily, and the evaluation of new genotypes is more speedy and accurate.
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ICAR supports on 100 per cent basis ad hoc research projects on various aspects of
agricultural and animal sciences. These schemes are short-term projects, the period not
exceeding 5 years in any case. The council provides full recurring expenditure, but not nonrecurring expenditure, except in a few exceptional cases. The council receives funds for ad hoc
projects from the agricultural produce cess fund (a certain percentage) and from various
international agencies, e.g., UNLP, IDRC, SIDA, DANIDA, etc.
Components of National Agricultural Research system (NARS):
The components of the agricultural research system in India can be broadly grouped
into the following categories.
a)
The ICAR system
b)
The Agricultural University System.
c)
General Universities having either Faculties/Colleges or strong Departments in
various disciplines of agriculture and allied fields.
d)
Scientific organizations working in areas related to agriculture.
e)
Government Departments in the Centre.
f)
Various Ministeries in the Centre.
g)
Several voluntary organizations/ private institutions participating in agricultural
research activities.
References:
Randhawa, M.S. (1980,1982,1983, 1986). A History of Agriculture in India. ICAR, New
Delhi., Vol I to IV.
Singh, B.D. (2001). Organisation for Crop Improvement in India. In:Plant Breeding :
Principles and Methods. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana. Pp 801-830.
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4
Global Agricultural Research Systems
In addition to the national crop improvement programmes, there are sixteen
international institutes concerned with improving the agricultural production. Ten of these
institutes are directly or indirectly involved in crop improvement work; these institutes
supplement the national crop improvement efforts. The international institutes are scattered
around the world and are situated in tropical countries. The tropical countries constitute the
developing countries or the ‘third world’. The agriculture in these countries is not well
developed and crop improvement work is generally not highly advanced. The main objective of
these institutes is to increase agricultural production of tropical countries through applied
research coupled with extension and educational activities. The functioning of these institutes
is supported and supervised by the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research
(CGIAR).
The CGIAR was established in 1971 by the joint efforts of Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP). The CGIAR is financially supported by sponsors, governments, development banks,
foundations and some other sources. At present it financially supports and supervises all the 16
institues. Periodically, CGIAR assesses the progress and the programmes of these institutes
with the help of internationally recognized experts in the field of agriculture.
Research Centers Under the control and co-ordination of CGIAR:
• CIAT - Centro Internacional de Agrictiltura Tropical, Palmira (Colombia) –1967.
• CIFOR -Center for International Forestry Research
• CIMMYT - Centro Internacional de Meioramiento de Maiz y Trigo, Mexico -1966
• CIP - Centro Internacional de la Papa, Lima (Peru)-1971
• CGPRT – Course Grain Pulse Root Tuber Centre, Bogar (Indonesia)
• ICARDA - International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas, Alleppo (Syria) –1976.
• ICRISAT - International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics, Hyderabad (India) –1972.
• IFPRI - International Food Policy Research Institute, USA.
• IITA - International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan (Nigeria) - 1968
• ICGEB – International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste
(Italy) and New Delhi (India)
• ILRI - International Livestock Research Institute, Addis Ababa (Euthopia) –1974.
• IPGRI - International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome (Italy) –1974.
• IRRI - International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Manila (Phillipines) –1960.
• ILRAD – International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases, Nairobi (Kenya)
– 1973
• ISNAR – International Service for National Agriculture Research, Hage (Netherlands)
• WARDA – West African Rice Development Association, Monrovia - 1971
• IWMI - International Water Management Institute
• World Agro-forestry Centre
• World Fish Center
Functions of the International Institutes
The main responsibility of the international institutes is to increase the agricultural
production in the tropics. To achieve this, they engage in applied agricultural research and
extension activities. These activities of the institutes may be summarized as under:
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1.
36
Genetic improvement of the crops concerned to develop high yielding and disease
resistant lines better suited to the various environments.
2.
Collection and conservation of germplasm of the concerned crops and their relatives.
3.
To conduct research on farming systems for an efficient use of the available resources.
4.
To determine the appropriate technology suitable for the needs and the resources of the
region. The emphasis is to develop improved practices from the existing ones so that the
local farmers are able to adopt the new improved technology with as little difficulty and
expenditure as possible.
5.
Extension activities to popularize the new technology so that the cultivator is able to
adopt them.
Of these activities, the genetic improvement of crops and the germplasm conservation
are of our immediate interest. Other activities, though important, are beyond the scope of this
book. Many of these institutes, e.g., IRRI, ICRISAT, CIMMYT etc., have the responsibility for
breeding crop varieties for several tropical countries. The soil, climate, agricultural practices,
prevalent diseases and consumer preferences would vary to a great deal from one country to
another, and often within a single country. The development of varieties suited to such varied
conditions poses a problem, which the breeders had never faced before. The breeders have
attempted to solve this problem in the following manner.
1.
The first step consists of the identification of possible environments for which the
varieties have to be developed. In each environment, a location is selected for the
evaluation of breeding materials and varieties.
2.
The second step involves making of a large number of crosses between parents with very
wide genetic base. This is done at a very large scale. It is hoped that segregating
materials from promising crosses would perform well in one or the other environment.
3.
Finally, the segregating materials from the promising crosses are tested in the various
environments at different locations. A number of lines suited to those particular
conditions are identified and selected.
Emphasis is placed on testing the breeding material under poor and good management
conditions so that genotypes suitable for these conditions are identified. The promising lines
are freely available to all the countries for direct release as varieties or for use in the local
programmes on crop improvement. The international institutes no more evolve varieties and
promote them. Most of this is in response to the criticisms leveled against them in connection
with the promotion of semidwarf wheat and rice varieties by IRRI and CIMMYT.
The role of international institutes in genetic conservation cannot be overemphasized.
Genetic conservation has been the responsibility of local organizations. Due to a lack of
coordination, there has been an inevitable duplication of efforts resulting in a wastage of time,
energy and funds. This has also limited the extent to which the variability in various crop
species could be collected and conserved. In addition, there were bound to be restrictions on
germplasm exchange due to political and other reasons. The international institutes coordinate
their germplasm collection activities with various similar national organizations. This permits a
greater efficiency in generic conservation efforts. IRRI has established a computerized
germplasm bank for rice which makes it much easier to locate and obtain the desired lines from
the bank. Free exchange of genetic materials ensures their maximum utilization in crop
improvement projects.
Some contributions of the International Institutes
The international institutes have contributed to a great extent in the agricultural
development of the third world countries. The increased agricultural production in India is
largely due to the development of semidwarf wheat and rice varieties. These varieties
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originated at CIMMYT and IRRI from where they were introduced in India. Lerma Rojo and
Sonora 64 wheats were direct introductions from CIMMYT. Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were
selected from the segregating materials introduced from the same institute. Similarly, IR 8, IR
24, IR 28 and IR 36 varieties of rice were introduced from IRRI, Philippines. Many of
semidwarf rice varieties developed in this country have IR 8 as one of their parents. Although
the contributions of the international institutes are more known in the cases of rice and wheat
improvement, their contributions in the improvement of other crops are also considerable.
It may be relevant to briefly examine the validity of the so called green revolution
associated with the development of semidwarf wheat and rice varieties. These semidwarf
varieties rapidly occupied very large areas (approximately 10 million hectares in each case) in
the tropical countries, particularly in India, Pakistan and Philippines. There was a considerable
increase in the introduction of these crops in the countries concerned. This increase raised
false hopes of increase in prosperity and continuous rise in agricultural production.
Introduction of these varieties led to a number of socio-economic problems in these countries,
which are summarized below:
1.
The quality of these varieties was not liked by people. For example, the red colour of
Mexican wheats and the cooking quality of IR 8 rice were not liked by the people in
India. But these defects have since been acceptably removed by breeding work within
this country and a number of semidwarf varieties are now very popular with the
cultivators.
2.
These variegates were susceptible to certain diseases, which often caused considerable
loss to the cultivators. Susceptibility of IR 8 to bacterial leaf blight is a case in point.
The poor farmers were often the greatest sufferers because they could not afford timely
plant protection measures. The rich framers, on the other hand, generally did not suffer
to that extent because they could adopt costly plant protection measures to protect their
crop against diseases and pests.
3.
Single pure line varieties came to occupy large areas, which increased the chances of
epidemic development. Luckily, there has been no serious epidemic so far, although
local losses did occur due to diseases. But this situation was very risky and has now
been corrected to some extent.
4.
The most serious effect of the green revolution was the increase in the gap between the
rich and the poor farmers. Increase in income led to more mechanization and an increase
in unemployment. The rich farmers became richer and bought the land from poor
farmers. This caused a considerable increase in the number of landless labourers.
Thus the green revolution appears to have failed in the sense that it could not fulfill the
rosy promises that it once held out. But it has succeeded to the extent that it increased the
agricultural production in several countries making them almost self-sufficient in food grain
production. In addition, it has brought into sharp focus the inadequacies of a hasty “green
revolution” in the third world. This has emphasized a more cautious and well planned
programme for agricultural development that would create the minimum of socio-economic
problems.
The Consultative Group on International Agricultural research (CGIAR) grew out of
the initial international response to widespread concern in the 1950s, 60s, and early years of the
‘70s that many developing countries would succumb to famine. A pessimistic forecast of the
time predicted vast famines between 1970 and 1985, with “hundreds of millions” starving to
death. Such grim predictions were proved wrong by a combination of connected trends:
reorientation of domestic policies in developing countries that were considered particularly
vulnerable, sharply focused research by developing country scientists, a great effort by
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developing country farmers, and the impact of international agricultural research on tropical
agriculture.
Unprecedented harvests were recorded in parts of Asia and Latin America, from new
varieties of rice, wheat, and maize based on international research. In India, for instance, the
impact of these developments bordered on the spectacular. The average yield increase for
cereals between 1961 and 2000 was 146 percent. Between 1973 and1974, the average real
income of small farmers in southern India rose by 90 percent. During the same period, the
income of landless laborers rose by 125 percent. Similar results were experienced in other
countries, and predictions of “gloom and doom” began to recede. They were replaced by hope
and optimism that the scope of agricultural transformation could be extended worldwide. In an
effort to make this happen, a series of high-level consultations were held in Bellagio, Italy and
elsewhere. Wherever they were held, they were all known generically as Bellagio Conferences.
The purpose of these meetings was to explore how best the international community could:
•
•
•
Consolidate and spread the benefits of agricultural research and agricultural
transformation globally;
Respond to the urging of the “Pearson Commission on International Development” for
an "intensive international effort" to support "research specializing in food supplies and
tropical agriculture;"
Protect and strengthen the four international agricultural research centers established
with the support of the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations and their partners -- CIAT
(headquartered in Colombia, for tropical agriculture), CIMMYT (Mexico, maize and
wheat), IITA (Nigeria, tropical agriculture), and IRRI (the Philippines, rice).
Participants in these meetings invited the World Bank, which had already created
"consultative groups" to coordinate and support development in individual countries, to set up a
consultative group for international agricultural research. The World Bank accepted the
challenge, and led the effort to create the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research (CGIAR). FAO and UNDP worked with the World Bank as cosponsors. IFAD has
since joined the group of cosponsors. (UNEP joined the group of cosponsors in 1995 but
subsequently withdrew. It remains a member of the CGIAR.)
The scientist work not only increase incomes for small farmers, it also enabled
the preservation of million of hectares of forest and grassland and finally help to maintain
biodiversity. Today's approach recognizes that biodiversity and environment research are also
key components in the drive to enhance sustainable agricultural productivity. Agricultural
growth and increased farm productivity in developing countries creates wealth, reduces poverty
and hunger and protects the environment. The science that made possible the green revolution
of 1960-70 was largely the work of CGIAR centers and their National agricultural research
partners.
The CGIAR generates global public goods that are available to all. Today more
than 8,500 CGIAR scientists and staff are working in over 100 countries, addressing every
critical component of the agricultural sector including - agroforestry, biodiversity, food, forage
and tree crops, pro-environment farming techniques, fisheries, forestry, livestock, food policies
and agricultural research services. Thirteen of the Centers are headquartered in developing
countries. CGIAR’s research agenda is
-
Dynamic
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- Flexible and
- Responsive to emerging development challenges.
Recent outstanding achievements of global agricultural research system are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Quality Protein Maize (QPM) varieties have been released in 25 countries, and are
grown on more than 600,000 hectares
New Rices for Africa (NERICAs) are transforming agriculture in the West Africa
region. In 2003 it is estimated that NERICAs were planted on 23,000 hectares, and
their use is spreading across Africa. In particular, 6,000 hectares were planted in
Uganda. In Guinea alone, NERICAs have saved an estimated $13 million in rice import
bills
A GIFT strain of tilapia has been selectively bred which shows an approximate 70%
gain in growth rate
Training over 75,000 developing country scientists and researchers
Reducing pesticide use in developing countries by promoting integrated pest
management and biological control methods
Adoption of low-till farming practices in Asia on 1.2 million hectares across the IndoGangetic plains, boosting farm incomes and productivity
Enabling African producers to access international pigeonpea markets
Over 45 bean varieties derived from CGIAR germplasm have been released across
Latin America
Improved forages, developed by CGIAR researchers and partners, are grown on over
100 million hectares in Latin America
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5
Role of The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
in agriculture development
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat
hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where
all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of
knowledge and information. FAO helps developing countries and countries in transition
modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices and ensure good nutrition
for all. Since FAO was founded in 1945, it focused special attention on developing rural areas,
home to 70 percent of the world's poor and hungry people. FAO's activities comprise four main
areas:
MANDATE
Achieving food security for all is at the heart of FAO's efforts - to make sure people have
regular access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives.
FAO's mandate is to raise levels of nutrition, improve agricultural productivity, better
the lives of rural populations and contribute to the growth of the world economy.FAO provides
the kind of behind-the-scenes assistance that helps people and nations help themselves. If a
community wants to increase crop yields but lacks the technical skills, it introduces simple,
sustainable tools and techniques. When a country shifts from state to private land ownership,
FAO provides the legal advice to smooth the way. When a drought pushes already vulnerable
groups to the point of famine, it mobilizes action. And in a complex world of competing needs,
FAO provides a neutral meeting place and the background knowledge needed to reach
consensus.
FAO ACTIVITIES
FAO activities comprise four main areas:
Putting information within reach: FAO serves as a knowledge network through its staff agronomists, foresters, fisheries and livestock specialists, nutritionists, social scientists,
economists, statisticians and other professionals - to collect, analyse and disseminate data that
aids in development. FAO publish hundreds of newsletters, reports and books, distribute
several magazines, create numerous CD-ROMS and host dozens of electronic fora.
Sharing policy expertise: FAO lends its years of experience to member countries in devising
agricultural policy, supporting planning, drafting effective legislation and creating national
strategies to achieve rural development and hunger alleviation goals.
Providing a meeting place for nations: Agreements on major food and agriculture issues are
being made through out the year at FAO headquarter or at its field offices by the policy-makers
and experts from around the globe. As a neutral forum, FAO provides the setting where rich
and poor nations can come together to build common understanding.
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Bringing knowledge to the field: FAO mobilizes and manages millions of dollars provided by
industrialized countries, development banks and other sources to make sure the projects achieve
their goals. FAO provides the technical know-how and in a few cases is a limited source of
funds. In crisis situations, FAO works side-by-side with the World Food Programme and other
humanitarian agencies to protect rural livelihoods and help people rebuild their lives.
STRUCTURE AND FINANCE
FAO is governed by the Conference of Member Nations, which meets every two years to
review the work carried out by the Organization and approve a Programme of Work and
Budget for the next biennium. The Conference elects a Council of 49 Member Nations to act
as an interim governing body. Members serve three-year, rotating terms. The Conference also
elects the Director-General to head the agency. FAO is composed of eight departments:
Administration and Finance, Agriculture, Economic and Social, Fisheries, Forestry, General
Affairs and Information, Sustainable Development and Technical Cooperation.
FAO employs more than 3 450 staff members - 1 450 professional and 2 000 general service
staff - and maintains five regional offices, five sub-regional offices, five liaison offices and over
78 country offices, in addition to its headquarters in Rome.
FAO REFORMED FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
Since 1994, FAO has undergone the most significant restructuring since its founding to
decentralize operations, streamline procedures and reduce costs. Savings of $50 million a year
have been realized. Highlights of the reforms include:
increased emphasis on food security
the transfer of staff from headquarters to the field
increased use of experts from developing countries and countries in transition
broadened links with the private sector and non-governmental organizations
greater electronic access to FAO statistical databases and documents
The report - "Reforming FAO: into the new millennium" - outlines steps taken by FAO to
decentralize the Organization and focus its activities on key priorities.
In 1999, the Conference approved a Strategic Framework to guide FAO's work until the year
2015. It was developed through extensive consultations with member nations and other FAO
stakeholders and provides the authoritative framework for the Organization's future
programmes.
FAO HISTORY
2002 : World Food Summit attended by delegations from 179 countries plus the European
Commission, reaffirms the international community's commitment to reduce hunger by half by
2015.
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2001: FAO Conference adopts the legally binding International Treaty on Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture, which supports the work of breeders and farmers
everywhere.
2000: FAO is granted the first-ever UN patent on a process allowing manufacturers to
bottle coconut water without losing its flavour and nutritional characteristics, a potential
boon for developing countries. FAO develops a strategy for concerted government and
UN agency action to combat chronic hunger in the Horn of Africa, at the request of the
United Nations Secretary-General.
1999: FAO's Committee on Fisheries adopts plans of action on fishing capacity, sharks
and seabirds.
1998: An FAO-brokered legally binding convention to control trade in pesticides and
other hazardous trade in chemicals is adopted in Rotterdam.
1997 : FAO launches campaign against hunger initiative TeleFood. TeleFood '97 reaches
a global audience of 500 million.
1996 : FAO hosts 186 Heads of State or Government and other high officials at World
Food Summit in November to discuss and combat world hunger.
1995 : FAO celebrates its 50th birthday.
1994 : FAO launches the Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS), targeting lowincome food-deficit countries (LIFDCs).
The Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and
Diseases (EMPRES), strengthening the Organization's existing contribution to
prevention, control and, when possible, eradication of diseases and pests, is established.
FAO begins the most significant restructuring since its founding to decentralize
operations, streamline procedures and reduce costs.
1991 : International Plant Protection Convention is ratified with 92 signatories.
1986 : AGROSTAT (now FAOSTAT), the world's most comprehensive source of
agricultural information and statistics, becomes operational.
1981 : The first World Food Day observed on 16 October by more than 150 countries.
1980 : FAO concludes 56 agreements for the appointment of FAO Representatives in
developing member countries.
1978 : The Eighth World Forestry Congress, held in Jakarta, Indonesia, with the theme
"Forests for people", has a profound impact on attitudes towards forestry development
and FAO's work in this sector.
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1976 : FAO's Technical Cooperation Programme established to afford greater flexibility
in responding to urgent situations.
1974 : UN World Food Conference in Rome recommends the adoption of an International
Undertaking on World Food Security.
1962 ; The FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission established to set international
food standards becomes operational.
1960 : Freedom from Hunger campaign launched to mobilize non-governmental support.
1951 : FAO headquarters moved to Rome, Italy, from Washington, DC, the United States.
1945 : First session of FAO Conference, Quebec City, Canada, establishes FAO as a
specialized United Nations agency.
1943 : Forty-four governments, meeting in Hot Springs, Virginia, the United States, commit
themselves to founding a permanent organization for food and agriculture
FAO BUDGET
The smooth functioning of an organization representing 187 member countries plus the
European Union is a complex process. Every two years, representatives from all members meet
at the FAO Conference to review work carried out and to approve a new budget. The
Conference elects a smaller group of 49 member countries, known as the Council, to serve
three-year rotating terms to govern the Organization's activities. The Conference also elects a
Director-General. FAO employs more than 1 450 professional and 2 000 general service staff.
A little over half of them work at headquarters in Rome, while the others carry out FAO
activities worldwide, from offices based in more than 100 countries. FAO's Regular Programme
budget is funded by its members, through contributions set at the FAO Conference. The budget
for 2004-2005 is US$ 749.1 million, and covers core technical work, cooperation and
partnerships including the Technical Cooperation Programme, information and general policy,
direction and administration. Preliminary information for 2003 indicates that US$ 386 million
paid for 1 800 field programme projects, of which 400 were emergency operations amounting
to US$ 183 million across all funding sources and accounting for 47 percent of total delivery.
The technical cooperation field programme amounted to US$ 203 million, of which FAO
contributed 25 percent with the remainder coming from outside sources: Trust Funds - 70
percent, and the United Nations Development Programme - 5
FOOD SECURITY PROGRAMMES
The Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) is FAO's flagship initiative for reaching
the goal of halving the number of hungry in the world by 2015. Currently there are 852 million
food insecure people in the world. Through projects in over one hundred countries worldwide
the SPFS promotes effective, tangible solutions to the elimination of hunger, undernourishment
and poverty. To maximize the impact of its work, the SPFS strongly promotes national
ownership and local empowerment in the countries in which it operates.
Since 1995, US$770 million from donors and national governments have been invested in
FAO-designed food security programmes. The SPFS initiative helps to achieve food security in
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two ways: through assisting national governments to run focused, well-planned National Food
Security Programmes and through working closely with regional economic organizations to
develop Regional Programmes for Food Security which optimize regional conditions for
attaining food security in areas like trade policy.
NATIONAL PROGRAMMES FOR FOOD SECURITY
A National Programme for Food Security (NPFS) is a country-driven solution to
eradicating hunger within the local population. FAO supports national governments in
identifying ways to remove barriers to food access and mobilizes donor resources for project
funding. FAO also assists with the kick-off and implementation phases.
Currently 105 countries take part in the SPFS and of these approximately 30 are implementing
or preparing to implement country-wide National Programmes for Food Security. These
programmes have a number of common elements:
•
•
•
•
•
strong and visionary leadership which makes the elimination of hunger a truly
national goal, in which all citizens feel that they can play a part;
the full engagement not only of governments but also of civil society institutions
within alliances of which the members combine forces to work jointly on an
interdisciplinary basis to undertake very practical actions towards eradicating hunger;
a supportive policy and legal environment which addresses such issues as subsidies,
tariffs, exchange rate, decentralization and access to land and water resources, as well
as the right to food;
a monitoring and evaluation system, able to generate reliable information on
programme impact and costs as well as to minimize risks of corrupt administration;
projects integrated with global poverty reduction initiatives specifically Poverty
Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) and the UN Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs);
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45
projects may include the 'twin-track approach' to food security which guarantees
both food production and access to food.
The Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) is being implemented in ten counties of
China. Fifty farmer households were selected from one village in each project county to
participate in the Farming System Diversification Component in 1999. Project activities include
raising small livestock, fattening pigs, and rice and vegetable integrated development. Through
diversification activities, demonstration households, who have taken initiatives in project
activities, have greatly increased their income and improved their living standards.
PROGRAMME CONTENT
Components of National Food Security Programmes vary from country to country but all are
based on the FAO Twin-track approach. Projects may include combinations of both tracks one
and two:
• Track one: Improving livelihoods of the poor, especially small-scale farmers
• Track two: Improving access to food for vulnerable people
BEST PRACTICES
The Special Programme for Food Security focuses its activities in several key areas: water
control, crop intensification, diversification into short cycle animals and constraints analysis. In
the past ten years, it has succeeded in identifying a number of best practices that have been
developed by FAO and its partners to improve the impact of projects that focus on these areas.
FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS
The need to promote agricultural development has led many
countries to experiment with alternative ways of empowering
rural people, especially small-scale farmers, to improve their
production systems, food security and livelihoods. Amongst
the most promising approaches are Farmers' Field Schools
(FFS) which were originally developed in Indonesia in the late
1980s for engaging rice farmers in Integrated Pest
Management (IPM). Variants of FFS are now being promoted
Rural farmers in a meeting held by many governments and NGOs in rural areas of developing
by FAO extension officers countries throughout Asia, Africa and Latin America, as
in Honduras
vehicles through which small groups of farmers come together
voluntarily to jointly identify the constraints and opportunities
facing them and test and apply solutions.
Instead of conveying "messages" to farmers, FFS apply experiential learning (or
"learning by doing") methods to stimulate people's interest in ways of improving their
livelihoods. Typically 20 to 30 neighbouring farmers gather for group study in one of their
members' farms once a week. Classes usually start with careful observations on the trials which
members have set up to test different ways of growing crops or looking after farm animals.
From these observations, they arrive at collective decisions on how to make further
improvements. The classroom is the farmers' field, the term usually lasts for a full crop cycle
and the curriculum responds to farmers' main interests.
Many field schools start with a broad curriculum and, in subsequent terms, focus on
more specialized subjects e.g. improved dairy production and marketing, fruit production and
transformation, farm business management, enterprise development and marketing.
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"Graduated" FFS groups often continue working together, marketing their produce in groups.
Due to the intense group spirit, subjects of FFS often go beyond agriculture to include literacy,
health - including HIV/AIDS - and nutrition education to become Farmers' Life Schools.
SCHOOL GARDENS
In many SPFS projects around the world, school gardens are
being used as a way to teach children about food and nutritionrelated issues. While experience suggests that it is unrealistic
to expect a school garden to meet all the food needs of a
school feeding programme, it can be an excellent additional
source of foods rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals, adding
variety and nutritional quality to school meals.
Beyond this direct benefit to pupils' nutrition, even greater
Children water plants in impact on food security can be achieved if methods taught in
Senegal
the school gardens are replicated at home. Therefore, parent's
involvement in community gardens is crucial. School gardens can serve as a "laboratory" for
teaching not just agriculture but also improving children's understanding of the environment,
nutrition, ecology, biology and even mathematics, accounting, arts, poetry, etc. Beyond these
subjects, joint working in the garden helps children develop important life skills.
At the country level, close cooperation is initiated between the World Food Programme (WFP)
school feeding programme (Food for Education, FFE) and FAO school garden initiatives.
Further to this and in close cooperation with WFP and the MDG-Centre, FAO through the
SPFS supports the NEPAD CAADP Home-grown School Feeding initiative.
URBAN AND PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE (UPA)
Due to high rates of rural-urban migration in developing
countries, more than half the world's population will live in
cities by 2005.The challenge of feeding billions of city
dwellers will fall mainly on those who have stayed in the
countryside, continuing to farm. There are, however, many
underused opportunities for producing part of urban food
needs in or close to the cities, ensuring product freshness and
cutting transport costs.
Through the SPFS and TeleFood, FAO is promoting urban
Urban
farming
project and peri-urban agriculture to improve the livelihoods and
nutrition of poor families. These systems make good use of
in Caracas, Venezuela
abundant labour, locally available waste and low-cost
materials such as used plastic containers, pallets and boxes. The SPFS is showing how, even
with one or two square metres of closed-cycle hydroponic cultivation, a city family can meet
many of its needs for high-value nutritious vegetables. Waste land, such as roadsides and sites
reserved for future construction, can be used to grow vegetables, fruits and flowers for income
generation. Some cities are encouraging people to keep small livestock that can convert kitchen
waste into meat and eggs.
All projects use environmentally friendly techniques, minimizing the use of pesticides
and recycling water and manure. The jobless, especially women welcome the opportunity to
convert labour into useful products, to acquire new skills and to learn about nutrition. Urban
agriculture is generating much public interest in cities as diverse as Caracas and Dakar.
Senegalese experts are showing the people of Caracas how to build and maintain microgardens.
Through South-South Cooperation arrangements, Cubans are also working in Caracas,
demonstrating urban farming techniques, successfully developed when Cuba was cut off from
the world market for farm inputs. Many other cities - including Asunción, Buenos Aires, Cairo,
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Kigali and Kinshasa - are drawing on these experiences to develop similar programmes. UPA
within the SPFS framework is supported by various technical divisions and by the
References :
www.fao.org
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6
The green revolution and the evolution of agricultural
education and research in India
561 The British ruled India for more than 200 years, first in the name of the East India
Company and then in the name of the British Crown. In the early period, the East India
Company’s main interest was to obtain necessary raw materials, such as cotton and jute, for
manufacturing finished goods in the United Kingdom, and other commodities, such as tobacco,
sugar, indigo, and opium, for trade. In the second half of the 18th century, the British East India
Company introduced Gossypium hirsutum to obtain fine-quality long-stapled cotton. Like most
ex-colonies, India had only a limited research infrastructure and capacity to handle research on
food crops (Yudelman 1996). There was hardly any emphasis on increased food production,
although famine occurred frequently in one part of the country or another. In Bengal, there
were more than 100 000 deaths in the famine of 1869. This kind of tragedy must have made the
government think of doing something about the general development of agriculture, on which
the livelihood of more than 90% of the population depended. It was at the beginning of 20th
century education, and agriculture extension in the country, at both state and national levels.
The pre-independence organizational structure of agriculture State level
In 1905, the Government of India decided to set apart, annually, a sum of 2 million
rupees (equivalent to $50 000 US), to assist the development of agricultural research,
demonstration, and education in the provinces. Full-time directors of agriculture were
appointed in all the major provinces, and were responsible for agriculture extension, education,
and research in the state (Randhawa, 1979). In extension work, they were assisted by regional
deputy directors, district agriculture officers (one at each district level), and some field staff.
Demonstration and seed-multiplication farms were established in different parts of a state; seed
stores were also established, to supply seed, improved implements, and other agriculture
requirements. To provide a cadre of field workers, schools that provided 2 years of training in
agriculture for those that had been educated to the middle-school level were established in some
states. For manning posts of a higher level, seven agriculture colleges for high school graduates
were established in different states in the first decade of the 20th century. These colleges, which
were affiliated with General Universities of the state, offered a 4-year course and awarded a
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture degree. The seat of the agricultural college was also the seat
of agricultural research. Various research departments, namely Soil Science, Entomology, Plant
Pathology, and Crop Improvement and Management, were established. Crop improvement
work was located in other parts of a state also, where favorable cultivation conditions existed.
National level
At first, the Imperial Research Institute was established in Pusa in the State of Bihar in
1905. This institute also offered 2 years of training in the various disciplines of agriculture for
agriculture graduates. As a result of serious damage to the infrastructure of the institute from to
a violent earthquake in 1934, the institute was sifted to New Delhi in 1936. Central research
stations under the control of the Imperial Institute were established: for sugarcane, at
Coimbatore in the then state of Madras in 1906, and for potato, in the Simla Hills in 1935.
These institutions have made significant contributions. It was at the Coimbatore Sugarcane
Research Station that made, as early as 1916, inter-generic hybrids between Saccharum
officinarum L. and Narenga porphyiocana. The first successful commercial hybrid, Co. 205,
between S. officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum was released in 1926. For some other
crops, such as cotton, jute, oilseeds, and tobacco, the government created autonomous bodies to
coordinate and finance research in various states. The first autonomous body, the Indian Central
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Cotton Committee, was created in 1921. A significant development was the creation, pursuant
to the recommendation of the Royal Commission on Agriculture, of the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research in July, 1929, an apex central body, to promote and coordinate
agricultural research at state and national levels (Randhawa, 1989).
The post-independence era in agricultural development
During the post independence era, agricultural education in the country has witnessed a
sea change, both in content and quality, in view of the changed agricultural scenario and
challenges. The process of transformation started with the recommendations of the Education
Commission (1948), which stressed the need for systematic agricultural education in the
country. Subsequently, recommendations of the successive joint Indo-American teams of
1955, 1959 and 1961 and of Education Commission of 1964-66, laid the true foundation for all
the posterior developments leading to establishment of State Agricultural Universities (SAUs)
in the country in an attempt to bring the qualitative development in the field of agricultural
sciences by integrating teaching, research and extension education activities and evolving a
functional relationship between them and the respective state departments of agriculture. It was
also envisaged that the state agricultural universities should:
•
Fulfill some real needs of the people which have not been met and cannot be met
satisfactorily by the existing institutions,
•
Assume a direct responsibility and responsiveness to the needs of the farming
community, and
•
The territory served by the university should extend to the entire state.
At present there are 38 SAUs, 4 deemed universities and one central agricultural
university besides about 40 faculties of agriculture in traditional universities with enrolment
capacity of nearly 64,000 in agriculture and 15,000 in veterinary sciences as of 1994-95, in
graduate, master’s and doctoral courses inclusive of institutions other than those under the
ICAR system. These institutions include agriculture, veterinary science, fisheries, forestry,
agricultural engineering, home science, dairy technology, sericulture, food technology,
horticulture and agricultural marketing.
The Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), as the apex agency for coordinating
research and education in the country, is responsible for the growth and development of
agricultural education and research in India. The main mandate of the ICAR is to plan,
undertake, aid, promote and coordinate education, research and its application in agriculture,
agroforestry, animal husbandry, fisheries, home science and allied fields. The ICAR strives to
establish, strengthen and sustain an institutional system of higher agricultural education in order
to provide scientific and technical manpower required for research, education, extension,
developmental and other activities in agricultural sector.
Independence resulted in the bifurcation of the country, and a major part of Punjab, the
bread basket of the country, became part of Pakistan. The specter of famine appeared in Bengal
in 1942–1943, when a large number of men, women, and children perished. In the late 1950s,
India had to import large quantities of food grains, mostly from the U.S.A. under the PL-480
Program, and was faced with the serious problem of providing adequate food to the everincreasing population of the country. The manpower available for research and extension work
in the states was very inadequate. There was little coordination between the various agricultural
disciplines. Although research and education activities were located at the same place, and both
were responsibilities of the director of agriculture of the state, there was hardly any interaction
between them. At the national level, in spite of the coordinating responsibility of the Indian
Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), there was not much interaction between the scientists
of various disciplines among various states. In the field of crop improvement, each breeder
confined his activities primarily to the limited germplasm collected within a state, and that also
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from a limited area. Continuous pure-line selection had exhausted the possibility of any further
improvement, and even hybridization did not lead to any significant progress, owing to the very
limited genetic diversity of the parents used in the crosses. A number of varieties of rice, wheat,
and other crops developed in each state had very limited acceptance. Any increase in the yield
potential of these improved varieties developed under the favorable conditions of the
experimental stations was lost when grown on a cultivator’s fields. The tall nature of these
varieties and their susceptibility to lodging made them non-responsive to intensive crop
management. Any further breakthrough required the complete restructuring of the
infrastructure, to bring close coordination among the various disciplines of agriculture at all
levels— state, national, and international—for the free flow of ideas and material. It was
against this backdrop that, immediately after independence, the Government of India made food
self-sufficiency its primary goal, and made large investments in irrigation, fertilizer, and the
development of research, education, and extension services.
Restructuring of agricultural education and research at the state level
To promote close coordination among agricultural education, research, and extension
education on the one hand, and to forge close links between these agencies and the state field
extension agency, as well as the farmers in the field, on the other, state agricultural universities
(SAUs) were set up based on the pattern of the land grant universities of the U.S.A. It was felt
that a close link between research and education would help to foster education based on the
latest results of research instead of on mere text-book teaching (Bush 1988). A teacher can
teach only as long as he is learning himself. Similarly, a close link between the research
workers and the farmers would help the former to have a first-hand understanding of farmers
and problems in the field, enabling them to carry out need-based research. A close link between
the university, the state field extension agency, and the farmers would also help to provide a
quicker transfer of the available technology. The extension education wing of these universities,
through the continuous training programs of the field extension staff, would be able to provide
a more confident and technically better trained field staff to solve the farmers’ day-to-day
problems. With these ends in view, the first agricultural university was set up at Pantnagar,
Uttar Pradesh, in 1960. Today, there are 33 agricultural universities. The number of agricultural
universities in a state varies, depending on the size of the state and its regional requirements.
The responsibility for agricultural research and education, which, until then, had belonged to
the state’s department of agriculture, was transferred to these universities. However, the degree
to which research was transferred from the state to the universities depended on the degree of
commitment of a state to this concept. Some states still continue some research activities
outside the university. Further, some general universities and technological institutes with
facilities in agriculture and related sciences continue to undertake teaching and research work
in agriculture. In addition, a number of private agricultural colleges affiliated with the general
universities also continue to impart agricultural education. There is some duplication but, by
and large, the objectives under which the state agricultural universities were established have
been realized, and proper coordination between various institutions has been achieved through
central coordinating agencies.
Restructuring of agricultural education and research at the national level
At the national level, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) (the Imperial
Council of pre-independence India) is the apex body responsible for aiding, promoting, and
coordinating agricultural research in the country (Gautam 1989). It also became directly
involved in undertaking research, both basic and applied, after the creation of the Department
of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE) in 1964 in the Ministry of Agriculture. It has
now established a network of about 45 central institutes, in the areas of crops, horticulture, soil,
engineering, animal sciences, and fisheries, and the National Academy of Agriculture Research
Management. The Indian Agriculture Research Institute in New Delhi and the Indian
Veterinary Research Institute at Izatnagar in Uttar Pradesh, National dairy Research Institute
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(NDRI), Karnal (Haryana) and Central Marine and Fishery Research Institute, Bombay offer
postgraduate teaching programs and are deemed to be universities. In its coordinating role, the
ICAR has brought together all research activities carried out all over the country (by the central
institutes, the state agricultural universities, the general universities, and the volunteer agencies)
through the creation of All India Coordinated Projects. The first “coordinated” project was
created for maize in 1957. Such projects now exist for all other major crops, and for other fields
of agriculture, as well. These projects played a key role in the rapid generation of material and
the identification of varieties suited to various conditions. The mechanism of interdisciplinarybased multi-location testing generated the necessary information in a very short period of time,
and facilitated the simultaneous development of agro-ecology specific production technology.
This also helped to initiate the bringing together of all the researchers working on a project
from all over the country at workshops held annually to review results and exchange ideas and
material. A personal relationship among these research workers was built. It helped to develop
very healthy competition and to create great enthusiasm among the workers. Without these
projects, the rapid progress achieved in developing varieties of wheat and rice following the
introduction of dwarfing genes through the international institutes would, perhaps, not have
been possible.
Development of technology
Agricultural technology is location-specific. It is not always possible to transfer a
technology from one region to another. First, an attempt was made to introduce maize hybrids
developed in the U.S.A. Their high-yield potential of a 30–50% increase over the local varieties
was very impressive, but their dent-type grain and late maturity made them
quite unacceptable. In the earlier phase, the Rockefeller Foundation helped by providing field
and laboratory equipment, scientific personnel, and germplasm. An intensive
maize breeding program to develop indigenous hybrids was launched. The first double topcross hybrids with a 30–40% increase in yield over the local varieties were made available in
the mid-1960s. Now, three-way and single-cross hybrids have also been released for
cultivation. In the case of rice, the semidwarf early maturing and photo-insensitive variety
Taichung Native 1 and the tropical japonica varieties Tainan 3 and Taichung 65 from Taiwan
were introduced (Paroda 1989). The sticky grain quality and susceptibility to bacterial disease,
in spite of their very high yield potential, soon led to their non-acceptance. In the meantime, the
variety IR8, developed at the International Rice Research Institute (Philippines) using dwarfing
genes and introduced into India in the mid-1960s, became the forerunner of the rice revolution.
Its non-lodging habit (an ideal plant type for utilizing maximum solar energy), photoinsensitivity, and wide adaptability made it an ideal variety. The first Indian variety, Jaya, with
the yield potential of IR8 but maturing earlier, was released in 1968. IR8 and Jaya have played
the most significant role in bringing about the rice revolution in India.
In the case of wheat, Dr. Borlaug’s International Wheat Nursery material carrying
semi-dwarf Norin 10 genes was first planted at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute in
1961–1962. This exposed the Indian wheat breeder, for the first time, to a new plant type that
could help in breaking the yield barrier (Braun et al. 1995). At the request of the Indian
government, the Rockefeller Foundation helped by supplying seeds of dwarf wheats and
arranging visits of Rockefeller Foundation scientists. Dr. Borlaug spent 1 month in India in
1963. After visiting a number of wheat research stations and having discussions with the wheat
breeders in India, he provided 100 kg of seeds of 4 advanced lines, along with 630 early
generation lines. These advanced lines were tested in several locations in 1963–1964. As a
result, two semi-dwarf lines, Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64, carrying Norin 10 dwarfing genes,
were selected. These two lines were tested all over the country in 1964–1965 (Paroda 1989).
This exposed the farmers to the enormous yield potential of new varieties and made new
genetic sources available to the breeders. This, in turn, enabled them to develop high-yield
varieties of acceptable grain quality and adaptability. Later, two new varieties, Kalyansona and
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Sonalika, were developed (Nagarajan 1998), which proved to be of wide adaptability and
became the dominant varieties for large wheat areas. The result was the revolution of wheat
production in India (Swaminathan 1978). The importance of these varieties lay not only in their
high-yield potential, but also in their photo-insensitivity and wide adaptability. The wheat
varieties available in India earlier had to be planted within a short period of time, that is, no
later than mid-November. Any further delay in planting resulted in such significant reductions
in yield, that late planting of wheat was not considered economical. In the rice-growing areas
where the crop was harvested by the end of October and planting could not begin until much
later, fields remained fallow for the rest of the season. With the cultivation of early dwarf
varieties of rice, the paddy fields became available earlier to plant the subsequent crop (Khush
1995) and, then, owing to their photo-insensitivity, dwarf varieties of wheat could be planted
late without significant reduction in yield. This brought large areas under wheat cultivation
without the replacing of any crops. The wide adaptability of these varieties also made it
possible to introduce wheat in nontraditional areas. This progress was, however, the result of
the multidisciplinary approach and close national and international coordination that resulted
from the new organizational structure.
Supply of inputs
The new high-yield varieties needed intensive management and could not be exploited
to their highest potential without an adequate supply of water, fertilizers, and high quality
seed (Kanwar 1997). Even before the high-quality varieties became available, the Indian
Government had embarked on a program of harnessing water resources and making
irrigation water available even to remote areas not previously irrigated. Large projects, such as
the construction of the Bhakra Nangal Dam in Punjab and the Arjunsagar
Dam in Andhra Pradesh, had been started. To generate more electric power, a nuclear plant was
established in Uttar Pradesh and hydro-electric dams were constructed. The
availability of electric power in the villages made it possible for farmers to tap groundwater by
sinking tube wells. The availability of high management responsive varieties increased the
demand for fertilizer. This led to the setting up of a number of fertilizer factories, mostly in the
private sector. Along with these factories, many agro based industries arose, generating
employment opportunities for a large number of people.
Seed production
After a new variety is developed, the quantity of breeder seed available is very limited.
The shorter the time in which this seed can be multiplied and made available to the maximum
number of farmers in the largest possible quantity all over the country, the quicker the benefits
of their use will be felt. Further, the high percentage of purity of these varieties, particularly of
hybrids, has to be maintained to exploit their full yield potential. The small seed farms that had
already been established in each state were quite inadequate for such a large undertaking. In
1963, the Government of India established the National Seeds Corporation (Seth and Misra
,1998). In 1966, the Indian parliament passed a law requiring compulsory labelling and
voluntary certification, to ensure that seeds of notified varieties of a crop would conform to
certain minimum standards and to a certain minimum level of purity and germination (Central
Seed Committee 1971). The act provided the basis for establishing a central system for seed
quality. State seeds corporations and seed certifying agencies were established (National Seeds
Corporation 1986). At present, a large number of private companies, both national and
international, are in operation. This has made it possible to make high quality seeds available to
the farmers.
Human resources
To man the large number of newly established agricultural universities, central
institutes, and the new research projects started at both national and state levels, a large cadre of
trained manpower was required. Fortunately, a large number of very well-developed general
universities, with scientists well-qualified in the basic sciences, already existed in the country
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(Lele and Goldsmith 1989). Soon after World War II, in 1946, when the transfer of power to
India was being envisaged, the government had selected hundreds of bright young people from
all over the country to receive higher training in different branches of agriculture science and
technology in the U.K. and the U.S.A. This made a band of well-qualified and highly dedicated
scientists available to meet the new post-independence demands. The professional competence
of agricultural scientists continues to be updated through in-service training and placement in
advanced laboratories under bilateral agreement with foreign countries and international
agricultural research centers (R.K. Singh 1998). The continuous multilateral cooperative
programs involving the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation (SAREC), and developing
countries have helped in the exchange of information, experts, and ideas, as well as provided
laboratory equipment.
Transfer of technology
In spite of the availability of high-yield varieties and the necessary inputs, the so-called
green revolution would not have been possible without the willing and active cooperation
of millions of farmers, who were handicapped by their very small holdings, limited financial
resources, and a resistance (of many of them) to accepting anything new. Their subsistence
farming did not allow them to take any chances, as they had no buffering capacity against crop
loss. Starvation always stared them in the face. In the past, the transfer of some half-baked
technology had hurt some of the adventurous ones and had further alienated them. It was no
easy task to build a bridge between the extension worker and the farmer. The extension worker
must be able to talk in a language that the farmers will understand and be on the same
wavelength. It is in this area that the state agricultural universities played a key role, by forging
a very harmonious relationship, first, between the university and the state department of
agriculture responsible for field extension work (Prasad 1989).
The majority of the scientists working in the universities were the sons and daughters
of farmers and knew how to communicate with them. The farmers were no longer in awe of the
big buildings of the universities or of the scientists working there. Holding annual farmers’ fairs
in the universities brought hundreds of farmers into close contact with the university scientists
and extension workers. The farmers were treated with respect, and proper attention was given
to their problems. The scientists and extension workers worked shoulder to shoulder in the
farmers’ fields. The enthusiasm of the field workers was contagious. Once a trust was built
between the farmers and the scientists, the acceptance of new technology was quick. It was,
however, a two-way street. Not only did the farmers learn from the university, but the research
workers also learned from the farmers and acquired a first-hand knowledge of their problems.
This helped in carrying out need-based research.
Inspiring leadership
The progress of any nation depends on its economic policy and the kind of leadership
the country has. The priority given to achieving self-sufficiency in food production, as shown
by putting all the elements for food production together in a very short period of time, produced
phenomenal success. This, however, would not have been possible without the honest and
dedicated leadership that India was fortunate to have after independence. Everyone was
dedicated to the cause of uplifting and modernizing India to bring it into the 20th century. The
first prime minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, was a man of great vision and
compassion. It was he who asserted that “everything else could wait but not agriculture”
(Randhawa 1989). The relationship between the father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi, and
Pandit Nehru can be compared only with that of Swami Ram Krishna Param Hansa and his
disciple Swami Vivekananda. As Swami Vivekananda carried the message of his mentor all
over the world, Pandit Nehru put the dreams of his mentor into action by developing a free
egalitarian democratic society and alleviating poverty and modernizing India. By his very
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54
presence, he electrified the masses and energized them into action and, in return, was himself
energized by this contact. India loved Nehru and he loved India. It was this atmosphere of
dedication to work that prevailed in India at this time that led to so much progress in such a
short time.
The green revolution in India was not a coincidence, but was the result of proper public
policies, the creation of appropriate infrastructure, inspiring leadership, dedicated workers, and
the resilient spirit and hard-work of the Indian farmer. It was the bold decision taken by Sri.C.
Subramaniam, Minister of Agriculture in the Government of India in the late 1960s, regarding
the import and spread of the improved seeds, as well as the instituting of some other important
measures, that ushered in the green revolution. He was belatedly awarded India’s highest honor,
Bharat Ratna, in 1998 (D.P. Singh 1998). The scientific leadership provided by Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan was equally laudable. His contribution was well-recognized when he was
awarded the prestigious world food prize. The green revolution was also a shining example of
success in international cooperation. However, the spurt of growth achieved in the 1960s and
1970s has now plateaued, and no dramatic breakthrough is in sight (Swaminathan 1989). The
capacity of the leadership to inspire people is waning and the enthusiasm and dedication of
research and field workers appears to be sagging.
The fast rate of growth of the population is overtaking the slow rate of growth in
agricultural production. If this trend continues, India will not only soon be importing food
grains, but the specter of the famines of the pre-independence era may return. To avoid such a
catastrophe, the nation, on the 59th anniversary of its independence, will have to rededicate
itself to the arduous task ahead, by revitalizing its manpower and leadership, making better use
of its existing resources through narrowing the gap between the potential and what is actually
harvested, by making greater investment in research to develop new technologies in soil and
crop management, and by reducing fraud and the waste of available resources.
References
Braun, H.J., Rajaram, S., and Ginkel, H.V. 1995. CIMMYT’s approach to breeding for wide
adaptation. In Adaptation in plant breeding. Edited by B.M.A. Tigerstedt. Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Bush, L. 1988. Universities for development: report of the joint Indo–U.S. impact evaluation of
Indian agricultural universities. United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
Project Impart Evaluation No. 88. U.S. Agency For National
Development, Washington, DC., U.S.A.
Central Seed Committee. 1971. Indian minimum seed certification standards. Central Seed
Committee, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi,
India.
Gautam, O.P. 1989. Forty years of ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) in service
of nation. In Forty years of agricultural research and education in India. ICAR, Krishi
Anusandhan Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 5–7.
Kanwar, J.S. 1997. A soil scientist reminisces: fifty years of soil science research to serve
Indian agriculture. Asian Agricultural History. Vol. 1. pp. 135–152.
Khush, G.S. 1995. Modern varieties—their real contribution to food supply and equity.
Geojournal, 35: 275–284.
Lele, U., and Goldsmith, A.A. 1989. The development of national agricultural research
capacity: India’s experience with the Rockefeller Foundation and its significance for Africa.
Econ. Dev. Cult. Changes, 37: 305–343.
Paroda, R.S. 1989. Research advances in crop sciences. In Forty years of agricultural research
and education in India. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Krishi Anusandhan
Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 35–80.
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Prasad, C. 1989. Agricultural extension education. In Forty years of agricultural research and
education in India. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Krishi Anusandhan
Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 234–282.
Randhawa, M.S. 1979. A history of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. ICAR (Indian
Council of Agricultural Research), Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi.
Randhawa, N.S. 1989. Agricultural research and education for productive agriculture. In Forty
years of agricultural research and education in India. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural
Research), Krishi Anusandha Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 8–34.
Seth, R., and Misra, L.P. 1998. Genesis of seed quality and quality control systems: an
evolutionary perspective. Asian Agricultural History, Vol. 2. pp. 213–226.
Singh, D.P. 1998. Etawah pilot project: past, present and future— reorientation, distortion and
dilution of commodity development. Asian Agricultual History, Vol. 2. pp. 227–304.
Singh, R.K. 1998. International linkages for technical capacity upgradation: current scenario
and future concerns. In Wheat-Research Needs Beyond 2000 AD: Proceedings of an
International Group Meeting held at Karnal, India, 12–14 August 1997. Edited by S. Nagarajan,
G. Singh, and B.S. Tyagi. pp. 381–392.
Swaminathan, M.S. 1978. Wheat revolution: the next phase. Indian Farming, 27: 7–17.
Swaminathan, M.S. 1989. Achievements in agricultural research and education. In Forty years
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Yudelman, M. 1996. The place of agricultural research. In The globalization of agricultural
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7
Biodiversity and its Conservation
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the sum total of the variety of life and its
interactions or "Biodiversity" is often defined as the variety of all forms of life, from genes to
species, through to the broad scale of ecosystems (Gaston 1996) Or All hereditarily based
variations at all levels of organization, from the genes within a single local population or
species, to the species composing all or part of a local community, and finally to the
communities themselves that compose the living parts of the multifarious ecosystems of the
world. It is estimated that the total number of species available on this planet may be close to
100 million. " Biodiversity is described by two parameters : (i) - diversity represented by
number of species in a specified area and (ii) - diversity represented by the turn over of the
species across space Biodiversity or biological diversity is subdivided into three parts: Genetic
Diversity , Species Diversity, and Ecological or Ecosystem Diversity.
India's biodiversity
India has a rich and varied heritage of biodiversity, encompassing a wide spectrum of
habitats from tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation and from temperate forests to coastal
wetlands.Among the 25 hot spots of the world, two are found in India.India figured with two
hotspots: The Western Ghats, and The Eastern Himalayas
Western Ghats
Of India's 49,219 plant species, 1600 endemics (40% of the total number of endemics) are
found in a 17,000 km2 strip of forest along the seaward side of the Western Ghats in
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala (WCMC. 1992). Forest cover decline in the
Western Ghats. The status of the forest cover seems to have declined between 1972 and 1985 at
a rate paralleling that for India as a whole, which implies a loss of over 2.4% annually. Only
6.8% of the original extent of vegetation exists today.
Eastern Himalayas
Many deep and semi-isolated valleys are exceptionally rich in endemic plant species. In
Sikkim, in an area of 7298 km2, of the 4250 plant species, 2550 (60%) are endemic. In India's
sector of the area, there are about 5800 plant species, of which roughly 2000 (36%) are
endemic. In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many of which overlap with those of
India, Bhutan, and even Yunnan. Of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be
endemic to Nepal. Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%)
are considered to be endemic to the Eastern Himalayas. Characteristic Floristic Elements. It is
believed that forest cover in the Eastern Himalayas has dwindled from 340,000 km2, to 110,000
km2, with a mere 53,000 km2 of primary forests. Despite this loss, the north-eastern region is
home to some botanical rarities. One of these is the Sapria himalayana, a parasitic angiosperm
that has been sighted only twice since 1836.
Biodiversity Profile of India
India is the seventh largest country in the world and Asia's second largest nation with
an area of 3,287,263 square km. The Indian mainland stretches from 8 4' to 37 6' N latitude and
from 68 7' to 97 25' E longitude. It has a land frontier of some 15,200 kms and a coastline of
7,516 km (Government of India, 1985). India's northern frontiers are with Xizang (Tibet) in the
Peoples Republic of China, Nepal and Bhutan. In the north-west, India borders on Pakistan; in
the north-east, China and Burma; and in the east, Burma. The southern peninsula extends into
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the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean with the Bay of Bengal lying to the south-east and the
Arabian Sea to the south-west. For administrative purposes India is divided into 24 states and 7
union territories. The country is home to around 1060 million people, about 16% of the World's
population .
Physically the massive country is divided into four relatively well defined regions - the
Himalayan mountains, the Gangetic river plains, the southern (Deccan) plateau, and the islands
of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar. The Himalayas in the far north include some of the
highest peaks in the world. The highest mountain in the Indian Himalayas is Khangchenjunga
(8586 m) which is located in Sikkim on the border with Nepal. To the south of the main
Himalayan massif lie the Lesser Himalaya, rising to 3,600- 4,600 m, and represented by the Pir
Panjal in Kashmir and Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh. Further south, flanking the IndoGangetic Plain, are the Siwaliks which rise to 900-1500 m.
The northern plains of India stretch from Assam in the east to the Punjab in the west (a
distance of 2,400 km), extending south to terminate in the saline swamplands of the Rann of
Kachchh (Kutch), in the state of Gujarat. Some of the largest rivers in India including the
Ganga (Ganges), Ghaghara, Brahmaputra, and the Yamuna flow across this region. The delta
area of these rivers is located at the head of the Bay of Bengal, partly in the Indian state of west
Bengal but mostly in Bangladesh. The plains are remarkably homogenous topographically: for
hundreds of kilometres the only perceptible relief is formed by floodplain bluffs, minor natural
levees and hollows known as 'spill patterns', and the belts of ravines formed by gully erosion
along some of the larger rivers. In this zone, variation in relief does not exceed 300 m
(FAO/UNEP, 1981) but the uniform flatness conceals a great deal of pedological variety. The
agriculturally productive alluvial silts and clays of the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in northeastern India, for example, contrast strongly with the comparatively sterile sands of the Thar
Desert which is located at the western extremity of the Indian part of the plains in the state of
Rajasthan. The climate of India is dominated by the Asiatic monsoon, most importantly by
rains from the south-west between June and October, and drier winds from the north between
December and February. From March to May the climate is dry and hot.
Wetlands
India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. The total area of wetlands (excluding
rivers) in India is 58,286,000ha, or 18.4% of the country, 70% of which comprises areas under
paddy cultivation. A total of 1,193 wetlands, covering an area of about 3,904,543 ha, were
recorded in a preliminary inventory coordinated by the Department of Science and Technology,
of which 572 were natural (Scott, 1989). India's most important wetland areas includes the two
sites - Chilka Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) - have been designated
under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) as being
especially significant waterfowl habitats. The country's wetlands are generally differentiated by
region into eight categories (Scott, 1989): the reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south,
together with the lagoons and the other wetlands of the southern west coast; the vast saline
expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the gulf of Kachchh; freshwater lakes and reservoirs from
Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Kaeoladeo Ghana National park) and Madhya Pradesh;
the delta wetlands and lagoons of India's east coast (Chilka Lake); the freshwater marshes of
the Gangetic Plain; the floodplain of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills of
north-east India and the Himalayan foothills; the lakes and rivers of the montane region of
Kashmir and Ladakh; and the mangroves and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andamans
and Nicobars.
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Forests
India possesses a distinct identity, not only because of its geography, history
and culture but also because of the great diversity of its natural ecosystems.The
panorama of Indian forests ranges from evergreen tropical rain forests in the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and the north-eastern states, to dry alpine
scrub high in the Himalaya to the north. Between the two extremes, the country has
semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forests, thorn forests, subtropical pine
forests in the lower montane zone and temperate montane forests (Lal, 1989). The main
areas of tropical forest are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; the Western
Ghats, which fringe the Arabian Sea coastline of peninsular India; and the greater
Assam region in the north-east. Small remnants of rain forest are found in Orissa state.
There are substantial differences in both the flora and fauna between the three major
rain forest regions (IUCN, 1986; Rodges and Panwar, 1988).
The Western Ghats Monsoon forests occur both on the western (coastal) margins of the
ghats and on the eastern side where there is less rainfall. Distribution of forest in Kerala State,
which contains part of the Western Ghats range, contain several tree species of great
commercial significance (e.g. Indian rosewood Dalbergia latifolia, Malabar Kino Pterocarpus
marsupium, teak and Terminalia crenulata). Clumps of bamboo occur along streams or in
poorly drained hollows throughout the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of south-west
India, probably in areas once cleared for shifting agriculture. The tropical vegetation of northeast India (which includes the states of Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and
Meghalaya as well as the plain regions of Arunachal Pradesh) typically occurs at elevations up
to 900 m. It embraces evergreen and semi-evergreen rain forests, moist deciduous monsoon
forests, riparian forests, swamps and grasslands. In the Assam Valley the giant Dipterocarpus
macrocarpus and Shorea assamica occur singly, occasionally attaining a girth of up to 7 m and
a height of up to 50 m. The monsoon forests are mainly moist sal Shorea robusta forests, which
occur widely in this region (IUCN, 1991).
The Andamans and Nicobar islands have tropical evergreen rain forests and tropical
semi-evergreen rainforests as well as tropical monsoon moist monsoon forests (IUCN,
1986).The tropical evergreen rain forest is only slightly less grand in stature and rich in species
than on the mainland. The dominant species is Dipterocarpus grandiflorus in hilly areas, while
Dipterocarpus kerrii is dominant on some islands in the southern parts of the archipelago. The
monsoon forests of the Andamans are dominated by Pterocarpus dalbergioides and Terminalia
spp.
Marine Environment
The nearshore coastal waters of India are extremely rich fishing grounds. The total
commercial marine catch for India has stabilised over the last ten years at between 1.4 and 1.6
million tonnes, with fishes from the clupeoid group (e.g. sardines Sardinella sp., Indian shad
Hilsa sp. and whitebait Stolephorus sp.) accounting for approximately 30% of all landings. In
1981 it was estimated that there were approximately 180,000 non-mechanised boats (about
90% of India's fishing fleet) carrying out small-scale, subsistence fishing activities in these
waters. At the same time there were about 20,000 mechanised boats and 75 deep-sea fishing
vessels operating mainly out of ports in the states of Maharashtra, Kerala, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka.
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Indian coral reefs have a wide range of resources which are of commercial value.
Exploitation of corals, coral debris and coral sands is widespread on the Gulf of Mannar and
Gulf of Kutch reefs, while ornamental shells, chanks and pearl oysters are the basis of an
important reef industry in the south of India. Sea fans and seaweeds are exported for decorative
purposes, and there is a spiny lobster fishing industry along the south-east coast, notably at
Tuticorin, Madras and Mandapam Commercial exploitation of aquarium fishes from Indian
coral reefs has gained importance only recently and as yet no organised effort has been made to
exploit these resources. Reef fisheries are generally at the subsistence level and yields are
unrecorded.
Other notable marine areas are seagrass beds, which although not directly exploited are
valuable as habitats for commercially harvested species, particularly prawns, and mangrove
stands. In the Gulf of Mannar the green tiger prawn Penaeus semisulcatus is extensively
harvested for the export market. Seagrass beds are also important feeding areas for the dugong
Dugong dugon, plus several species of marine turtle.
Five species of marine turtle occur in Indian waters: Green turtle Chelonia mydas,
Loggerhead Caretta caretta, Olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea, Hawksbill Eretmochelys
imbricata and Leatherback Dermochelys coriacea. Most of the marine turtle populations found
in the Indian region are in decline. The principal reason for the decrease in numbers is
deliberate human predation. Turtles are netted and speared along the entire Indian coast. In
south-east India the annual catch is estimated at 4,000-5,000 animals, with C. mydas accounting
for about 70% of the harvest. C. caretta and L. olivacea are the most widely consumed species
(Salm, 1981). E. imbricata is occasionally eaten but it has caused deaths and so is usually
caught for its shell alone. D. coriacea is boiled for its oil which is used for caulking boats and
as protection from marine borers. Incidental netting is widespread. In the Gulf of Mannar turtles
are still reasonably common near seagrass beds where shrimp trawlers operate, but off the coast
of Bengal the growing number of mechanized fishing boats has had the effect of increasing
incidental catch rates (Kar and Bhaskar, 1981). (Figure 6) shows known turtle nesting areas in
the Andaman Islands.
Species Diversity
India contains a great wealth of biological diversity in its forests, its wetlands and in its
marine areas. This richness is shown in absolute numbers of species and the proportion they
represent of the world total ( Table 1).
Table 1. Comparison Between the Number of Species in India and the World.
Group
Number of species
Number of species
SI/SW
in India (SI)
in the world (SW)
(%)
_____________________________________________________________________
Mammals
350(1)
4,629(7)
7.6
Birds
1224(2)
9,702(8)
12.6
Reptiles
408(3)
6,550(9)
6.2
Amphibians
197(4)
4,522(10)
4.4
Fishes
2546(5)
21,730(11)
11.7
Flowering Plants 15,000(6)
250,000(12)
6.0
_____________________________________________________________________
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India has a great many scientific institutes and university departments interested in various
aspects of biodiversity. A large number of scientists and technicians have been engaged in
inventory, research, and monitoring. Inventories of birds, mammals, trees, fish and reptiles are
moderately complete.. Knowledge of special interest groups such as primates, pheasants,
bovines, endemic birds, orchids, and so on, is steadily improving through collaboration of
domestic scientists with those from overseas.
Endemic Species: India has many endemic plant and vertebrate species. Among plants,
endemic species is estimated at 33% with 140 endemic genera but no endemic families
(Botanical Survey of India, 1983). Areas rich in endemism are north-east India, the
Western Ghats and the north-western and eastern Himalayas. A small pocket of local
endemism also occurs in the Eastern Ghats (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). The
Gangetic plains are generally poor in endemics, while the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands contribute at least 220 species to the endemic flora of India (Botanical Survey
of India, 1983). About 150 botanical sites worldwide are so far recognised as important
for conservation action, but others are constantly being identified (IUCN, 1987). The
396 known endemic higher vertebrate species were identified by WCMC. Endemism
among mammals and birds is relatively low. Only 44 species of Indian mammal have a
range that is confined entirely to within Indian territorial limits. Four endemic species
of conservation significance occur in the Western Ghats. They are the Lion-tailed
macaque Macaca silenus, Nilgiri leaf monkey Trachypithecus johni (locally better known
as Nilgiri langur Presbytis johnii), Brown palm civet Paradoxurus jerdoni and Nilgiri tahr
Hemitragus hylocrius. Only 55 bird species are endemic to India. In contrast, endemism in the
Indian reptilian and amphibian fauna is high. There are around 187 endemic reptiles, and 110
endemic amphibian species.
Threatened Species:
India contains 172 species of animal considered globally
threatened by IUCN, or 2.9% of the world's total number of threatened species (Groombridge,
1993). These include 53 species of mammal, 69 birds, 23 reptiles and 3 amphibians. India
contains globally important populations of some of Asia's rarest animals, such as the Bengal
Fox, Asiatic Cheetah, Marbled Cat, Asiatic Lion, Indian Elephant, Asiatic Wild Ass, Indian
Rhinoceros, Markhor, Gaur, Wild Asiatic Water Buffalo etc. The number of species in various
taxa that are listed under the different categories of endangerment is shown below in Table 2.
Table 2. Globally Threatened Animals Occurring in India by Status Category.
Group
1994 IUCN Red List Threat Category
Endangered Vulnerable Rare Indeterminate Insufficiently
Total Known
_____________________________________________________________________
Mammals
13
20
2
5
13
53
Birds
6
20
25
13
5
69
Reptiles
6
6
4
5
2
23
Amphibians
0
0
0
3
0
3
Fishes
0
0
2
0
0
2
Invertebrates
1
3
12
2
4
22
________________________________________________________________________
TOTAL
26
49
45
28
24
172
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Source: Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
As many as 3,000-4,000 higher plants may be under a degree of threat in India. The
Project on study, survey and conservation of eEndangered species of flora (POSSCEP) has
partially documented these plants, and published its findings in Red Data Books (Nayar and
Sastry, 1987) whilst Table 3 provides summary statistics for this information.
Table 3. Summary of Plant Conservation Status Information at WCMC.
IUCN Threat category
Number of species
_____________________________________________
Extinct
19
Extinct/Endangered
43
Endangered
149
Endangered/Vulnerable
2
Vulnerable
108
Rare
256
Indeterminate
719
Insufficiently Known
9
No information
1441
Not threatened
374
_____________________________________________
TOTAL
3120
Source: WCMC Species Unit.
Protected Areas Network
The protection of wildlife has a long tradition in Indian history. As more and more land
became settled or cultivated, so these hunting reserves increasingly became refuges for wildlife.
Many of these reserves were subsequently declared as national parks or sanctuaries, mostly
after Independence in 1947. Examples include Gir in Gujarat, Dachigam in Jammu & Kashmir,
Bandipur in Karnataka, Eravikulum in Kerala, Madhav (now Shivpuri) in Madhya Pradesh,
Simlipal in Orissa, and Keoladeo, Ranthambore and Sariska in Rajasthan. Wildlife, together
with forestry, has traditionally been managed under a single administrative organisation within
the forest departments of each state or union territory, with the role of central government being
mainly advisory. There have been two recent developments. First, the Wildlife (Protection) Act
has provided for the creation of posts of chief wildlife wardens and wildlife wardens in the
states to exercise statutory powers under the Act. Under this Act, it is also mandatory for the
states to set up state wildlife advisory boards. The situation has since improved, all states and
union territories with national parks or sanctuaries having set up wildlife wings.
The adoption of a National Policy for Wildlife Conservation in 1970 and the enactment
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972 lead to a significant growth in the protected areas
network, from 5 national parks and 60 sanctuaries to 69 and 410 respectively, in 1990 (Panwar,
1990). The network was further strengthened by a number of national conservation projects,
notably Project Tiger, initiated in April 1973 by the Government of India with support from
WWF (IBWL, 1972; Panwar, 1982), and the crocodile Breeding and Management Project,
launched on 1 April, 1975 with technical assistance from UNDP/FAO (Bustard, 1982).
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Protected Areas of the Western Ghats
The Western Ghats are an area of exceptional biological diversity and conservation
interest, and are "one of the major Tropical Evergreen Forest regions in India" (Rodgers and
Panwar, 1988). As the zone has already lost a large part of its original forest cover (although
timber extraction from the evergreen reserve forests in Kerala and Karnataka has now been
halted) it must rank as a region of great conservation concern. There are currently seven
national parks in the Western Ghats with a total area of 2,073 sq. km (equivalent to 1.3% of the
region) and 39 wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of about 13,862 sq. km (8.1%). Tamil
Nadu's Nilgiri wildlife sanctuary, for example, has no human inhabitants, small abandoned
plantation areas and no produce exploitation, while the Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary in
Kerala includes considerable areas of commercial plantations and privately owned estates with
heavy resource exploitation.
International Programmes and Conventions
India participates with many international agreements and programmes concerned with
aspects of nature conservation and sustainable development. These range from legal
instruments such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, which place obligations on those
nations which become contracting parties, to scientific programmes such as the UNESCO Man
and the Biosphere Programme, a global programme of international scientific cooperation.
Examples of agreements and programmes with which India is collaborating include:
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
Since India became a party to CITES on 18th October 1976 it has provided data annually to the
CITES secretariat on the trade of endangered species through its CITES Management
Authority.
World Heritage Convention
India ratified the World Heritage Convention in 1977 and since then five natural sites have
been inscribed as areas of 'outstanding universal value'. These sites are:
•
•
•
•
•
Kaziranga National Park
Keoladeo National Park
Manas National Park
Sundarbans National Park
Nanda Devi National Park
Convention on Biological Diversity
India signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) on 5th June 1992, ratified it on 18th
February 1994 and brought it into force on 19th May 1994. This convention will provide a
framework for the sustainable management and conservation of India's natural resources. The
CBD has replaced the Principles of world’s common heritage of Genetic Resources with the
Sovereign rights of an individual nation on Genetic Resources.
Ramsar (Wetlands) Convention
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India has been a contracted party to the Ramsar Convention since 1st February 1982. India has
now six sites covering some 192,973 hectares of important wetlands. These sites are;
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chilka Lake
Keoladeo National Park
Wular Lake
Harike Lake
Loktak Lake
Sambhar Lake
Threats to Indian biodiversity
Threatened Animals of India by Status Category
Ex
EW
CR
EN
VU
LR/cd
LR/nt
DD
0
0
18
54
143
10
99
31
Legend
Ex-extinct; EW-Extinct in the Wild; CR- Critically Endangered; VU-Vulnerable; LR/cd-Lower
Risk conservation dependent; LR/nT- Lower Risk near threatened; DD-Data Deficient
Threatened Plants of India by Status Category
Ex
EW
CR
EN
VU
LR/cd
LR/nt
DD
7
2
44
113
87
1
72
14
Legend
Ex-extinct; EW-Extinct in the Wild; CR- Critically Endangered; VU-Vulnerable; LR/cd-Lower
Risk conservation dependent; LR/nT- Lower Risk near threatened; DD-Data Deficient
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Threatened Species of India by taxonomic group
Taxonomic group
Number
species
Mammals
86
Birds
70
Reptiles
25
Amphibians
3
Fish
3
Molluscs
2
Other Invertebrates
21
Plants
244
Total
459
of
threatened
Biodiversity conservation
Protecting biodiversity does not merely involve setting aside chunks of area as
reserves. Instead, all the ecological processes that have maintained the area's biodiversity such
as predation, pollination, parasitism, seed dispersal, and herbivory, involving complex
interactions between several species of plants and animal needs to be ensured. There is also the
need for greater involvement of communities, and for models, which decentralize of
management and conservation roles and responsibilities.
Conservation Strategies
Conservation strategies are urgently needed for the protection of species and ecosystems,
involving a mix of in situ and ex situ strategies. Some of the steps in such a policy include the
following:
In situ conservation
Population surveys and assessments and database creation
Mapping of forest types, protected areas, and natural forests
Improved protection efforts and a landscape approach to conservation
Regular population-habitat viability and risk simulations
Captive breeding and species reintroduction
Ex-situ conservation
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Preservation plots
Controlling wildlife trade
Setting up of a central task force
Creation of a central wildlife crime databank
Information networking
Geographical information systems and remote sensing in planning and monitoring
Creation of new conservation reserves
ABOUT NATIONAL PARKS AND WILD SANCTUARIES
National Park
• A national parks is a relatively large area where one or several ecosystems exist and
where plant and animal species, geographical sites and habitats are of special educative
and recreative interest. 73 National Parks (1992).
FAMOUS NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA
BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK
Firstly and formostly the white Tigers of Rewa were discovered Bandhavgarh (Madhya
Pradesh) that extended across the whole of Central India.
RANTHAMBORE NATIONAL PARK
A nearby attraction of Sawai Madhopur, in the state of Rajasthan, Ranthambore
National Park is an outstanding example of Project Tiger's efforts at conservation in the India.
KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK
The land of Rhino is counted among the two major wild pockets, the only surviving
habitats of this prehistoric survivor in India.
KANHA NATIONAL PARK
Ever though what it feels like to visit a tiger country, then visit the state of Madhya
Pardesh.
SUNDARBANS NATIONAL PARK
The largest estuarine delta in the world, this Tigerland vibrates with countless forms of
colourful life.
MANAS NATIONAL PARK
Assam is the state of the Great One Horned Rhino. Beside the Kaziranga there's Manas
another habitat of the Rhino's, located in one of the remotest region among the foothills of
Himalayas.
BANDIPUR NATIONAL PARK
Lies halfway down the Mysore-Ooty highway became one of the first of India’s. Tiger
Reserves and the southernmost of the nine reserves specially established under Project Tiger.
SULTANPUR NATIONAL PARK
Sultanpur National Park was a stretch of marshy land that has been remodeled and
converted into a water body. The Park is home to a large range of birds, both resident and
migratory.
ROYAL CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK
Established in 1973, provides a great wildlife experience with its rich flora and fauna.
Short grass makes the months of February-May the best game-viewing season, but the autumn
months are perfect for visiting, with Himalayan views, and in winter months of DecemberJanuary, Chitwan has quiet a pleasant climate compared to Kathmandu.
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ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK (NEPAL)
Largest and most undisturbed wild area of the Terai region of the Nepal Himalayas.
Simialar to Chitwan Park, but with a drier climate and a more remote location, Bardia
encompasses 1,000-sq-kms of riverine grassland and sal forests.
RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
Situated in the forested hills, east of Haridwar, is quiet known for its wild Elephants,
which have an approximate population of 150. Because of the pleasant climate this hideout
becomes a pretty good tourist destination and a perfect retreat for picnicking.
DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK, U.P.
Also popular as a Tiger Reserve, this National Park is located in the district of
Lakhimpur, along the Indo-Nepal border. Another major attraction of this wild reserve is the
Barasingha or the Swamp Deer, found in the southwest and southeast region of the Park.
BANDIPUR & NAGARHOLE NATIONAL PARK, KARNATAKA
Two of the most attractive National parks of Karnataka are Nagarhole and Bandipur.
Even if separate entities, they are a part of a large neighboring wildlife reserve that also
includes Madumalai Sanctuary of Tamil Nadu and Wynad Reserve of Kerala.
BHALUKPONG, ARUNACHAL SIMPLIPAL NATIONAL PARK, ORISSA
NANDANKANAN ZOO, ORISSA GAHIRMATHA TURTLE SANCTUARY, ORISSA
NAMDHAPHA NATIONAL PARK, ARUNACHAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY
Wild life sanctuary is similar to a national parks but is dedicated to protect wild life and
conserve spp. 416 Sanctuaries (1992).
DACHIGAM NATIONAL PARK, J&K
Of all the sanctuaries present in the state of Jammu & Kashmir, the one at Dachigam is
the best known. Once an exclusive hunting preserve of the Maharaja of Kashmir, it was
declared a National Park in 1951, owing to a strictly enforced conservation programme, to
preserve the or Hangul population or the Kashmiri Stag.
THE GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK, H.P.
The National Park with an area of 620-sq-kms is caved out of the splendid mountain
terrain of the Kullu District and has the representative area of temperate and alpine forests of
Himachal. It is also one of the largest protected area of the state.
DIBRU SAIKHOWA NATIONAL PARK, ASSAM
Located on the alluvial flood plains of Brahmaputra in Upper Assam neighboring
Arunachal is a biosphere reserve called Dibru Saikhowa National Park Its also an orchid
paradise besides being a home to numerous wild animals and birds.
MILROY OR PABHA SANCTUARY, ASSAM
This splendid wildlife reserve even if doesn't have many faunal varieties to offer, still it
possesses the most coveted one, the Wild Water Buffalo.This sanctuary has been exclusively
built for the protection of the wild water buffalo.
NAMERI NATIONAL PARK, ASSAM
Nameri is the second Tiger reserve of Assam, situated at the foothills of eastern
Himalayas. The hilly backdrop, deciduous and the river Jia Bhoroli have added a unique natural
charm to it.
PIN VALLEY NATIONAL PARK, H.P.
Tucked in between the snow laden higher reaches and scree slopes covered with scanty
tufted vegetation, Pin Valley National Park forms the natural habitat of a number of endangered
animals including Himalayan Ibex, Snow Leopard, Bharal, Wooly Hare, Tibetan Wolf, and
Snow Cock.
HEMIS HIGH ALTITUDE NATIONAL PARK, J&K
Hemis is a high altitude protected area that was created in the year 1981, in the eastern
part of the cold desert of Ladakh, for the conservation and protection of its unique flora and
fauna.
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INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR BIO-DIVERSITY
CONSERVATION
1.
Institute of biodiversity Conservation and Research
Objective
The general objective of the Institute is undertake conservation, study, research and
promote the development and sustainable utilization of the country’s biodiversity.
Mandate and duties : Ethiopia has set a clear national policy directives on conservation of
biological resources in this country. As of June 1998, the mandate of the Institute has been
expanded to cater not only for plant genetic resources but also for animal and microbial genetic
resources. Ecosystem management is also recognised as one of areas to be given top priority.
Given the importance of biodiversity and our dependence on biological resources, these
biological conservation efforts give emphasis to local and national needs and values. The
Institute has power and duties related to the conservation, research and utilization of
biodiversity including maintaining and developing international relations with bilateral and
multilateral bodies having the potential to providing technical assistance for the support of
biodiversity conservation and development. The Institute on the basis of its national legislation
has the responsibility and duty to implement international conventions, agreements and
obligations on biodiversity to which Ethiopia is a party.
2.
The Mountain Institute – Transboundary Biodiversity Conservation
The Transboundary Biodiversity Conservation Program of The Mountain Institute has
helped facilitate cooperative management of over 42,000 square kilometers in Eastern
Himalayas. Through an active program of government, scientific and NGO exchanges,
cooperative methodologies are being put in places which are serving as models for the
region. The combination of coordinated policies and actions, relatively standardized
methodologies, and concurring priorities, is essential to adequately address issues such as
transboundary wildlife trade and poaching, grazing management, non-timber forest
products development and management, wildlife migration corridors, the harvesting of
medicinal and rare plants, tourism and trade.
Sikkim Biodiversity and Eco-tourism Project
3.
The project was a joint effort of The Mountain Institute and the G.B. Pant Institute of
Himalayan Environment and Development. Project collaborators included the Travel
Agents Association of Sikkim (TAAS), and local organizations, and communities at the
sites.Working with communities, the private sector and government, the Sikkim
Biodiversity and Ecotourism Project built upon their skills, interests and knowledge, to:
•
•
Increase community and private sector conservation;
Increase economic returns from ecotourism services and enterprises; and
Contribute to policies that meet eco-tourism and conservation goals.
PROJECT AREA
Khangchendzonga National Park and communities in surrounding areas in West
Sikkim were the focus of the project. Within the Park is Sikkim's major trekking route, the
Yuksam-Dzongri-Goechha La Trail an exhilarating climb with dense forests and past
spectacular mountain views. The forests and alpine meadows are some of the most biologically
diverse in India, and contain over 30 species of rhododendrons, 400 species of orchids and
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many other flowering plants. The Park and surrounding areas also contain a large proportion of
the 144 mammals, 300 plus birds, and 400 and more butterfly species recorded in Sikkim alone.
Most pursue traditional agricultural livelihoods, while some have added tourism in
recent years. Other current project sites include Khecheopalri Lake, one of Sikkim's most
sacred and pristine lakes and Pelling, a settlement near Pemayangtse Monastery.
4.
5.
Gopher Tortoise Florida Tortoise Conservation and Research & Preservation
Institute, The Gopher Tortoise Conservation Initiative (GTCI) is a proactive program to
encourage and support private citizens, landowners, organizations, corporations,
scientists, and governmental agencies that are concerned about or are interested in gopher
tortoise and upland wildlife conservation in the state of Florida and the Southeastern U.S.
The institute is involved in the development of techniques to establish self-sustaining
semi-wild colonies for savannah dwelling endangered tortoise. The Indian star tortoise is
the first species we are using for this program.
Biodiversity, ecosystems, natural resources, community
The 2000 IUCN (World conservation Union) Red List of Threatened Species indicates
that species extinction is on an increasing spiral. Since the last assessment of globally
threatened species in 1996, the number of Critically Endangered primates has increased
from 13 to 19. While the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, listed 169
Critically Endangered (CR) and 315 Endangered mammals, the 2000 analysis lists 180
CR and 340 Endangered mammals.
Similarly, for birds there is an increase from 168 to 182 CR and from 235 to 321
Endangered species. As many as one in four of mammal species and one in eight bird
species are threatened and the number of threatened animal species has increased from
5,201 to 5,435. Approximately, 25% of reptiles, 20% of amphibians and 30% of fishes
(mainly freshwater) are listed as threatened. The number of Critically Endangered
Reptiles has increased from 10 to 24 and Endangered from 28 to 47 species. Turtles and
tortoises in particular are greatly threatened. Madagascar has the most Critically
Endangered and Endangered primates and has lost 90% of its original vegetation.
Indonesia harbours the highest numbers of threatened mammals with both India (80
species) and Brazil (75 species) having moved ahead of China (72 species). For birds, the
Philippines has lost 97% of its original vegetation and has more Critically Endangered
birds than any other country. The most threatened birds are in tropical Central and South
America and Southeast Asia. Indonesia has the most threatened birds (115) followed by
Brazil, Colombia, China, Peru and India with 113, 78,76,75 and 74 species respectively.
Plant species are declining in South and Central America, Central and West Africa
and Southeast Asia. Malaysia has the most threatened species (681) involving a large
proportion of tropical timber trees followed by Indonesia, Brazil and Sri Lanka with 384,
338 and 280 species. Globally the number of threatened plants listed is 5,611, but this is
based on an assessment of only 4% of the world's total described plants. Therefore, the
percentage of threatened plant species is likely to be much higher (IUCN. 2000, Red List
of Threatened Species, Switzerland: The World Conservation Union).
Biodiversity Act, 2002
In the year 1998, Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MOEF), Govt. of India got a
Biodiversity Bill draft prepared which was passed by the Indian Parliament in 2002. India is
the first among the 12 mega-diversity countries to develop such a legislation which became
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necessary in view of the provisions of different international instruments including CBD,
UPOV and TRIPS to which India is a signatory.
The salient features of this Bill include:
• Regulation of access to biological resources of the country with the purpose of securing
equitable share in benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and associated
knowledge relating to biological resources.
• Conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
• Respecting and protection of knowledge of local communities related to biodiversity.
• Securing sharing of benefits with local people as conservers of biological resources and
holders of knowledge and information relating to the use of biological resources.
• Conservation and development of areas important from the standpoint of biological
diversity by declaring them as biological diversity heritage sites.
• Protection and rehabilitation of threatened species.
• Involvement of institutions of self-governments in the board scheme of the
implementation of the act through constitution of committees.
The Biodiversity Act, 2002 also seeks to create a three tier structure including : i) At
national level a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), will be set up at Chennai, ii) At
the state level, each state will constitute a State Biodiversity Board (SSB), and iii) At
the local level, each local body (Gram Panchayat or Mandal Panchayat) will constitute a
Biodiversity Management Committee which will maintain register called Peoples
Diversity register to maintain the local resources and knowledge. The Act also provide
for setting up of Biodiversity funds at the central, state and local levels and defines the
source of funding and the purpose for which these funds will be used. The Act provides
punishments for offenders too.
Biodiversity Conservation depend on the complex physical structure of natural forests, some
key habitats (including mature trees, snags, and decomposing logs) should be left in place
following harvest in production forests. This will help to maintain the “legacy” of the natural
forest in the new forest that develops.
Second, populations of keystone species should be maintained as a high priority. These
indispensable species control the structure of the community and help determine which other
species are present. In many tropical forests, fogs are keystone species. So are trees that provide
habitat or food for pollinators and such seed dispersers as bats, fruit-eating birds, and
hummingbirds.
Finally, the fragmentation of natural forest areas that occurs when they are used intensively
should be kept to a minimum. In most situations, highly selective logging, careful extraction of
trees from large forest blocks, and the use of long rotations (70 years or more) keep the problem
within bounds.
Suggested Readings:
• http://www.indianwildlifeportal.com/national-parks
• Jacqueline N. 1972. Atlas of wild life ed. II. Aldus Books Limited London pp. 118-121.
• Sharma, P.D., 2004. Ecology and environment. Rastogi publication Merrut. pp. 354373.
Champion, H.G. (1936). A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian
Forest Record (New Series) 1: 1-286.
Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K. (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Govt of
India Press, Delhi. 404 pp.
International Agriculture Research – Initiatives and Ethics
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Collins, N.M., Sayer, J. and Whitmore, T.C. (eds) (1991). The Conservation Atlas of Tropical
Forests: Asia and the Pacific. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 256 pp.
FAO/UNEP (1981). Tropical forest resources assessment project. Technical report No. 3.
FAO, Rome.
Government of India (1985). Research and Reference Division Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting.
Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp.
IBWL (1972). Project Tiger. A planning proposal for preservation of tiger (Panthera tigris
tigris Linn.) in India. Indian Board for Wildlife, Government of India, New Delhi. 114 pp.
ICBP (1992). Putting biodiversity on the map: priority areas for global conservation.
International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 90 pp.
IUCN (1987). Centres of Plant Diversity: A Guide and Strategy for their Conservation (An
outline of a book being prepared by the Joint IUCN-WWF Plants Conservation Programme and
IUCN Threatened Plants Unit).
Nayar, M.P. and Sastry, A.R.K. (Eds.)(1987). Red Data Book of Indian Plants, Vol. 1.
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 367 pp.
MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in the IndoMalayan Realm. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 284 pp.
Panwar, H.S. (1982). Project Tiger. In: Saharia, V.B. (Ed.), Wildlife in India. Natraj
Publications, Dehra Dun. Pp. 130-137.
Pillai, V.N.K. (1982). Status of wildlife conservation in states and union territories. In: Saharia,
V.B. (Ed.), Wildlife in India. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun. Pp. 74-91.
Rodgers, W.A. and Panwar, H.S. (1988). Planning a wildlife protected area network in India. 2
vols. Project FO: IND/82/003. FAO, Dehra Dun. 339, 267 pp.
Salm, R.V. (1981). Coastal resources in Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan: description.
Scott, D.A. (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge,
UK.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Directory of Coral reefs of International Importance. Vol. 2. Indian
Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland, Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 389 pp, 36 maps.
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8
Global Scenario of Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs)/ Biotech Crops
The advent of plant biotechnology was hailed as the engine of a Second Green
Revolution, capable of providing farmers with the hardier, higher-yielding, disease-resistant
and more nutritious crops needed to sustain an increasing world population. Plants developed
to defend themselves against insect pests or diseases or to tolerate certain herbicides represent
the first generation of biotechnology crops. Crops developed using biotechnology give farmers
greater flexibility and safer, more innovative choices in pest management. Farmers face a
multitude of plant pests and diseases. Pressures from insects, viruses, weeds and weather can
impose considerable damage on crops, lowering yields and raising costs. Traditionally, farmers
have relied on combinations of herbicides, insecticides, fertilizers and irrigated water to protect
their crops and boost production. Each of these inputs adds to the cost of the product, but they
are necessary investments. A plant breeder tries to assemble a combination of genes in a crop
plant which will make it as useful and productive as possible. Depending on where and for
what purpose the plant is grown, desirable genes may provide features such as higher yield or
improved quality, pest or disease resistance, or tolerance to heat, cold and drought. Combining
the best genes in one plant is a long and difficult process, especially as traditional plant
breeding has been limited to artificially crossing plants within the same species or with closely
related species to bring different genes together.
Farmers have been altering the genetic makeup of the crops they grow from the day one
agriculture has started. Human selection for various traits such as faster growth, larger seeds or
sweeter fruits has dramatically changed domesticated plant species compared to their wild
relatives. Early farmers also discovered long ago that some crop plants could be artificially bred
together or hybridized to increase yields and to combine desirable characteristics from different
parents to their progenies. The science of "classical" plant breeding developed in the 20th
century with the application of newly understood genetic principles to this older craft of crop
improvement. Plant breeders understood better how to select superior plants and breed them to
create new and improved varieties of different crops. This has dramatically increased the
productivity of the crop plants we grow for food, fiber and other purposes.
In traditional breeding, many genes are transferred between related species, without
clear control over just which genes are being transferred and which are not. Genetic
engineering is far more precise, which is, in fact, one of its greatest benefits. It allows, for
example, a single gene from a cold-hardy plant to be introduced into a strawberry to help
increase its tolerance to cold weather. Another example: Genetic engineering has allowed the
gene responsible for making human insulin to be inserted into a certain type of bacteria. That
bacteria now makes human insulin, a product that has been used by people with diabetes for
years with no adverse effects. This type of “cross-breeding” between humans and bacteria
obviously would be impossible without genetic engineering. In conventional breeding,
biological reproductive processes impose limits on genetic recombination by erecting barriers
against successful crossing between biologically distinct organisms; either the crossing fails
completely, or else the progeny are sterile. With genetic engineering, the "natural" limits do not
always have to be respected. For this reason, some people consider GMOs to be "unnatural"
organisms that violate the laws of nature. Others consider this distinction arbitrary, countering
that most foods consumed today have been radically modified over thousands of years through
deliberate selection or accidental mutation.
Recombinant DNA technology enables plant breeders to bring together in one plant
useful genes from a wide range of living sources, not just from within the crop species or
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from closely related plants. This technology provides the means for identifying and isolating
genes controlling specific characteristics in one kind of organism, and for moving copies of
those genes into another quite different organism, which will then also have those
characteristics. This powerful tool enables plant breeders to do what they have always done generate more useful and productive crop varieties containing new combinations of genes and
expands the possibilities beyond the limitations imposed by traditional hybridization and
selection techniques (Punia, 2001). A transgenic crop plant contains a gene or genes which
have been artificially inserted instead of the plant acquiring them through pollination or
conventional breeding. The inserted gene sequence (known as the transgene) may come from
another unrelated plant, or from a completely different species: transgenic Bt corn, for example,
which produces its own insecticide, contains a gene from a bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis).
Plants containing transgenes are often called genetically modified organisms (GMO) or
transgenic or GM crops, now generally referred as biotech crops and food products
obtained from their produce are known as genetically modified (GM) food or biotech food,
although in reality all crops have been genetically modified from their original wild state by
domestication, selection and controlled breeding over long periods of time
Modern genetic techniques, often referred to collectively as biotechnology, bring more
precision to the process of developing the new crop varieties with desirable chracters. Instead
of having to do repeated breeding experiments, a gene or genes responsible for the desired trait
are identified. The genes could come from any organism. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis,
a soil bacterium, has a gene for a toxin (called Bt toxin) that is poisonous to certain insect
pests. The gene has now been transferred from bacteria to corn, cotton and some other crops.
The new varieties of these crops are now able to produce the Bt toxin, thus making them
resistant to their insect pests without having to use pesticides for their control. Inserting a gene
in this way is much more precise than conventional breeding techniques, and the end result is
much more reliable. In spite of its greater precision, it is still costly and it can take a long time
to successfully identify useful genes and transfer them into the plant, the typical time being
about 10 years. The current political atmosphere is also antagonistic towards transgenic plants.
At the begining of the 21st century, global agriculture finds itself gripped in an
acrimonious debate over genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This debate, which features
a volatile mix of science, economics, politics, and ethics, is taking place in research
laboratories, corporate boardrooms, legislative chambers, newspaper editorial offices, Main
Street coffee shops, and private homes—in short, nearly everywhere people grow, process,
consume, or even just talk about food. In Britain, Prince Charles publicly and repeatedly states
his opposition to GMOs, commonly referred to by the British press as "Frankenstein food." In
Mexico, hooded activists scale the Angel of Independence monument in the capital and hang
banners protesting imports of transgenic corn. In India, protesters storm agricultural experiment
stations and uproot test plots containing genetically modified plants. In Italy, naked protestors
drenched in red paint to simulate blood hurl genetically engineered tomatoes at the visiting US
Secretary of Agriculture to demonstrate their opposition to imports of transgenic corn and
soybeans. What explains these widespread and highly publicized protests? Why have GMOs
suddenly become a lightning rod for public debate? Are proponents of GMOs justified in
saying that genetic modification of plants and animals is nothing more than the latest in a long
series of productivity-enhancing technologies that have helped the world’s food supply keep
pace with global population growth? Or are the critics correct in arguing that GMOs are
fundamentally different from other types of organisms—so different that they must be banned
immediately, with no further testing to determine their safety? GMOs could potentially
generate substantial benefits, but public opposition is likely to continue until questions are
resolved concerning their safety for people, animals, and the environment.
One curious feature of the public debate over genetic engineering is that frequently
different standards are invoked for different categories of GMOs. Some of the most vociferous
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73
critics of genetically modified food crops seem unperturbed by the fact that many widely used
pharmaceutical products are also genetically engineered. For reasons that are not entirely clear,
the same people who argue that genetically modifying food crops is tantamount to "playing
God" often fail to raise similar objections regarding the use of genetic engineering techniques to
produce insulin, human growth hormone, and many commonly used drugs. Similarly, ethical
objections to genetic engineering are rarely voiced in relation to GMOs used for industrial
purposes, such as the transgenic oil-eating bacteria that are used to process certain types of
industrial waste.
The controversy over the use or misuse of genetically modified (GM) crops has been
the most contentious. Environmentalists have been demanding that GM foods be labeled, while
Europe has all but banned many GM foods. Are GM foods dangerous as some suggest, who
have labeled them "frankenfoods," or are they the answer to many of the world's food and
environmental problems? Can they be safely used or should they be banned?
Global Scenario of GMOs
Research on genetically modified crops began decades ago, but only recently have
transgenic crops reached the deployment stage. In the early 1990s, China became the first
country to introduce a commercial GMO, a virus-resistant tobacco variety. In 1994, a delayedripening tomato developed by Calgene, the well-known Flavr-SavrTM, became the first
genetically modified food crop to be produced and consumed in an industrialized country.
During the past few years, genetically modified crops have found their way into farmers’ fields
with increasing frequency and are today being grown in many developed and developing
countries.
Generally speaking, most of the farmers who have tried transgenic crops have been
pleased with their performance. The rapidly accelerating adoption rate provides a good
indicator of the acceptance of transgenics among the farming community. Not counting China,
the area planted to transgenic crops shot up from 1.7 million ha in 1996 to 90.0 million ha in
2005 (Table 1). U.S. farmers have adopted genetically modified crop varieties rapidly since
their introduction in the mid-1990’s. By 2000, roughly one fifth of U.S. corn acreage, over half
of the soybean acreage, and almost three-quarters of the cotton acreage was planted to crops
genetically modified to be resistant to insects and/or herbicides.
Table 1. Global area of GMOs (year wise)
________________________________________________________________________
Year
Million hectare
Million acre
________________________________________________________________________
1996
1.7
4.3
1997
11.0
27.5
1998
27.8
69.5
1999
39.9
98.6
2000
44.2
109.2
2001
52.6
131.5
2002
58.7
146.7
2003
67.7
169.2
2004
81.0
202.5
2005
90.0
225.0
________________________________________________________________________
Global Status of Biotech/GM Crops in 2005
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74
The year 2005 marks the tenth anniversary of the commercialization of genetically
modified (GM) or transgenic crops, now more often called biotech crops. In 2005, the
billionth acre, equivalent to the 400 millionth hectare of a biotech crop, was planted by one
of 8.5 million farmers, in one of 21 countries. This unprecedented high adoption rate
reflects the trust and confidence of millions of farmers in crop biotechnology. The global
area of approved biotech crops in 2005 was 90 million hectares, equivalent to 222 million
acres, up from 81 million hectares or 200 million acres in 2004. The increase was 9.0
million hectares or 22 million acres, equivalent to an annual growth rate of 11% in 2005. A
historic milestone was reached in 2005 when 21 countries grew biotech crops (Table 2), up
significantly from 17 countries in 2004. Notably, of the four new countries that grew
biotech crops in 2005, compared with 2004, three were EU countries, Portugal, France, and
the Czech Republic whilst the fourth was Iran.
Portugal and France resumed the planting of Bt maize in 2005 after a gap of 5 and 4
years respectively, whilst the Czech Republic planted Bt maize for the first time in 2005,
bringing the total number of EU countries now commercializing modest areas of Bt maize
to five, viz: Spain, Germany, Portugal, France and the Czech Republic. Bt rice, officially
released in Iran in 2004, was grown on approximately four thousand hectares in 2005 by
several hundred farmers who initiated commercialization of biotech rice in Iran and
produced supplies of seed for full commercialization in 2006. Iran and China are the most
advanced countries in the commercialization of biotech rice, which is the most important
food crop in the world, grown by 250 million farmers, and the principal food of the world’s
1.3 billion poorest people, mostly subsistence farmers. Thus, the commercialization of
biotech rice has enormous implications for the alleviation of poverty, hunger, and
malnutrition, not only for the rice growing and consuming countries in Asia, but for all
biotech crops and their acceptance on a global basis. China has already field tested biotech
rice in pre-production trials and is expected to approve biotech rice in the near-term.
In 2005, the US, followed by Argentina, Brazil, Canada and China continued to be the
principal adopters of biotech crops globally, with 49.8 million hectares planted in the US
(55% of global biotech area) of which approximately 20% were stacked products
containing two or three genes, with the first triple gene product making its debut in maize
in the US in 2005. Number of “trait hectares” in US in 2005 was 59.4 million hectares
compared with 49.8 million hectares of biotech crops, a 19% variance, and globally 100.1
million “trait hectares” versus 90 million hectares, a 10% variance.
India had by far the largest year-on-year proportional increase, with almost a three-fold
increase from 500,000 hectares in 2004 to 1.3 million hectares in 2005. Biotech soybean
continued to be the principal biotech crop in 2005, occupying 54.4 million hectares (60% of
global biotech area), followed by maize (21.2 million hectares at 24%), cotton (9.8 million
hectares at 11%) and canola (4.6 million hectares at 5% of global biotech crop area). In
2005, the 21 countries growing biotech crops included 11 developing countries and 10
industrial countries; they were, in order of acreage, USA, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China,
Paraguay, India, South Africa, Uruguay, Australia, Mexico, Romania, the Philippines,
Spain, Colombia, Iran, Honduras, Portugal, Germany, France and the Czech Republic.
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Table 2. Current status of Biotech crops country wise:
Rank Country
Area
(million
hectares)
1*
49.8
USA
Biotech Crops
Soybean, Maize, Cotton, Canola,
Squash, Papaya
Soybean, Maize, Cotton
Soybean
Canola, Maize, Soybean
Cotton
Soybean
Cotton
Maize, Soybean, Cotton
Soybean, Maize
Cotton
Cotton, Soybean
Soybean
Maize
Maize
Cotton
Rice
Maize
Maize
Maize
Maize
Maize
2*
Argentina
17.1
3*
Brazil
9.4
4*
Canada
5.8
5*
China
3.3
6*
Paraguay
1.8
7*
India
1.3
8*
South Africa
0.5
9*
Uruguay
0.3
10* Australia
0.3
11* Mexico
0.1
12* Romania
0.1
13* Philippines
0.1
14* Spain
0.1
15
Colombia
<0.1
16
Iran
<0.1
17
Honduras
<0.1
18
Portugal
<0.1
19
Germany
<0.1
20
France
<0.1
21
Czech Republic <0.1
Source: Clive James, 2005
* 14 biotech mega countries growing 50,000 hectares, or more, of
biotech crops
GM Crops Currently on the Market
Crops, Traits, and Acreage: The most important transgenic crop in terms of acreage planted is
soybean, followed by corn, cotton, and canola. In 1999, the area planted to transgenic varieties
was approximately half of the U.S. soybean crop and about 25% of the U.S. corn crop. Most of
the transgenic crop varieties currently grown by farmers are either herbicide tolerant or insect
pest-resistant.
Table 3: GM Crops Currently on the Market (Anonymous, 2003)
GMOs
Developed by
Value added trait
LibertyLink® Canola
Aventis CropScience
Herbicide resistant
InVigor® Hybrid Canola
Aventis CropScience
High yielding hybrid
Natreon® Canola Oil from Natreon® Canola Oil from Naturally stable canola oil
Nexara® Canola Seed
Nexara® Canola Seed
(Natreon)
that
contains
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Roundup Ready® Canola
CLEARFIELD® Canola Seed
Monsanto
BASF seed partners
AttributeTM Bt Sweet Corn
Syngenta Seeds
CLEARFIELD® Corn
BASF seed partners
LibertyLink® Corn
NK KnockoutTM Corn
NK YieldGardTM Hybrid
Corn
Roundup Ready® Corn
YieldGard® Corn Borer
Aventis CropScience
Syngenta Seeds
Syngenta Seeds
Bollgard®
Cotton
Monsanto
Monsanto
Insect-Protected Monsanto
Roundup® Ready Cotton
High Oleic Peanut
Monsanto
Mycogen
Laurical® Rapeseed
Calgene, LLC
CLEARFIELD Rice Seed
BASF and cooperators
Roundup Ready® Soybeans
High Oleic Sunflower
Monsanto
Mycogen
Increased Pectin Tomatoes
Zeneca Plant Sciences
CLEARFIELD® Wheat
BASF
76
virtually no "trans fats." This
makes it a very attractive oil
for baking, frying, snack food
and other uses
Herbicide resistant
Imidazolinone-herbicide
tolerant
Resistant to European corn
borer and corn earworm
Imidazolinone-herbicide
tolerant
Liberty herbicide resistant
Insect resistant
Insect resistant
Herbicide resistant
Resistant to European corn
borer and Southwestern corn
borer.
Resistant
to
cotton
bollworms, pink bollworms
and tobacco budworms
Herbicide resistant
High in oleic acid result in
longer life for nuts, candy and
peanut butter
Rapeseed plants with more
than 45 percent laurate in oil
Resistant to imidazolinone
herbicides
Herbicide resistant
Sunflower oil has low transfatty acids, does not require
hydrogenation
and
has
improved
temperature
stability
Remain firm longer and retain
pectin during processing into
tomato paste
Resistant to imidazolinone
herbicides
Table 4: GM crops likely to released shortly in the market (Anonymous, 2003)
GMO
Developed By
Value added trait
Roundup® Ready Alfalfa
Monsanto
Herbicide resistant
Bt Insect-Protected Apple
Monsanto
Insect resistant
Disease-Resistant Bananas
DNA
Plant
Technology Resistant to the fungal disease
Corporation
black sigatoka
Disease Resistant Canola
DuPont
Resistant to yield-robbing
diseases such as Sclerotinia
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77
Herculex® I Insect Protection Dow
AgroSciences
and corn hybrids resistant to
Corn
Pioneer
Hi-Bred broader-spectrum control of
International, Inc
insect pests including firstand
second-generation
European
corn
borer,
southwestern corn borer,
black cutworm and fall
armyworm
Improved Drought Response DuPont
Drought tolerant
Corn
Increased Energy Availability DuPont
Corn that livestock can more
Corn
readily digest, all owing more
efficient use of nutrients in
the grain
Nutritionally Enhanced Corn
Dow AgroSciences
Corn hybrids that are
"nutritionally enhanced" will
provide higher energy and
more abundant nutrients for a
better-balanced
ration
formulation for livestock
Rootworm-Resistant Corn
Dow
AgroSciences
and Insect resistant
Pioneer
Hi-Bred
International, Inc
Second-Generation
Monsanto
Provide resistant to an even
YieldGard® Corn Borer
broader spectrum of insects
than today's YieldGard. In
addition to the control of the
European and southwestern
corn borer, also enhanced
control of the corn earworm,
fall armyworm and black
cutworm
YieldGard®
Rootworm- Monsanto
Resistant to corn rootworm
Protected Corn
Insect-Protected Cotton
Dow AgroSciences
Protects against a broad
spectrum
of
damaging
lepidopteran pests, including
cotton
bollworm,
pink
bollworm, tobacco budworm,
armyworms and loopers
Bollgard® II Insect-Protected Monsanto
Bollgard II will provide
Cotton
greater control of cotton
bollworm, beet and fall
armyworm, and soybean
loopers compared to Bollgard
Next Generation Roundup Monsanto
Herbicide resistant
Ready Cotton
Roundup® Ready Lettuce
Monsanto
Herbicide resistant
LibertyLink® Rice
Aventis CropScience
Resistant
to
Liberty®
herbicide
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M.S.Punia (2006)
Insect-Protected Soybeans
LibertyLink® Soybeans
Monsanto
Aventis CropScience
Soybeans with Improved DuPont
Protein Functionality
Strawberry
78
DNA Plant
Corporation
Insect resistant
Resistant
to
Liberty®
herbicide
Food soy ingredient with
improving
quality
and
consistency of food products
Technology The company is adding genes
to confer resistance to
glyphosate herbicide and
fungal diseases
Resistant to herbicides
Roundup Ready® Sugar Monsanto
Beets
CLEARFIELD® Sunflower
BASF and its seed partners
Roundup® Ready Tomato
Roundup® Ready Creeping
Bentgrass
Roundup Ready® Wheat
Genetically Modified Fruits
and Vegetables with Longer
Post-Harvest Shelf Life
Monsanto
Monsanto
Resistant to imidazolinone
herbicides
Herbicide resistant
Herbicide resistant
Monsanto
Herbicide resistant
Agritope, Inc., a wholly Using
ethylene-control
owned subsidiary of Epitope, technology, Agritope, Inc.,
Inc
has created delayed-ripening,
longer-lasting tomatoes and
raspberries
Potential Benefits of GMO
The potential benefits of genetically modified crops have not gone unnoticed by the
companies that produce and sell agricultural inputs. Most of the leading life sciences companies
that dominate the seed market are investing in genetic engineering of crops. In contrast to
conventional plant breeding, which is carried out worldwide, most of the research on transgenic
crops has been carried out in industrialized countries, mainly in North America and Western
Europe (more recently, many developing countries have also established genetic engineering
research capacity including India). Not surprisingly, research on transgenics has focused on
crops of economic importance in these countries, including soybean, corn, cotton, canola,
potato, and tobacco.
(a) Increased productivity
Biotech plants provide farmers with more and better weed- and pest-control options, and they
produce greater yields by reducing crop damage from weeds and pests. They also reduce the
environmental impact of farming. Crops developed using biotechnology are making agriculture
more sustainable by reducing synthetic chemical inputs and promoting more environmentally
preferable agricultural practices, such as no- or low-till farming Punia, 2001).
Biotechnology-derived varieties of pest-protected corn, cotton and potatoes and herbicidetolerant soybean have resulted in a significant reduction in pesticide and herbicide use, boosted
yields and saved growers tens of millions of dollars. Most of the GM crops currently being
grown feature traits that are designed to increase farm-level productivity, either by reducing
input use or by raising crop yields. Based on field trials conducted in the US, Koziel et al.
(1993) estimate yield gains of up to 8% in Bt corn (in the absence of insect pressure, the yield
advantage would of course be lower). James (1998) reports reductions in the amount of
insecticide applied of up to 40% in potato. For most farmers, reduced use of pesticides
translates directly into higher profits—between US$ 7-36 per ha for corn in the US (Carlson,
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Marra, Hubbell 1997). These short-run benefits do not include the environmental benefits that
are expected to occur over the long run through reduced pesticide use.
A single application of Monsanto’s Roundup herbicide is usually sufficient to achieve
effective control of broadleaf weeds, reducing the need for multiple herbicide applications in
herbicide-tolerant GM crops, mainly Roundup Ready varieties. Although the cost savings
associated with herbicide resistance are highly variable, preliminary data from the US suggest
that Roundup Ready soybeans increase farmer’s profits by an average of US$ 14 per ha
(Carlson, Marra, Hubbell 1997).
(b) Enhanced quality
Many "first-generation" transgenic crops have proven their ability to lower farm-level
production costs. Current research is focused on "second-generation" GMOs that will feature
enhanced nutritional and/or industrial qualities. Plant breeders have long been trying to develop
crop varieties with added vitamins and minerals; following recent breakthroughs in genetic
engineering methods, progress on this front is expected to accelerate dramatically. Nutritionally
fortified crop varieties should prove especially valuable in developing countries e.g. Golden
rice, where millions of people suffer from dietary deficiencies. The benefits will not be
restricted to the developing world, however, nutritionally enhanced crops should also prove
attractive in industrialized countries as a means of reducing consumption of unhealthy oils,
proteins, and starches. Soybean and canola varieties have already been engineered to produce
healthier oils containing reduced levels of fatty acids. Genetically engineered feed crops may
have a role to play in increasing feed conversion ratios. Animal health specialists are even
examining the possibility of engineering feed crops capable of delivering vaccinations against
common diseases.
(c) Environmental Protection :
Herbicide-tolerant GM crops allow farmers to use new-generation herbicides with low
toxicity and reduced persistence in the environment. Conservation tillage has a number of
environmental benefits, including: reduced soil erosion; improved moisture content in soil;
healthier and more nutrient-enriched soil; more earthworms and beneficial soil microbes;
reduced consumption of fuel to operate equipment; the return of beneficial insects, birds and
other wildlife in and around fields; less sediment and chemical runoff entering streams; reduced
potential for flooding; less dust and smoke to pollute the air; and lower emissions of the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from soils. Adoption of new insect-resistant varieties of corn,
cotton, potato, soybean, peanut, broccoli and eggplant has the potential to reduce insecticide
use to a large extant. Crops now in development that resist bacterial and fungal pests also have
the potential to reduce pesticide use.
Potential risks associated with GMOs
(a) Human and animal health
Opponents of genetic engineering have focused on the potential threat posed by GMOs
to human as well as animal health. Since livestock and poultry consume large amounts of corn
and soybeans, commodities that are likely to be genetically modified, the prospect of antibiotic
resistance has been raised by some livestock producers. While there is no evidence to show that
any of the transgenes found in genetically modified foods are injurious to humans. One
frequently mentioned concern is that widespread human consumption of genetically modified
foods might lead to an increase in diseases resistant to several types of broad-spectrum
antibiotics. This concern arose because the plasmid vectors on which foreign genes are inserted
frequently also contain antibiotic resistance genes (although these genes were not expressed).
Some health specialists worried that if these genes were present in transgenic foods in
excessively high levels, they would build up in the bodies of consumers and lead to an increase
in diseases resistant to antibiotics. More recently these concerns have been allayed in that
researchers have devised transformation techniques which avoid the use of plasmid vectors
containing antibiotic resistance genes.
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Another potential risk posed by GMOs is that people with allergies could suffer
reactions after unwittingly consuming genetically modified foods containing allergenic proteins
introduced from external sources. In other words, someone who is allergic to peanuts might
suffer a reaction after consuming transgenic soybeans that had been modified by the insertion
of the peanut gene that produces the allergic reaction. Since very few genes produce harmful
compounds, the risk of this happening is extremely low. And even if an inserted gene were to
result in production of a harmful compound, the chances of it ever reaching the consumer are
negligible, considering the rigorous food safety tests that all new products (including GMOs)
must undergo.
(b) Environmental impacts
Probably the single most controversial issue surrounding GMOs is their long-term
impacts on the environment. One obvious risk associated with the use of any crop (transgenic
or otherwise) that has been bred for insect resistance is the possibility that the targeted insects
will eventually develop resistance to the toxins produced by the crop. In the case of genetically
modified Bt crops, some environmentalists have argued that resistance is likely to emerge fairly
quickly, since insects will be continuously exposed to Bt-produced toxins. One strategy for
slowing the emergence of Bt resistance is to increase the toxicity of transgenic plants, either by
increasing the dosage of toxin present in the plant or by pyramiding several different types of
Bt genes to produce a cocktail of natural toxins. Another strategy involves the use of insect
refugia, areas free from transgenic crops in which normal non-resistant insects can continue to
live. These non-resistant insects can continue to mate with those exposed to the Bt crops,
ensuring that susceptibility is maintained in the overall population. In contrast to those who
worry that Bt crops may not be effective enough, others worry that they will be too effective, in
the sense that they will kill insects other than the targeted pests. The highly publicized Cornell
University monarch butterfly study, which showed a heightened mortality rate among monarch
larvae fed transgenic Bt corn pollen, raised the possibility that non-pest insects could be harmed
(Losey, Rayor , Carter 1999). Since the Cornell study was published, researchers at Iowa State
University have cautioned against extrapolating the findings, which were obtained under
laboratory conditions that appear very different from actual field conditions faced by wild
monarchs (Rice 1999).
While much attention has been focused on the possible environmental risks posed by
insect resistance, concerns have also been raised about the use of herbicide resistance. The
primary danger here is that herbicide-resistance genes could jump from transgenic crops to
other wild or domesticated species, producing "super weeds" that would resist conventional
control methods. In order to control these super weeds, farmers might have to switch to more
powerful and potentially more environmentally damaging herbicides. This concern is valid, as
numerous studies have shown that genes can flow from domesticated crops through
unintentional out crossing with plants growing in neighboring fields. On the other hand, the
threat posed to the environment probably varies a great deal from one location to the next,
depending in part on the species that are present.
Future prospects of GMOs
Helping to Feed the World : Today, 70 percent of the people on the planet grow what they
eat. By 2025, the U.N. estimates that half will live in cities and need to be fed through market
channels. Some estimates indicate that world food production will have to double on existing
land over the next 30 years if it is to keep pace with anticipated population growth. While the
United States and other developed nations produce surpluses of staples like rice, corn and other
grains, many countries are not self-sufficient. Biotechnology may make it possible to customize
the genetic makeup of crop plants so they can grow in exceptionally dry or wet, hot or cold
climates. This could make self-sustaining agriculture a reality for people in areas of the world
that currently cannot feed their populations. Increased crop yield, greater flexibility in growing
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environments, less use of chemical pesticides and improved nutritional content make
agricultural biotechnology, quite literally, the future of the world's food supply.
Environmental Benefits of Crop Biotechnology : GM crops allow us to increase crop yields
by providing natural mechanisms of pest control in place of chemical pesticides. These
increased yields can occur without clearing additional land, which is especially important in
developing countries. In addition, because biotechnology provides pest-specific control,
beneficial insects that assist in pest control will not be affected, facilitating the use of integrated
pest management. Herbicide tolerant crops decrease soil erosion by permitting farmers to use
conservation tillage. New diagnostic tools to detect plant diseases earlier and more accurately,
decreasing the amount of chemicals needed to control the disease.
Plant-Made Pharmaceuticals: We now can use transgenic plants as manufacturing plants for
pharmaceutical compounds which could offer enhanced financial remuneration to farmers.
Scientists have inserted the genes that code for therapeutic proteins into a variety of commonly
grown crops such as tobacco, corn and soybeans. Therapeutic proteins produced by transgenic
plants to date include antibodies, antigens, growth factors, hormones, enzymes, blood proteins
and collagen. Several plant-produced therapeutics are in clinical trials.
In addition, scientists have made excellent progress in using plants as vaccine-manufacturing
facility and delivery systems. They have used tobacco, potatoes and bananas to produce
vaccines against infectious diseases, including cholera, a number of microbes that cause food
poisoning and diarrhea (e.g., E. coli and the Norwalk virus), hepatitis B and the bacterium that
causes dental cavities. A cancer "vaccine" (which is therapeutic and not preventative) to nonHodgkin's lymphoma has also been produced in plants.
Because plant manufacturing of pharmaceuticals or other useful biological molecules such as
enzymes and industrial oils would require relatively little capital investment, and the costs of
production and maintenance are minimal, they may provide the only economically viable
option for independent production of therapeutic proteins in undeveloped countries. In addition,
if plant-produced vaccines become a reality, there will be no need for sterilized needles and
refrigeration, making these vaccines available to people in developing countries at a fraction of
the current cost.
Long term prospects : Many developing countries where millions go to bed hungry every
night because food is unavailable or unaffordable, still depend heavily on agriculture, so they
stand to benefit disproportionately from any technology that can increase food production,
lower food prices, and improve food quality. In places where there is often not enough food to
go around and where food prices directly affect the incomes of a large proportion of the
population, the potential productivity gains offered by GMOs cannot easily be ignored.
Nutritionally enhanced foods may not be urgently needed in most industrialized countries,
where the vast majority of consumers have the possibility of meeting minimum daily nutritional
requirements, but they could play a key role in many developing countries in helping to
alleviate malnutrition. Transgenic crops are not currently being grown in many developing
countries, so it is difficult to predict their eventual worth, but ex-ante economic evaluation
studies suggest that GMOs are likely to bring considerable benefits to farmers and consumers
(Qaim 1998, 1999). Most developing countries lack the scientific capacity to assess the safety
of GMOs, the economic expertise to evaluate their worth, the regulatory capacity to implement
guidelines for safe deployment, and the legal systems to enforce sanctions and punish
transgressions of the law. Since developing countries contain the centers of origin of many of
the world’s leading food crops, any negative impacts on wild flora and fauna could have
repercussions for global biodiversity.
First, as a technology for creating economically valuable crop varieties, genetic engineering is
simply too valuable to ignore. Given recent advances in biotechnology, it will always be
possible to identify individual genes of interest and move them around at will using genetic
engineering techniques.
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Second, the possibility of making inter-specific gene transfers opens the door to create
organisms that differ in important aspects from naturally occurring organisms. As with any new
product, the impacts of GMOs on people, on animals, and on the environment are difficult to
predict, so it is important that the potential risks be evaluated before GMOs are approved for
release specially in developing countries including India. The evaluation process inevitably will
have to include carefully controlled field testing, since only field testing will generate the
information needed to determine how GMOs will perform in the hands of farmers.
Third, given the importance people place on the food they eat, policies regarding GMOs will
have to be based on an open and honest debate involving a wide cross-section of society. In
order to achieve the consensus needed to move forward, all parties in the debate will have to
recognize the validity of others’ concerns and take steps to resolve unanswered questions.
Finally, decisions about the future of GMOs should be based on scientifically validated
information, not unsubstantiated claims, half-truths, or simple emotion. One big problem with
the current debate is that the opposing parties use information selectively, at times glossing
over gaps in the knowledge base and frequently bolstering their arguments with
misinformation. In promoting GMOs, the agri-biotech industry has on occasion been guilty of
overstating potential benefits and downplaying potential risks. Opponents of GMOs have done
the opposite, dismissing potential benefits and exaggerating potential risks. If the controversy is
to be resolved, the politically motivated rhetoric must give way to serious discussion based on
credible, science-based information. The stakes are too high to waste more time on useless
posturing.
References:
Anonymous, 2003. Biotechnology Industry Organization. http://www.bio.org/index.asp
Carlson, G.A., M.C. Mara, and B. Hubbell. 1997. The Economics of First Crop
Biotechnologies. Raleigh: North Carolina State University.
James, C. 1998. Global Review of Commercialized Transgenic Crops: 1998. ISAAA Briefs No.
8-1998. Ithaca, NY: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications.
James, Clive. 2002. Global Review of Commecialized Transgenic Crops: ISAAA Briefs No. 27,
Ithaca, NY International Service for the Adoption of Agri Biotech Applications, 2002
Koziel, M. G.; G.L. Beland; C. Bowman; N.B. Carozzi; R. Crenshaw; L. Crossland; J. Dawson;
N. Desai; M. Hill; S. Kadwell; K. Launis; K. Lewis; D. Maddox; K. McPherson; M.R. Meghji;
E. Merlin; R. Rhodes; G.W. Warren; M. Wright; S.V. Evola. 1993. Field performance of elite
transgenic maize plants expressing an insecticidal protein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis.
Bio/Technology 4 (11): 194-200.
Losey, J. E., L.S. Rayor, and M.E. Carter. 1999. Transgenic pollen harms monarch larvae.
Nature, vol. 399, no. 6733. London, UK: Macmillan Magazines Ltd.
Punia, M.S. 2001. Science, controversy and future prospects of Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs). Natl. J.Pl. Improv., 3 : 69-84.
Qaim, M. 1998. Transgenic Virus Resistant Potatoes in Mexico: Potential Socioeconomic
Implications of North-South Biotechnology Transfer. ISAAA Briefs No. 7-1998. Ithaca, NY:
International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications.
Qaim, M. 1999. ISAAA Brief Series (in press). The Economic Effects of Bioengineered Orphan
Commodities: Projections for Sweetpotato in Kenya. Ithaca, NY: International Service for the
Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications.
Rice, M. 1999. Monarchs and Bt corn : Questions and answers. Integrated Crop Management.
Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.
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9
Food Security and Poverty Alleviation in Developing
Countries including India
What is Food Security?
Food security is a condition in which all people at all times have access to the food they
need for a healthy, active life. Food security requires stable food supplies, produced
domestically or imported, that are physically and economically accessible to all.
Food Security” is easily discussed in general terms, but it embodies a complex set of
intertwined concerns and issues. The concept continues to evolve, with almost 200 definitions
proposed since 1975. A universally accepted definition remains elusive, but most
contemporary conceptions present food security as people having access to sufficient stocks and
supplies of food to provide a nutritionally adequate diet.
Accurate and timely measures of food insecurity are difficult to obtain. Malnutrition
and hunger are often employed as surrogate measures, but actually represent the most advanced
and chronic forms of food insecurity. Food insecurity occurs long before malnutrition and
hunger set in; therefore using these indicators greatly underestimates the number of individuals
suffering food insecurity.
One indicator regularly used to establish a standard or threshold for separating undernourished persons from others is minimum recommended dietary allowances (RDAs).
Nutritionists continue to debate what the minimum value ought to be and whether the complex
relationship between diet and human development is represented adequately by a single indicator such as caloric intake. Methods for estimating RDAs, as well as designation of
minimum thresholds, vary amongst agencies and countries, and sometimes result in diverging
estimates of food insecurity.
Malnutrition estimates derived from macro-scale national studies provide little insight
into the distribution of hunger within a region or country. For example, national average per
capita caloric intake in Sri Lanka and India are similar – both are above 2000 cal/day – but a
smaller portion of Sri Lankans suffer from hunger. Elsewhere, a recent FAO report estimates
that even in countries with a food supply in the 2700 cal/day range, which is well above
recognized minimum RDAs, at least 10% of the population is undernourished.
Food security is a complex issue. It embraces a series of related concerns and it should not be
framed in the context of a single perspective and scale. A few suggestions to promote and
enhance food security follow.
Food security must be tied to human security: The development of stable and enduring
socio-economic conditions underpin the alleviation of poverty and a more equitable distribution
of decision-making, both of which are necessary preconditions for food security. We must
recognize that women are the primary -agricultural producers in most developing countries and
that improving access ' to land and financial resources for women is an essential component of
efforts to achieve and enhance human security.
Enhanced use of participatory research methods: Linking food and human security suggests
communities and households should be the departure point for understanding food insecurity.
This, in turn, demands that future research engage local communities to a greater extent than
has been the case. Participatory research methods, based upon a sharing of research
responsibilities between the community and the researcher, provide an opportunity for better
understanding the dynamics amongst food, environmental, social, political, and economic
systems in a local context.
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Greater emphasis on urban food security is required: In the next 20 years more than 90% of
urban growth is expected to occur in the developing world; consequently urban food
distribution systems will be under increasing stress. Currently, there is a strong reliance on local
vendors and food distribution systems regularly break down. Food security amongst rural poor
will continue to be a major problem, but there is an urgent need to make the -improvement of
urban food supply and distribution systems a policy priority.
A better understanding of differential vulnerability and coping strategies is required: While
the poor are at greatest risk, not all poor people are equally vulnerable to hunger and food
insecurity. There is an urgent need to gain a better understanding of how environmental,
social, economic, and political forces combine at the local-level to either enhance or reduce
coping capacity, and much can be learned from existing ways to cope with periodic food
shortages.
Strengthen agricultural research in developing countries: Advanced agricultural technologies
will undoubtedly play a major role in increasing total food production, but research aimed at
improving productivity on small-scale farms is equally as important in improving food security
amongst many rural peop'je in developing countries. When rural farmers are involved in
developing and introducing new technologies, adoption rates by other farmers increase. The
role and position women have in agricultural production and food preparation must be fully
recognized, and, if it is their choice, women must be integrated fully into agricultural research.
Promote conservation of land and water resources: Competition between agricultural and
urban-based activities for land and water resources is expected to increase. Policies and
programs to ensure agriculture retains access to these resources are becoming increasingly
important. More efficient resource use, especially reducing water losses in irrigation systems,
will augment agricultural production without drawing more heavily on the resource base.
Root Causes of Food Insecurity
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Ever exploding population
Low economic development
Creeping of desert into adjoining fertile cultivated area.
Lack of proper research and development of technology in crop production
Lack of co-ordination among the research organization and lack of extension
Food Supply, Food Consumption & Population Trends
Recent declines in malnourishment have been driven largely by increases in food
production. Grain production has outpaced population increases throughout most of the 1900s.
Global per capita grain production increased by an astonishing 38% between 1950 and the mid1980s, peaking at 342 kg/person in 1984. These aggregate data mask food distribution issues,
but grain production increases correspond to a decline in the number of undernourished persons
in many food insecure locations. Per capita grain production decreased by 7% between 1984
and 1998, suggesting it will be increasingly difficult to alleviate food insecurity in the future.
Although world population growth rates have been declining for three decades, it is
forecasted that the global population will approach 7 billion by 2010, with 53% of all persons
living in urban centres. Urban poverty is rising and in some cases the urban poor are spending
80% of their available income meeting food needs and preferences. Food security is expected
to become more severe over the short to medium term.
Increases in global food consumption have also been fuelled by recent dietary changes.
Consumption of livestock products has increased significantly in developing and developed countries. This trend is expected to continue, and will likely be more pronounced in East Asia,
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especially in China, and less so in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Future shifts in
consumption patterns will have profound impacts on food insecurity. Use of cereals for
livestock feed in developing countries may double by 2010, diverting additional crop production towards livestock sectors, and reinforcing the persistence of undernutrition and
hunger amongst the poor who are less able to purchase higher-priced livestock products.
Poverty & Economic Growth
Issues of poverty and economic growth are somewhat analogous to hunger amidst
plenty of food. Conventional measures of economic performance indicate economic growth
continues in most developing and developed countries. Since the early 1950s, total global
economic activity has increased five-fold, but economic benefits have not been shared equally
by all regions. Economic inequalities, among and within countries, have increased dramatically
in a world that has become wealthier. Furthermore, many food insecure persons are not part of
the wage economy and therefore are not included in standard measures of economic
performance (e.g., per capita wages, GNP). Other factors, such as the widening gap between
the wealthy and the poor, and volatile economic conditions that are often associated with
rapidly developing economies, have made it increasingly difficult for the poor to meet their
food needs; these factors will likely continue to be major contributors to food insecurity.
Resource Depletion & Degradation
World agriculture reached a significant threshold in the 1980s: the expansion of the
agricultural land base is effectively no longer a viable option for increasing global food
production. Potential agricultural land is either remote to markets or environmentally marginal,
and food security in the future will undoubtedly rely on a more intensive use of existing
agricultural lands. At the same time, the space required by a growing population that is
increasingly urban-based, will result in further conversion of land from agricultural to urban
uses, resulting in additional stress on a diminishing agricultural land resource base. The area
seeded to grains is expected to shrink from the current 0.12 ha/person to 0.07 ha/person by
2050, casting doubts upon the possibility of fully offsetting aggregate increases in food
demands. Land degradation, especially accelerated rates of soil erosion and desertification,
decreases crop productivity on 1.2 billion ha of agricultural land today. Increasing agricultural
land use intensity without further impairment to soil productivity remains a significant food
security challenge.
Water has replaced land as a scarce natural resource constraining agricultural
production in many regions of the world. Since 1950, the area of irrigated land nearly tripled;
peaking at about 260 million ha. Irrigation brought arid lands into agricultural production and
made fertilizer use more effective. About 40% of the world’s food is from irrigated land and
approximately two-thirds of the world’s irrigated land is in Asia. Irrigated land produces about
50% of India’s grain crops and about 70% of China’s.
But the depletion and degradation of water sources, population increases, and
competition from other activities all threaten the use of water for agriculture. Recent surveys
indicate that the scarcity of water available for agriculture has become a problem in all regions.
The water table under the northern China Plain is dropping an average of 1.5 metres per
annum. In parts of India, water withdrawal rates are often twice recharge rates, and water
tables are falling by as much as 3 metres per year. Further constraints on water resources could
reduce India’s grain harvest by as much as 25%. Future economic development will increase
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competition for water resources (Table 2). Non-agricultural sectors are regularly prepared to
pay higher prices for water and the price of water will likely rise. From a food security
perspective, this suggests potential increases in food prices and a decline in food security
amongst urban poor, who will have to spend an even larger share of their income on food.
Is Food Insecurity a Major Concern?
Despite massive increases in world food production, food insecurity persists. An
equitable distribution of the world’s food supply would provide each person with a more than
adequate 2700 cal/day, but the world’s food supply is not distributed evenly between or within
countries. More than 800 million persons in developing countries, representing about 20% of
the population in the developing world, are presently food insecure (Table 1). China and India
are
home
to
about
45%
the
world’s
food
insecure
population.
Deteriorating conditions in Africa separate it from other major regions. Of the 42
countries in the world that cannot assure a minimum of 2200 cal/day/ person, 29 are in Africa
(Figure 1). Over 40% of the population in sub-Saharan Africa is chronically food insecure. If
individuals suffering from periodic or seasonal food deficits were included in these estimates,
the
number
of
food
insecure
persons
would
be
considerably
larger.
Per capita foodgrains output and availability
Three-year
Average
Net output
Net availability
period
population
of food grains
Of food grains
ending in
(in millions)
per head (kg/yr)
per head (kg/yr)
1991-92
850.7
178.77
177
1994-95
901.02
181.59
174.3
1997-98
953.07
176.81
174.2
2000-01
1008.14
177.71
163.2
2002-03∗
1056.33
164.59
157.7
Individual year
2000-01
1027.03
167.43
151.06
2001-02
1046.44
177.01
158.37
2002-03
1066.22
150.09
156.55
Source: Utsa Patnaik’s calculations from Economic Surveys of various years
and Census data, See article in Frontline, March 12, 2004
In developed countries there is less concern about food security, but it is erroneous to
think of these countries as totally food secure. In both the USA and Canada, community food
security coalitions, with the overall aim of alleviating urban hunger, have become part of the
landscape.
Increases in food supply have outpaced population growth in most regions and, in
general terms, per capita food availability has increased significantly. On a global scale,
average cal/person/day increased from 2430 in 1970 to 2700 in 1990, and food insecure persons
decreased from 917 million to 839 million (Table 1). Additional increases in food availability
are forecasted through to 2010, but estimates for the 1990-2010 period do not match the improvements achieved between 1970 and 1990. Food availability is expected to increase to an
unprecedented average of 2860 cal/person/day and it is estimated that the food insecure
population will be reduced to less than 700 million persons. Despite these improvements, it is
clear that food security remains a global concern.
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Our population will be 1.5billion (of the world population of 11 billion) by 2050.
Rising population and per capita income are already pushing up the demands for food items
that need to be met through enhanced productivity per unit area, input and time. About 51%of
India geographical area is already under cultivation as compared to 11%of the world average.
Role of ICAR and Agricultural universities in food security:
ICAR and SAUs are playing a vital role either directly or indirectly in food security by
over coming various challenges. India’s 65%of the population are involved in agriculture and
its allied business .Its plays an important role in economy of the country as it shares about 24%
of GDP. The right of food and food security is ethically the basic incontrovertible and the most
fragile human right . food security is governed by three major component namely
1) Availability of food : a function of adequacy in food production.
2) Asses to food: a measure of the purchasing power of individual and ,
3) Absorption of food in the body: a factor determined by several environmental contributes
like availability of safe drinking water, hygiene, primary health care , literacy and the like.
Over the year, ICAR has made rapid progress in the production of food .The annual growth
rate of food production including non- cereals food increased from 2.1 % during 1960s to 3.0
% in the subsequent decade and further to 3.8%during 1980s.
Between 1960 and 1980 food production barely kept pace with the population but 1980s Per
capita food production increased at a satisfactory rate of 1.6%per annum. In 1980s ICAR lays
more emphasis on some diversification in food production on account of the impressive growth
of output of oilseeds and livestock products. The diversification of food production more or less
conforms to the growth pattern of domestic demand .
ICAR also helps to build enough buffer stock to cope with year to variation in grain production
like drought, etc and maintains stable food grain prices.
ICAR lays more emphasis in agriculture development would diversify into dairying,
animal husbandary, fisheries floriculture, horticulture, and other areas. By this, agriculture
growth rate is increased in terms of total factor productivity. ICAR have developed drought
resistant seeds, cost effective dry land farming techniques, rain water harvesting techniques,
moisture conservation and inter cropping pattern are imperative to stabiles and improve the
production in the dry land areas. Appropriate pricing of water, electricity and fertilizer and
rationalization of minimum support prices leads to increase in agricultural production in a
prosperous manner.
The country has achieved a record food grain production of 212million tons during
2002-2003. The Green Revolution technology playing the major role made this advance
possible. Today, we are the 2nd largest producer of wheat (74.25 million tons). Rice (88.25
million tons) vegetables (67.28 million tons) fruits (41.5 million tons) and sugarcane (309.3
million tons) After “Green Revolution” in agricultural sector the “White Revolution “made
India the number one country for milk production in the world As 80%of the milk in India
comes from small and marginal farmers, any improvement in milk production and livestock
would have wider social impact.
Biotechnology has a great potential in improving the production and productivity of our
animal through embryo transfer technology, genetic improvement, vaccines disease diagnosis
etc. Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing and highly productive system, which provides a
low cost source of protein to combat malnutrition and alleviate poverty to achieve an annual
production of 10 million tons of fish by adopting scientific aquaculture against the existing
level of 6 million tons. Some of the significant achievements have been made through
biotechnological interventions. Record production of 18 tons per ha of carp has been achieved
though intensive carp farming and similarly, the possibility of producing more than 10 tons per
ha of tiger prawn has been demonstrated through semi intensive farming. An indigenous Prawn
feed technology has been developed using locally available raw materials.
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Cropping system in rain fed areas including mix cropping have been developed and
recommended for specific soil and climatic conditions. The drip irrigation system is being
adopted extensively for irrigating grape orchards and sugarcane areas. High density plantations
of pineapple and banana has made a major impact in the production of these crops. Production
of technology in grapes has made India to stand first in the productivity (50 tons/ha). Raisin
production from grapes has helped in reducing import of raisin. True potato seed technology
developed recently as an alternative technology to the traditional system of potato cultivation
by seed tubers, has been found to be economically viable cutting short the long 7 year cycle of
seed production to 2 years and has eliminated the danger of seed-borne diseases. Twenty- seven
varieties of potato have been recommended various regions. Available potato varieties and
technology in India have a potential to give yield of more than 25 tons per ha. In vegetables
crop development, 140varieties for different agro climatic regions including 16f1 and over 30
resistant cultivars have helped to boost vegetable production to 51 million tons from 4.5 million
ha i.e. about 11 tons/ha. In floriculture, rose varieties viz “Arjun”and “Rakth kanda”developed
at the (IARI) and orchid hybrid developed at the (IIHR) have good potential for export.
Development of temperature –tolerant white button mushroom has improved the prospects of
extending production both in hills and plains.
Line sowing of seed in dry land at proper depth influences yield up to 30%. Bullock
drawn seed –cum-fertilizer drills and planters for soyabean, sorghum,safflower,sunflower,rape
seed and mustard ,groundnut and potato have been developed and commercialized. Weeders,
inteculture and plant protection equipments have been developed for various crops and soil
conditions. Harvesting and threshing are backbreaking and energy –consuming operations,
which have been mechanized with appropriate tools and machinery particularly for pulse and
oilseeds crops. Post harvest losses in cereals accounts for upto 10% and in fruits and vegetables
upto 30-40 %.Cleaners, graders ,and storage structures for these crops have been developed and
commercialized .Improved technology for paneer making and continuous khoa and gheemaking equipment have been developed at NDRI, Karnal.
Agro-processing for value addition has been successfully demonstrated through Pilot
projects. Various food products out of soybean have been developed .Decorative products out
of jute ,cotton , silk, lac products have also been developed. Diversification of agriculture for
export and income and employment generation leads to a self-sufficiency in food security. It
will help the economy to lead the country on the road of rural prosperity through development
of agriculture.
In nut shell, ICAR and SAU played on important role to make the country self sufficient in
food items and trying to increase the foreign exchange in terms of GDP by developing several
high yielding, resistant varieties.
ROLE OF OTHER ORGANIZATIONS IN FOOD SECURITY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
FCI
APEDA
NGOs’
Voluntary Organizations (VOs)
National Organizations
Community based organizations
Civil societies
Community Associations
Community based self help groups (SHGs)
Regional Network on development of agriculture cooperatives (NEDAC).
Organizations for economic cooperation and development (OECD)
National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) 1995
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are playing major role in Food Security
NATIONAL SOCIAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME (NSAP) 1995
Objective: to provide opportunities for linking social assistance
packing to schemes in food security and provision of basic minimum
services.
NSAP programme has three components:
National old age pension scheme (NOAPS)
National family benefit scheme (NFBS)
National Maternity Benefit scheme (NMBS)
• It is a centrally sponsored scheme with 100 per cent central assistance provided to
states.
• NSAP is implemented in states through Panchayats and municipalities
POVERTY ALLEVIATION
Poverty :
Poverty is a social phenomenon in which a section of society is unable to fulfill
even its basic necessities of life. It vary from society to society, person to person and place to
place.
Planning commission has defined the poverty line as the mid point of the monthly per
capita expenditure class having a daily calories intake.
2400 calories /person/day
in rural area
2700 calories /person/day
in urban area
Aspects of Poverty: It has two aspects:
1.
Absolute poverty : when the level of income of people of a country is to low that
they cannot meet even their basic minimum requirements. This is called absolute
poverty.
2.
Relative poverty: If we compare income of different people we find that some
people are poorer than others. This is called relative poverty.
Estimate of poverty
Year
All India
Rural
Urban
No.
in Poverty
million
ratio (%)
No.
in Poverty
million
ratio (%)
No.
in Poverty
million
ratio (%)
1993-94
32.0
36.0
244.0
37.3
76.0
32.4
1999-00
260.0
26.1
193.2
27.1
67.1
23.6
2007
220.1
19.3
170.5
21.1
49.6
15.1
Source: Government of India
* In 1993-94, the poverty ratio of rural area and urban area is 37.3 per cent and 32.4 per cent
respectively.
** In 1999-00 the poverty ratio of rural area and urban area is 27.3 per cent at 23.6 per cent
respectively.
* It is expected that it will decline in near future.
Globalization of Agricultural Markets
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Only petroleum products are exchanged more frequently than agricultural commodities
in the international market place. International agricultural trade however represents only a
small share of total agricultural production. About 20% of the world’s grain harvest moves
through the international market place each year, and international trading of other food staples
such as potatoes is negligible. These generalizations mask the few exceptions such as Japan
and Egypt that rely heavily upon food imports to meet food needs. International trade is first
and foremost a business, and is not required to respond to issues of hunger or malnutrition. As
individuals and countries acquire more wealth, agricultural trade levels increase. However,
food imports are often expensive, and since food insecurity and poverty are inextricably linked,
people who are food insecure often cannot afford to purchase imports. Furthermore, where the
international market place has promoted the replacement of traditional food crops with export
commodities, the supply of lower-cost domestic food sources has declined, and food insecurity
has become more severe.
A Framework for Food Security Research
Food security cannot be viewed in simple, uni-dimensional terms, and any attempts to
resolve food insecurity with narrowly defined actions will ultimately fall short of intended
goals. The challenge then is to capture the diversity and complexity of food security, recognizing that there are many legitimate perspectives that must be addressed simultaneously.
All food security research or programs to alleviate food insecurity need not consider all these dimensions, but the spectrum of concerns need to be addressed in a coherent and co-ordinated
manner.The macro-scale Food Supply dimension focuses on the extent to which future food
production might keep pace with rapid global population growth, mechanisms to enhance
national food self-sufficiency, and ensuring a reliable supply of basic food products. Concerns
include: stabilizing agricultural production, meeting minimum regional requirements for food,
and the avoidance of periodic food shortages and rapid fluctuations in food prices. At the
global scale, the rate at which food production has been increasing has begun to slow,
suggesting that future food needs cannot be met with existing agricultural technologies. The
private sector’s development and use of biotechnology to expand food production may assist agricultural production to continue to expand more rapidly than population. However, there is
a concern that these advanced technologies will be beyond the economic grasp of the majority
of farmers in the developing world and will promote further concentration of agricultural
production among fewer controlling interests in developed nations.
Hunger amidst an abundance of food impels the Food Entitlement dimension. Food entitlement expands food security beyond supply-related issues and is concerned with access to
and the disposition of food. It recognizes the acquisition of food goes beyond the availability
of food and depends upon economic access to food, political processes and cultural preferences. Expanding agricultural production will alleviate food insecurity only if the poor
and other disadvantaged groups within a region have improved access to food supplies. In this
context, food security is concerned with overcoming deeply-rooted economic, social and
political forces which control the distribution of food products at all spatial scales. The Food
and Human Security dimension recognizes that many of the impediments to food security are
tied to fundamental human needs and rights. Opportunities for employment, freedom from
oppression and violence, access to adequate health care and education and the capacity to cope
with or adapt to change are prerequisites to communities and households achieving food
security.
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10
Environmental Protection
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
A clean environment is the basic thing which is essential for the existence of life.
The environment can be defined as the circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or
group of organisms. Environment is usually divided into two parts: physical and biotic
environments.
Physical environment
The physical environment consist of (i) Force of nature like wind (ii) gravity
condition like light and temp (iii) time (iv) nonliving material like soils and water.
Biotic environment
The biotic environment is made up of all living being including their reactions,
interactions and interrelated action. There are many factors which pollute the environment. The
term pollution implies to an undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristic
of air, land water etc. which is likely to affect human health, animal and plant life. Water, air, soil
pollution means the introduction of materials that harm the health or survival of plants, animals
and humans.
Type of pollutions
Water pollution
Soils pollution
Air pollution
Noise pollution
Thermal pollution
Nuclear and Radiation pollution
Marine pollution.
There are many factors which are responsible for environment pollution.
1. Industrialization : Industrialization is creating a high risk environment. There is growing
problem of toxic wastes generated by industries. India’s chemical Industry, with 4000 factories is
the most dangerous one in the country. We must therefore recognize that increased attention to
the problems of the human environment is essential for sound economic and social development.
2. Urbanization: India’s Urban population is today the fourth largest population in the world.
The planning commission estimates that one fifth of India’s Urban population lives in slums.
Sewage treatment plants are designed to reduce pollution in sewage to a certain, economically
achievable level.
3. Deforestation: Reduction in forests also causes imbalance in carbon dioxide and oxygen
which are responsible for green house effect. Deforestation has deprived of many animals from
their natural habitats. For ecological balance 30% of land should be under forests, however,
deforestation due to urbanization, industrialization and for fuel, furniture and building materials,
has reduced the forests upto 13% of landed area. The latest statically dates confirms that India is
losing 1.3 million ha of forests every year, nearly eight times the annual rate cited by the forest
department.
4. Population explosion :
One of the important factor for the damage of environment and
consequential air pollution is rapid population growth especially when combined with no
demographic factors. Consequently, the population density will increase from about 221 persons
per square kilometer in 1981 to more than 300 persons in the year 2001. Thus, over population
requires more food, more fuel and more essential commodities. It lead to deforestation for fuel
and food purpose and causes unplanned urbanization that makes life miserable. There is more
pressure on the natural resources which are limited. Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Bangalore Chenai,
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Baroda etc. are facing the threat and miseries of over population. Delhi is considered to be the
forth largest polluted city in the world.
5. Lack of public Awareness and participation: People are unaware of the importance of
pollution free environment and the hazards of airs and environmental pollution. The unawareness
and ignorance about the environment matter and lack of active public participation in managing
the environment are responsible for making the problem more complicated.
6. Commercial and agricultural activities: Demolition, construction and spray painting are the
most common contributors of pollution with in this category. Field burning, dusting, spraying of
pesticides and threshing activities of the farmers used to contribute their share to the general
pollution problem. The pesticides like DDT, BHC, Aldrin, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Organic
phosphates and Selvin have got toxic effects.
Table : Major source of air pollution
Pollutant
Sources
Effects
Carbon dioxide CO2
Oil, coal, petrol, diesel Greenhouse effect
combustion
Carbon monoxide CO Limited combustion of oil, Leads to photochemical smog in some
coal, petrol, diesel fuels
areas; deprives body of oxygen by
combining with haemoglobin causing
Headaches and drowsiness and can be
fatal at high concentration
From leaded petrol used by Slows development of neural issue in
Lead compounds
cars
children
Oxides of nitrogen
High-temperature
Acid rain formed; exacerbates asthma,
combustion in cars, and to causes irradiation of lung tissue,
some extent power stations increase susceptibility to viral attack
NO1, NO2 ,Sulphur,
SO2
Oil, coal combustion in Acid rain formed, which causes pains,
power station
trees, buildings, and lakes; exacerbates,
asthma and irritation to eyes, nose, and
throat
Nuclear power plants,
Radioactivity, contamination of
nuclear weapon testing,
locality, cancers, mutations, death
war
Nuclear Waste
There are more than 7,50,000 man-made chemicals present in our environment and to these
1000-000 new ones are added every year. Massive production of such chemicals directly or
indirectly releases thousands of tonnes of a variety of air pollutants into the atmosphere. Some of
the air pollutants emanated into the atmosphere by man are CO, NH4 gases and dusts of toxic
metals like lead, arsenic, asbestos, nickel, mercury, phosphorus and their oxides, vanadium, zinc,
various hydrocarbons, fluorides etc. The pollution merely by man is vast and the pollutants made
by man are plentiful.
Effect of environment pollution : Pollutants are reported to have specific ill effects on human
health. Few disease caused by pollutants are:
i. Lung diseases
ii. Silicesis
iii. Talk phenumia
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iv. Asbestoxis
iv. Irritation in respiratory tracts
Impact of the air pollution has given birth to the following :
i. Deplition of ozone layer
ii. Green house effect
iii. Acid rain
How we can protect our environment
Environmental protection means environmental conservation, protection of the
environment from various kinds of pollution, health hazards so that environment is made
hospitable for a healthy living.
Protection and preservation of environment is not the duty of the government
alone. The problem has to be tackled by the executive, the legislature and judiciary. The
executive has also contributed in enforcing and implementing laws. A separate department in the
Central Government, under the ministry of environment has also been established in 1980.
Judicial control of Air pollution in protection of environment
The environmental pollution has now become a global problem. An adequate
preventive legislation has, therefore, become quite essential to control pollution, more
particularly industrial pollution which is posing a great danger not only for the workers but also
for the people in the vicinity. Unfortunately the Indian law, dealing with environmental
protection, is largely statutory, made a priori, is an abstract law and not a living law. It is
scattered and is contained in about 200 various enactments. In addition, there are some more
provisions for protection of the environment under I.P.C. 1860, Sections 263, 269. 42170, 272,
277, 278 and 284-290 (Chapter on 'Offences Affecting Public Health and Sections 425, 426 and
430 (Chapter on 'Mischief); under Cr. P.C. 1898') Sections 133 and 144 (Chapter on Public
Nuisances); under Po1ice Act, 1861 (Prevention of noise); and under various Municipal Acts,
viz. Sections 220 and 222 of Rajasthan Municipal, Act, 1959; Sections 190, 200, 278. 301 and
303 of Kerala Municipal Corporation Act, 1961; and Sections 241. 242, 250. 350. 354 and 357 of
Delhi Municipal Corporation Act, 1957 .
Many other countries. too, have some provisions under criminal laws or have
enacted special criminal laws or amended the existing ones in order to prosecute the offenders
through criminal prosecution system. The Japanese law was the first such step for the punishment
of crimes relating to environmental pollution. Penal codes of Germany. Hungary. Portugal, Spain
and Brazil soon followed. Canada and the U.S. have created new regulations related to crimes
dealing with notorious violations and provided stiff punishment of fines and imprisonment to
violators.
The U.N. Conference at Stockholm on Environment in 1972 focussed the attention
of the international community on environment issues. India’s late Prime Minister Mrs. Indira
Gandhi played a historical role in this conference. India's role drew the support of the developing
nations to the environmental issues. The United Nations Environmental Programme provided, for
the first time a global information and action set up on environmental matters. In December
1972, the UN General Assembly, sponsored the U.S. Environmental Programme with global
jurisdiction with headquarters at Nairobi. The management and regulatory function at the
international level is reflected in International Conventions regarding marine pollution. Oxidation
of marine resources, and right of the coastal states to enforce their own regulations with in !2
nautical miles from shore. Adequatc legislative and supportive organizational measures at the
National level were emphasised both at this conference. Thus, the year 1972 was the watershed
in the history of environment management. Since then the decline in the environment quality has
become the concern of the world community.
Acts for protection of Indian environment since 1857
1.
The Orient Gas Company Act, 1857
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2.
3.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
94
The Serais Act, 1867
The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873
The Obstruction in Airways Act, 1881
The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
The Indian Ports Act, 1901
The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905
The Explosives Act, 1908
The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, 1912
The Inland Stream Vessel Act, 1917,
The Mysore Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 19 17
The Poison Act, 1919
The Andhra Pradesh Agricultural, Pest and Diseases Act, 1919
The Indian Boilers Act, 1923
The Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923
The Indian Forest Act, 1927
The Motor Vehicles Act. 1939
The Bihar Wastelands (Reclamation, Cultivation and Improvement) Act. 1946
The Mines and Minerals (Rcgulation and Development) Act, 1947
The Damodar Valle), Corporation (Pre,,,ention of Poilution of Water) Regulation Act.
1948
The Factories (Pollution and Pesticides) Act, 1948
The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948
The Andhra Pradesh Improvement Schemes (Land utilization) Art. 1949
The Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951
The Calcutta Municipal Act, 1951
The Madliva Pradesh Control of Music and Ncises X1, 1951
The Maharashtra Prevention of Water Poilution Act, 1953
The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Colaba) Act. 1953
The Orissa River Pollution and Prevention Act. 1953
The Assam Agricultural Pests and Disease Act. 1954
The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954
The U.P. Agricultural Pests and Disease Act. 1954
The Acquisition of A-and for Flood Control and Prevention of Erosion Act. 1955
The Bihar Control of the Use and play of Loudspeakers Act. 1955
The River Boards Act. 195G
The Ancient Monuments and Archeological Sites and Remains Act. 1958
The Kerala Agricuitural Pests and Disease Act. 11458
The Atomic Energy Act. 1962
The Major Port Trusts Act. 1963
The Gujrat Smoke Nuisance Act. 19G3
The Rajasthan Noise Control Act. 1963
The Delhi Restriction of Land Uses.Act, 1964
The Beedi and Cigar Works Act, 1066
The Insecticides Act, 1968
The Maharashtra Water Pollution Prevention Act, 1969
Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage (Prevention and Control of Water Pollution) Act,
1970
The Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act (Harbour and Costal Water Dumping of Oil,
etc.), 1970
The Cattle Trespass Act, 1971
The wild life (Protection) Act, -~972
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46.
47.
48.
49.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3.
6.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
The Urban Land Act (Ceiling and Regulaticin), 1976
The Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Basti Kshetra (Sudhar Tatha Nirmulan) Adhiniyam, 1976
The Territorial Waters, continental shelf, exclusive Economic Zone and other Maritime
Zone Act, 1976
50. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
51. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution' Ameadment Act, 1978
52. The Coast Guard Act, 1978
53. The Forest (Conservationj Act, 1980
54. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. 1981
55. The Fairways Act, 1981
56. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act. 1985
57. The Environment (Protecticn) Act, 1986
58. Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
International organization for environmental protection
World meteorological organization (Switzerland)
International meritine organization (London)
U.N. Convention on Laws of sea (Jamaica)
U.N. Educational Scientific and cultural organization (France)
International Labour organization (Switzerland)
World Health Organization (Switzerland)
Food and Agriculture Organization (Italy)
Suggestions
1.
Strengthening of the air and environmental legislations
2.
Strengthening the Local Authorities
Effective Regulation of Industrial air pollution and Handling of Hazardons substances.
4.
Effective regulation of vehicular air pollution
5.
Managing rural air pollution
Environmental offences and public Nuisance to be viewed seriously
7.
Environmental awareness and environmental education
8.
Conservation, Reclamation and Afforestation.
CONCLUSION
The technological advancement in agriculture and excessive use of pesticides is
also passing threat to the safety of environment. Pesticides affect the ground water also. Pollution
is hazardous for the human life, vegetation, animals, property and the climatic and is capable of
disturbing the natural eco-system. Law is considered as an important instrument to protect the
environment. The parliament has passed various specific legislations to prevent, control and
abate the air pollution and to provide immediate relief to the victims of industrial disasters arising
out of handling of hazardous substances. Environmental pollution can be overcome by measures
suggested under “Environmental protection” and by appraising the people with proper
environmental education.
SUGGESTED READINGS:
Purohit, S.S., Shammi, Q.I. and Aggarwal, A.K. 2004. Text Book of environmental Science,
student edition 1-5, 362-365.
Lack, T.J. 1984. Environment protection, Eluis Harwood Ltd. and the water research centre 56,
295.
Chaudhuri, S.K. 1996. Environment legislation in India. Oxford IBH Publishing company Pvt.
Ltd. New Delhi. pp. 232-235.
Kumar, N. 1999. Air pollution and environment Protection. Mittal Publications N.D. 59, pp. 3138, 42-46.
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11
Ethics and Standards in Agricultural Research
Research is "careful, patient, systematic, diligent inquiry or examination in some field
of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles; laborious or continued search after
truth" Biology research is undertaken to discover the "laws of nature." Similarly, ethics is "the
science of moral values and duties; the study of ideal human character, actions, and ends" .
Research ethics is therefore approximately synonymous with both "values of science and
scholarship" and "standards of conduct and practice in science." Clearly, it is in accord with this
definition when one exhibits honesty and reliability, designs and performs experiments with
skill and thoroughness, and is fair in dealing with students, co-workers and competitors, and
assumes responsibility to people and institutions.
Concerned about research ethics
It is fashionable these days to offer 10 reasons for almost any activity. We can certainly supply
10 reasons why you should think about research ethics. Here is our list:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
You will do better science.
You may know what to do if an ethical problem arises.
Other scientists depend upon your trustworthiness.
Medical progress depends on it.
Scientific progress depends on it.
Public welfare depends on it.
Your reputation as a scientist depends on it.
Your career depends on it.
Science cannot "work" otherwise.
It is the right thing to do!
Let's elaborate on these points. A statement from Responsible Science summarizes this well,
"Scientists have relied on each other and the traditions of the community for
centuries to safeguard the integrity of the research process. This approach has
been successful largely because of the widespread acknowledgment that
science cannot work otherwise, and also because high standards and reputation
are important to scientists. Dishonest or untrustworthy individuals become
known to their colleagues through various mechanisms, including word of
mouth and the inability of other scientists to confirm the work in question.
Such irreproducible work is recognized and discredited through processes of
peer review and evaluation that are critical to making professional
appointments, accepting work for publication, and awarding research support."
(National Academy of Sciences. Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of
the Research Process, Volume I, page 18, Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press, 1992)
A lot of people are depending on you as a scientist. Your students depend upon or will
depend upon you to give them the best training possible, including training in research
planning, research techniques, research practices and expected conduct. Your collaborators
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depend upon you to do optimum science according to the accepted norms; they cannot be as
expert as you in your specialty areas. This is, of course, a two-way street. Other scientists
depend upon you as well. In the absence of contrary evidence, they must assume that you did
what you said you did and saw what you said you saw. The public also depends upon you.
Unless you conduct your research according to the highest standards, they may be subjected to
treatments that might be harmful or less efficacious than some alternative, or they may not elect
a treatment that would be efficacious. It shouldn't be necessary to point out that your family and
friends depend upon you as well. All this trust can be a heavy cross to bear!
The consequences of ignoring ethical standards for research are myriad. You could lose
your reputation as a good scientist, and with the loss of reputation could go loss of research
support and loss of your academic position. When public confidence in the scientific
community is undermined, then public support, and with it grant support, is eroded. And, when
lawmakers perceive this loss of confidence, the usual consequence is increased Federal and
other outside regulation. That is why we have an IRB and an IACUC! How can you know if
you are doing the right thing? How can you know if someone else is? What should you do if
you think someone else is not acting in accordance with good ethical standards? It is hoped that
this course will provide you with answers to these questions or, at least, a method of reasoning
through an answer.
So, the "bottom line" is this: You'll do better science, your career will be enhanced,
scientific progress will be improved and public welfare will be served if you understand and
use the accepted ethical standards of science. That is what this course is all about.
•
Objectives
To serve the subject's rights, and to provide reassurance to the public that this is being
done. In promoting these objectives Ethics Committees should remember that research
benefits society and that they should take care not to hinder it without good cause. Ethics
Committees also protect research workers from unjustified criticism. The proposed
international guidelines on biomedical research of the World Health Organisation (WHO)
and the Council for International Organisations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) advise that a
Research Ethics Committee should consider the following points:
1. The objectives of research are directed to a justifiable advancement in
biomedical knowledge that is consonant with prevailing community
interests and priorities. The interventions are justifiable in terms of
these objectives, and the study has been designed with a view to
obtaining this information from as few subjects as possible who will be
exposed to a minimum of risk and inconvenience.
2. The responsible investigator is appropriately qualified and experienced
and commands facilities to ensure that all aspects of the work will be
undertaken with due discretion and precaution to protect the safety of
the subjects.
3. Adequate preliminary literature and experimental studies should have
been undertaken to define, as far as practicable, the risks inherent in
participation, and the investigators should be fully conversant with
these.
4. Every reasonable effort will be made to inform prospective subjects of
the objectives and consequences of their involvement, and particularly
of identifiable risks and inconvenience. Informed consent should be
obtained, as outlined in Chapter 8.
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5. Any arrangement to delegate consent should have adequate
justification, and appropriate safeguards should be instituted to ensure
that the rights of the subjects will not be abused.
6. Appropriate measures should be adopted to ensure the confidentiality
of data generated in the course of research.
7. Every effort should be made to ensure that subjects have an
opportunity to comment on and, if they wish, to withdraw from a
research project easily and without penalty.
8. It is important to be continuously aware of the need to avoid impeding
good medical research. Indeed, the Ethics Committee should seek to
facilitate good research.
Principles of research ethics
1.Respect for human dignity.
2.Involves protecting interest of persons including bodily. Psychological
& cultural integrity.
3.Respect for vulnerable persons, those with diminished
capacity,childerns institutional
persons.
4.Respect for justice.
5.Minimising harms.
6.Maximising benefits.
7.Balancing harms and benefits.
Problems and standerds in research ethics
Problems 1. In agricultural research
2. In biotechnology research
2. In medical research
3. In engineering research
4. In academic research
Examples;
• Human cloning
BT cotton controversy
STANDARDS OF RESEARCH ETHICS
Educational researchers come from many disciplines embrace several competing
theoretical frameworks, and use a variety of research methodologies. Education, by its very
nature, s aimed at the improvement of individual lives and societies. Research in education is
often directed at children and other vulnerable populations. The standards that are involved not
only in research but also in education. It is essential that continually reflect on research to be
sure that it is not only sound scientifically but also it makes a positive contribution to the
educational enterprise.
I.
Guiding standards: Responsibilities to the field
A. Preamble: To maintain the integrity of research and methodological perspectives
which are relevant to their research.
B. Standards:
1 Educational researchers should conduct their professional lives in such a way that
they do not jeopardize future research.
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2
Educational researchers must not fabricate, falsify or misrepresent authorship,
evidence, data, findings or conclusions.
3 Educational researchers must not knowingly or negligently use their professional
roles for fraudulent purposes.
4
Educational researchers should honestly and fully disclose their qualification and
limitations when providing opinions to the public.
5
Educational researchers should report research
conceptions, procedures,
results and analyses accurately and sufficiently.
i. Educational researchers reports to the public should be written straight
forwardly.
ii. Educational researchers have a responsibility to make candid, forthright
personnel recommendations.
Guiding Standards: Research populations, Educational institutions and the Public.
Preamble: Educational researchers conduct research within a broad array of settings and
institutions, including schools, colleges, universities and hospitals. It is importance that
educational researchers respect the rights, privacy, dignity and sensitivities of their research
populations and also the integrity of the institutions within which the research occurs.
Standards
1.
Educational researchers should communicate the aims of the investigation as well as
possible to inform about any significant changes in the research programme.
2.
Researchers are responsible for taking appropriate cautions to protect the confidentiality
of both participants and data to the full extent provided by law.
3.
Researchers should respect and maintain the confidentiality established by primary
researchers.
4.
Honesty should characterize the relationship between researchers and participants and
appropriate institutional representatives.
5.
Participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time.
Guiding Standards ; Intellectual Ownership
A. Preamble: Intellectual ownership is predominantly a function of creative contribution.
B.
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
Standards
Authorship should be determined based on the following guidelines.
Regardless of status, who have made substantive creative contribution to the generation
of an intellectual product are entitled to be listed as authors of that product.
First authorship and order of authorship should be the consequence of relative creative
leadership and creative contribution.
Clerical or mechanical contributions to an intellectual product are not for ascribing
authorship.
The work of those who have contributed to the production of an intellectual product in
ways short of these requirements for authorship should be appropriately acknowledged
within the product.
Authorship in the publication of work arising from theses and dissertation is determined
by creative intellectual contributions.
Ideas and other intellectual products may be viewed as commodities, arrangement
concerning the production or distribution of ideas or other intellectual product must be
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consistent with academic freedom and the appropriate availability of intellectual
products to scholars, students and the public.
Ownership of intellectual products should be based upon the following guidelines.
a. Individuals are entitled to profit from the sale or disposition of those intellectual
products they create.
b. Individuals or groups who fund or otherwise provide resources for the development of
intellectual products are entitled to assert claims to a fair share of the royalties or other
profit from the sale or disposition of those products.
c. Authors should not use positions of authorities over other individuals to compel them to
purchase an intellectual product from which the authors benefit.
IV
Guiding Standards: Editing, Reviewing and Appraising Research
A. Preamble :
Editors and reviewers have a responsibilities to recognize a wide
varieties of theoretical and methodological perspectives and at the same time, to ensure
that manuscripts meet the highest standards.
B. Standards:
1. Fairness requires a review process that evaluates submitted works solely on the basis of
merit.
2. Merit shall be understood to include both the competence with which the argument is
conducted and the significance of the results achieved.
3. Each journal may concentrate on a particular field or type of research.
4. Blind review with multiple readers should be used for each submission except where
explicitly
waived.
5. Editor should strive to select reviewers who are familiar with the research paradigm.
6. Journals should have written, published policies for referring articles.
7. Journals should have written, published policy stating when solicited and non referred
publications are permissible.
V.
Guiding Standards: Sponsors, Policymakers and other Users of Research.
A. Preamble:
Researchers, research institutions and sponsors of research jointly
share responsibility ensure that this integrity is not violated.
B. Standards:
1. Educational researchers are free to interpret and publish their findings without
censorship.
2. Researchers conducting sponsored research retain the right to publish the findings
under their own names.
3. Educational researchers should not agree to conduct research that conflicts with
academic freedom.
4. Sponsors or funders have the right to have disclaimers included in research reports
to differentiate their sponsorship from the conclusion of the research.
5. Educational researchers should not accept funds from sponsoring agencies that
request multiple renderings of reports that would distort the results or mislead
readers.
6. Educational researchers should fulfill their responsibilities to agencies funding
research which are entitled to an accounting of the use of their funds and to
reports of
the procedures, findings and implications of the funded research.
VI
Guiding Standards:
Students and student Researchers.
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A. Preamble:
Educational researchers have a responsibility to ensure the competence
of those inducted into the field and to provide appropriate help and professional advice
to novice researchers.
B. Standards:
1. In relations with students and student researchers, educational researchers should
be candid, fair, non-exploitative and committed to their welfare and progress.
2. Students and student researchers should be selected based upon their competence
and potential contributions to the field.
3. Educational researchers should be fair in the evaluation of research performance
and should communicate that evaluation to the students and student researchers.
4. Educational researchers should realistically apprise students and student
researchers with regard to career opportunities.
5. Educational researchers should inform students and student researchers concerning
the ethical dimensions of research, encourage their practice of research consistent
with ethical standards.
Guidelines on Research Ethics
Standard 1: Safeguard the interests and rights of those involved or affected the by the research
Standard 2 : ensure legistive requirement on human right and data protection have been met.
Standard 3: Establish informed consent even where this is difficult
Guidelines (for Standards 1, 2 and 3)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Consider the physical, social and psychological well-being of those involved or
affected by the research.
Obtain consent in writing and signed (which is not in itself evidence of 'informed
consent') to the involvement in the research and for the use of data collected.
Obtain informed consent without coercion (i.e. participants should not feel they have
no choice or are pressured by disparities of power). The option should be provided to
refuse to participate, to participate without being recorded, or to withdraw at any time
with no further consequences. This means transparency about the purpose and
processes of the research, what time commitment is expected of them, how it is funded,
what influence it is expected to have and how it will be disseminated; ere covert
research is proposed, the case for doing so should be brought to the attention of the
research governance committee and where required, approval sought from the relevant
external professional ethics committee.
Verify data collected through interviews with respondents where appropriate and
possible. Feedback on findings should be offered;
Invite those who are to be involved in the research to participate as far as possible in
the design, data collection and reporting of the research. This should be seen as an
opportunity to develop a relationship based on active participation, open
communication, partnership and trust between researcher and researched;
Offer conditional anonymity and confidentiality and if preferred by participants and
feasible, guarantee and honour this. Disclosure which is justified (by danger to the
participant or others - see section below on involving vulnerable people in research)
must be made to the appropriate person. Depending on the scale and depth of the study,
steps taken to anonymise participants might need to extended, for example, in small
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scale in-depth case studies in which one participant might be the only one with a
particular combination of characteristics and therefore easily identifiable. Similarly,
managers may be easily identified as the only individuals to which the description in a
research report could apply.
Any possible exceptions to this agreement should be explained at the time it is made.
Standard 4: develop the highest possible standards of research practices including in
research design, data collection, storage, analysis, interpretation and
reporting
Guidelines
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ensure existing relevant literature and ongoing research have been identified and built
on;
Select research approaches, methods and procedures that are fit for purpose and not
designed to confirm the researcher's hypotheses or preconceptions or because more
acceptable to a research sponsor;
Collect only data that will be used to address the question since any data collection
places a potential burden on the respondent. The exception may be in approaches
derived from grounded theory in which the research questions emerge as the analysis
develops or where data are archived for future use to address research questions not yet
identified;
Report research findings with integrity. Avoid the temptation to distort findings in
order to make them more positive and thereby, more publishable;
Report findings accurately, acknowledging that some research is open to a variety of
interpretations. Verify findings and interpretations through use of procedures such as
audit trails, triangulation and checking back with respondents where appropriate;
Establish ground rules on intellectual property rights and reporting restrictions with
external funders from the outset;
Donate data to the appropriate data archive and provide sufficient contextual
information to ensure that it can be understood, reanalysed and interpreted by others.
Standard 5: Consider the consequences of your work or its misuse for those you study and
other
interested parties
Guidelines
•
•
•
•
Consider the short and long term consequences of any research from the outset. The
benefits of research which assists a funder in policy decisions or developing a service
in the short term, may not be immediately apparent to individual respondents;
Recognise and compensate (not necessarily financially) where possible, the costs of
research to the participants minimising the coercive nature of this;
Predict what support might be needed following the research. Questions raised in the
research may have an unsettling effect on the individual, relationship or organisation;
Take some responsibility for changing the dynamics in the situation (e.g. classroom,
home, institution or service) through intensive case studies or participant observation.
Be willing to spend time discussing issues that might arise, have information about
relevant support services and document the effects of your presence.
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Standard 6: Ensure appropriate external professional ethical committee approval is granted
where relevant
Guidelines
•
•
•
Use the checklist in the Annex to scrutinize your research plans;
Invite comments from colleagues on your research plans and in particular, on any
potential consequences for those who you are involving in your research;
Seek comments from the School Committee where there are any sensitive or
potentially ethically challenging issues;
Seek approval from the appropriate external professional ethical committee where appropriate
(e.g. research involving health social care issues), to ensure requirements have been met .
STANDARDS FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RESEARCH
Ethics: It is the study of science of morals, principles of behavior.
Standards: it means something that function as a model of excellence for other similar things
to be comparable to.
The purpose of the ethical standards embodied in this policy is to promote and facilitate the
conduct of all research in ways that respect the dignity and preserve the well-being of human
research subjects, the researcher and the institution without limiting acceptable research
activities.
GUIDING ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
Researchers contribute to human welfare by acquiring knowledge and applying it to human
problems. They simultaneously consider two types of obligations in the design and conduct of
research. One of these obligations is to conduct research as capably as their knowledge permits,
and another is to protect the dignity and preserve the well being of human research participants.
1 Respect for Human Dignity
2Respect for Free and Informed Consent
3Respect for Vulnerable Persons
4 Respects for Privacy and Confidentiality
5 Respects for Justice and Inclusiveness
6 Balancing Harms and Benefits
7 Minimizing Harm
8 Maximizing Benefit
9 Methodologies
10 Minimal risks
Risk and harm are to be determined by considering:
• magnitude of harm probability of harm
The subject-centred perspective must be adopted when considering these elements.
Harm may be:
• physical
• psychological
• social
• legal
• economic
• affronts to dignity
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RESEARCH REQUIRING ETHICS REVIEW
1. Research involves a systematic investigation to establish facts, principles or generalizable
knowledge.
2.Research that must receive ethics review
3. Student Honours Projects in order to be eligible for graduation, students who are doing
research as part of their honours projects must submit evidence that their project has been
approved by the appropriate authority.
REVIEW OF OFF-CAMPUS RESEARCH
FREE AND INFORMED CONSENT
1 Normal Requirement
Research, may begin only if prospective participants, or authorized third parties, have been
provided the opportunity to give free and informed consent about participation, and their free
and informed consent has been given and maintained throughout their participation in the
research.
2. Procedures for Obtaining Informed Consent
3. Participation in Research by Per sons Who Are Not Legally Competent
4. Consent Requirements for Persons Who Are Not Legally Competent
For research involving incompetent individuals, as a minimum, the following
conditions are met. The researcher shall show how the free and informed consent shall be
sought from the authorised third party, and how the participant’s best interests shall be
protected.
b. The authorised third party shall not be the researcher or any other member of the research
team.
c. Regardless of third party consent, all attempts should be made at informing the legally
incompetent individual as to the nature of the project.
5. Consent for Videotape and Audio Recordings
Privacy and confidentiality
Researchers shall comply with all applicable privacy legislation of the jurisdiction in which
information collection takes place.
Conflict of interest
Researchers hold trust relationships with research participants, research sponsors, institutions,
professional bodies, and society. These trust relationships can be put at risk by conflicts of
interest that may compromise independence, objectivity, or ethical duties.
Inclusion in research
An important aspect of the principle of justice is the fair distribution of benefits and burdens.
Members of society should neither bear an unfair share of the direct burdens of participating in
research, nor should they be unfairly excluded from potential benefits of research participation.
HUMAN GENETIC RESEARCH
The potential ability to identify all human genes and their mutations has profound social
implications. Misunderstanding or misuse of the results of genetic testing has the potential to
interfere with an individual’s self-identity and sense of self-worth, and to stigmatize the entire
group to which that individual belongs.
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Research with human gametes, embryos or foetuses
1 research involving human gametes
Researchers shall obtain free and informed consent from the individual whose gametes are to be
used in research.
It is not ethical to use in research ova or sperm that have been obtained through commercial
transactions, including exchange for service.
2 Research Involving Human Embryos
It is not ethically acceptable to create human embryos specifically for research purposes
a. the ova and sperm from which they were formed are obtained in accordance
b. the research does not involve the genetic alteration of human gametes or embryos;
c. embryos exposed to manipulations not directed specifically to their ongoing normal
development shall not be transferred for continuing pregnancy; and
d. research involving human embryos takes place only during the first 14 days after their
formation by combination of the gametes.
Human tissue
Tissue1 Requirement for Ethics Review
Requirement for Informed Consent
Previously Collected
Education and dissemination
Tri-Council Policy Recommendations for Continuing Review of Research
1. formal review of the free and informed consent process,
2. establishment of a safety monitoring committee,
3. review of reports of adverse events,
4. review of patients’ charts, and/or
5. a random audit of the free and informed consent process
It is important to ensure that such research is multidisciplinary and covers the
social and economic context and consequences of the introduction of such technologies as
well as ways to remedy unintended, negative social consequences. Information on the
results of research in the public and private sectors should be disseminated and enter into
the public domain as soon as possible.
Consideration must be given to the potential benefit for food and nutrition security, and there
by for human health, social justice and the environment, on the other hand.
BOITECHNOLOGY, INCLUDING
(GMOs) RELATED ETHICS:
GENETICALLY
MODIFIED
ORGANISMS
Many biotechnologies have been developed in most culture. An important subset of
modern biotechnology is genetic engineering, or the manipulation of an organism’s genetic
endowment by introducing, rearranging or eliminating specific gene through modern molecular
biology technique.a genetic modified organism (GMO), otherwise referred to as a living
modified organism (LMO) or transgenic organism, is under stood to mean any living organism
that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern
biotechnology. The science and technology have provided great benefits in the past and are
likely to do so in future, as long as they as they are properly managed and applied. It is noted in
this connection that international human rights stipulate that every one has right to share in the
benefits of scientific progress and its application (Universal declaration of human rights, article
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27). Consideration that classical plant and animal and fish breeding and modern
biotechnologies comprise sets of tools that depend on naturally occurring genes as raw
materials, the maintenance of biodiversity or genetic resources is a global concern of major
importance. To examine all issues involved in the field biotechnological research ethics we can
analyze the following three steps of main concern:
1. Indicating the risks, uncertainties and doubts involved.
2.Reflecting on the potential benefits that products of modern biotechnologies, including
GMOs, may yield in the future; and
3.Examining some of the conditions that would have to be fulfilled in order to ensure the
benefits if any, are obtained by the most needy, in particular the developing countries and,
within them, the poor farmers and other vulnerable groups.
Risk, uncertainties and doubts in the use of GMOs:
1.With regard of the developing countries, there is also a danger arising from the fact that field
testing of GMOs is being under taken in countries that still have little or no policy on GMO
releases. GMOs need proper control and appropriate testing. They should not be released
without risk analysis and the assurance of subsequent monitoring and risk management, or
without accountability for possible harm arising from that.
2.The risk to human health includes the possible transfer of food allergenic compound to
products that didn’t previously contain them, and uncertainties as to other consequences.
Regarding environmental issues, a fundamental concern is the protection of biodiversity. This is
of general importance for future ecosystem equilibrium and is essential for poor farmers and
local communities to be able to secure food and livelihoods for vulnerable groups.
3.Another risk is transfer of genes may escape into weed relatives and wild relatives of
cultivated plant, with potential negative effect on the fields and, especially, on the equilibrium
of the local ecosystem. Special attention should given to the use of a given genetically modified
crop’s wild relatives are present.
4.Developing countries can face additional difficulties in assessing the risk of these
technologies because the technological knowledge related to them often forms part of the
exclusive intellectual property of corporation in developed countries.
5. The ethical aspects of the Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURT) or Terminator
Technology, which appear initially to have been designed to protect corporate property rights
physically (by making harvested infertile) where legal restriction preventing farmers from
planting harvested seeds may not work in practice. Hence farmer can’t use again the harvested
seed as it will not germinate. While corporations are entitled to make profits farmers should not
forced to become dependent on the supplier for new seeds every planting seasons.
Potential benefits and problems
1.There is considerable potential for food security and for developing countries in the use of
appropriate biotechnologies, and that there is the room of optimism.
2.The crops will be more productive at a lower cost under marginal condition; there would also
be potential environmental benefits. Furthermore in specific local conditions, there might be
less risk that those associated with conventional intensification technology.
3.There is potential for maintaining, introducing and conserving crops and animal breeds from
diverse cultures that may otherwise diminishing.
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4.With proper ethical commitments, corporation could help developing countries to use this
technology. Because there may be potential for companies as well as public research institution
in developing countries to harness technology through strategic alliances with corporation in
developed countries, while avoiding the exploitation of public research for the benefits of
private corporation.
5.The genetic engineering changing fast and, with this rapid development, the technology is
likely to become less expensive.
6.IPR system: IPR system that restricts the use of naturally existing genetic material over a
wide spectrum, from genes to organisms and species, should not be allowed. Access by
international and national agricultural research institution to basic enabling technologies and
processes that are important for sustainable agriculture and food security should not restricted
through the use of patent system.
7.There should negotiation on multilateral system for access to , and the sharing of benefits
derived from utilization of farmer’s right’s as an incentive for the conservation and continuous
development of agro biodiversity.
Enabling conditions to realize the potential and avoid the risks of modern biotechnologies,
including GMOs:
Science has benefited humanity in the past and continues to do so in the future,
provided there is real concern for equity. The results of scientific research must be shared
fairly. The ethical imperative to give priority attention to the impact and use of science for the
poor, vulnerable, including small-scale farmers in the developing countries. From the human
rights prospective whereby everyone is entitled to benefit from the achievements of science and
technology. So there is much room for research that can improve indigenous and other local
crops and animals and thereby enhance dietary diversity and food security.
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12
Computer Ethics for Agriculture Database and
Communication
Computers are special technology and they raise some special ethical issues. To
characterize computer ethics and to show why this emerging field is both intellectually
interesting and enormously important. Computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and social
impact of computer technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies
for the ethical use of such technology. Computer technology broadly includes computers and
associated technology. A typical problem in computer ethics arises because there is a policy
vacuum about how computer technology should be used. Computers provide us with new
capabilities and these in turn give us new choices for action. Often, either no policies for
conduct in these situations exist or existing policies seem inadequate. A central task of
computer ethics is to determine what we should do in such cases, i.e., to formulate policies to
guide our actions. Of course, some ethical situations confront us as individuals and some as a
society. Computer ethics includes consideration of both personal and social policies for the
ethical use of computer technology.
Although a problem in computer ethics may seem clear initially, a little reflection reveals
a conceptual muddle. What is needed in such cases is an analysis, which provides a coherent
conceptual framework within which to formulate a policy for action. Indeed, much of the
important work in computer ethics is devoted to proposing conceptual frameworks for
understanding ethical problems involving computer technology. An example may help to
clarify the kind of conceptual work that is required. Let’s suppose we are trying to formulate a
policy for protecting computer programs. Initially, the idea may seem clear enough. We are
looking for a policy for protecting a kind of intellectual property. But then a number of
questions arise which do not have obvious answers. What is a computer program? Is it really
an intellectual property that can be owned or is it more like an idea, an algorithm, which is not
owned by any body? If a computer program is intellectual property, is it an expression of an
idea that is owned (traditionally protected by copyright) or is it a process that is owned
(traditionally protected by patent)? Is a machine-readable program a copy of a humanreadable program? Clearly, we need a conceptualization of the nature of a computer program
in order to answer these kinds of questions. Moreover, these questions must be answered in
order to formulate a useful policy for protecting computer programs.
The mark of a basic problem in computer ethics is one in which computer technology is
essentially involved and there is an uncertainty about what to do and even about how to
understand the situation. Hence, not all ethical situations involving computers are central to
computer ethics. If a burglar steals available office equipment including computers, then the
burglar has done something legally and ethically wrong. But this is really an issue for general
law and ethics. Computers are only accidentally involved in this situation, and there is no
policy or conceptual vacuum to fill. The situation and the applicable policy are clear.
Ethical theory provides categories and procedures for determining what is ethically
relevant. For example, what kinds of things are good? What are our basic rights? What is an
impartial point of view? These considerations are essential in comparing and justifying
policies for ethical conduct. Similarly, scientific information is crucial in ethical evaluations.
It is amazing how many times ethical disputes turn not on disagreements about values but on
disagreements about facts.
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Computer ethics is a dynamic and complex field of study, which considers the
relationships among facts, conceptualizations, policies and values with regard to constantly
changing computer technology. Computer ethics is not a fixed set of rules, which one shellacs
and hangs on the wall. Nor is computer ethics the rote application of ethical principles to a
value-free technology. Computer ethics requires us to think anew about the nature of
computer technology and our values. Although computer ethics is a field between science and
ethics and depends on them, it is also a discipline in its own right that provides both
conceptualizations for understanding and policies for using computer technology
WHAT IS COMPUTER ETHICS?
Computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and the impact of computer technology and
the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such
technology. Computer ethics is a dynamic and complex field of study, which considers the
relationships among facts, conceptualizations policies and values with regard to constantly
changing computer technology.
WHAT IS ETHICS?
The discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and
obligation. Or The set of moral principles or values Or A theory of moral values
Or The principles of conduct governing an individual or group .
Code of Ethics for Agricultural Technologists
The agricultural industry demands integrity, competence and objectivity in the conduct
of agricultural technologists while fulfilling their responsibilities to the public, the
employer, the client and colleagues.
Ethical Responsibilities of Agricultural Technologists
1. Professional Obligations to the Public
a) to work only in those areas where training, ability and experience make them
qualified.
b) to express an opinion only when it is founded on adequate knowledge and
experience, and where the agricultural technologist has an understanding of the
situation and context against which this opinion is being offered.
c) to advocate good stewardship of agricultural resources based on sound scientific
principles.
d) to extend public knowledge of agriculture and to promote truthful and accurate
statements on sustainable agricultural systems and environmental matters.
e) to have proper regard for the safety of others in all work.
2. Responsibility to the Client or Employer
a) to act conscientiously and diligently in providing technical services.
b) except as required by law, to maintain the confidentiality of client and employer
information unless given the explicit consent of the client or employer.
c) to obtain a clear understanding of the clients or employers objectives.
d) to inform the client or employer of any action planned or undertaken by the client
or employer that may be detrimental to good stewardship or in breach of known laws or
regulations.
e) to refuse any assignment that creates a conflict of interest.
f) to not accept compensation from more than one employer or client for the same
work, without the consent of all.
3. Responsibility to the Institute
a) to inspire confidence by maintaining high standards in conduct and work.
b) to support activities for the advancement of the Institute.
c) where the agricultural technologists' believe another individual may be guilty of
infamous or unprofessional conduct, negligence or breach of The Agrologist Act, 1994
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or Bylaws;
i) to raise the matter with that individual, and
ii) if not resolved, to inform the Registrar in writing
d) to state clearly on whose professional statements or opinions are made.
e) to sign and seal only those plans, reports and other documents for which
technologists are professionally responsible and which were prepared by them or under
their direction.
4. Professional Responsibility to Other members of the Institute
a) to abstain from undignified or misleading public communication with or about
others.
b) to give credit for professional work to whom credit is due.
c) to share knowledge and experience with others.
Role of information technology (IT) in Agriculture:
Information technology refers to a broad term comprising of new communication and
computing technology. Computer hardware, software and Internet are key to these
systems that are designed developed and managed by IT professionals.
Information technology and its components
Induction of IT as a strategic tool for agricultural development and welfare of rural
India requires necessary IT infrastructure in place. The rapid changes and down word
trend in prices in various components of IT makes it feasible to target large scale IT
penetration in rural India.
Components of Computer
1. Input devices: keyboard, mouse devices, scanners etc.
2. Output devices: printers and plotters
Objectives of information technology
1. To put information close to the manager, scientists, teachers, extension workers
and
farmers.
2. To improve the capacity of researchers, teachers, and extension specialists to
organize, store, retrieve and information exchange.
3. To evolve mechanism of information sharing.
4. To strengthen national libraries and library’s network through electronic access.
5. To develop database for easy access and data base decision-making.
The key players for utilization of IT in Agriculture:
The farmer: Who is the actual person who can directly bring about an improvement in
efficiency and productivity in agriculture.
Various industries that provide inputs to agriculture : Various industries that deal
with agriculture output Institution / organization and NGOS working for the benefit of
farmers such as agriculture universities and research centers.
Central and state governments :
Awareness database: Facilliting farmers for proper understanding of the implication
of the WTO on Indian agriculture.
Decision Support System : Information that facilitates farmers to make proper SWOT
(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis to take
appropriate decision.
Information on new opportunities : Monitoring system for corrective measures How
actually IT helps in agricultural production : As a tool for direct contribution to
agricultural productivity. As an indirect tool for empowering farmers to take informed
and quality decisions, which will have positive impact on the way agriculture and allied
activities are conducted.
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Information technology helps indirectly in the way of:
Precision agriculture
Remote sensing
Expert systems
e- agribusiness
IT centers for agricultural development
Agricultural technology information centers (ATICs) provides:
Diagnostic services for soil testing plant and livestock health
Supply to research products such as seeds, planting materials, livestock breeds,
poultry strains, fish seed, processed products etc. emerging from an institution for
testing and adoption by various clientele
Dissemination of information through literature, audio-visual aids and electronic
media
An opportunity to institutions for resource generation through sale of their
technologies
Support the district level ATMAs (Agricultural Technology Management
Agencies)
in technology dissemination
Indian society of agricultural information technology (INSIT) mandates:
To mobilize farmers, scientists, institutions and organizations
To encourage research and extension activities
To provide a forum for information exchange and dissemination
To organize training programme
Geographic information systems (GIS)
A GIS consists of two major elements namely hardware and software.
The hardware component consists of:
Processing unit
Spatial data entry system
Plotter or printer
Software modules of GIS (Geographical Information System) classified into four
categories:
Data input and editing
Database management
Analysis/ transformation/ manipulation
GIS software are:
ARC/ INFO
CRIES-GIS
ERDAS
GRASS
GIMMS etc.
Thrust areas of GIS applications
The data is mainly used for the study of:
Engineering mapping
Automated photogrammetry
Highway mapping
Surface water mapping
Census and related statistical mapping
Land use planning and management
Environmental impact studies
With the remote sensing data for resource mapping:
Flood monitoring and management
Ground water hydrology
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Snow melt runoff modeling
Wet land management
Forest management
Urban sprawl mapping and monitoring
Land degradation
Watershed management etc.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing mens observing an object or phenomenon from a distance place.
Remote sensing used for mapping of naturel resources.
First earth resources technology satellite (ERTS), known as Landset-1 in 1972.
Remote sensing data is mostly used for the study of earth resources.
The data is usefulTo study the water resources, urban environment, soils, forestry, watershed
conservation and reservior sedimentation.
Stability of hill slope, water managesmentlike crop water requirements, soil salinity
and water logging flood management, river morphology, conjuctive use of surface and
ground water etc.
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13
Safety in Research Laboratory
Agricultural science is basically an applied science; so to conduct out research for
experimentation we need laboratories.
What is laboratory: It is a room or building used for scientific research, experiments or testing
etc.
Features of a Good Laboratory
• Suitable space for both bench work and offices
• Ample utilities for most exacting work.
• Storage space in which supplies, laboratory records and hazardous materials are secure.
• Effective safety features to protect property.
Laboratory Design and Safety
Laboratory varies with its kind as it may be of Teaching or Research Laboratory, it may
also be Physics, Chemistry, Botany or Zoology or it may be any special purpose laboratory.
Requirements and designs of laboratory vary with the application for which the laboratory is to
be utilized. Thus before we go for the establishment of any laboratory we should go for certain
planning in our mind.
Objectives for laboratory safety planning:
Developing Workable Safety Statement – It may be a few sentences or it may run to
several pages in length and expresses a deep commitment of the safety. Whatever the source, it
should be complete and clear. An example of a short statement is “Safety requires focusing
attention on the immediate work environment and modifying behavior and facility to protect
personnel and property.”.
Defining the Technical Objective of the New Laboratory – Laboratory objective may be one
of the following:
• General-purpose laboratories are those in which a variety of operations are carried out,
usually in conventional apparatus and glassware, employing a number of the usual
small laboratory instruments and using relatively small amounts of chemicals.
• Special-purpose laboratories are those intended for continuing use in one operation or
manner involving definite or specific hazards, which require less stringent fire
protection, electrical or emergency features.
• Special occupancy laboratories may involve high-level hazards such as high pressure
equipment, carcinogens or radioactive substances, flammable liquids or gases, high
energy materials or biological health hazards.
Identifying Techniques for Determining User Safety Needs – Engineering associations and
similar organizations have issued invaluable literature on laboratory safety concepts.
Laboratory personnel who have precious experience in a similar situation should be formed into
a subcommittee to share information with management.
Ranking Safety Requirements for Laboratory Facility – In the view of laboratory managers,
the heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HAVC) is the most important requirement
for laboratory safety.
At a minimum the ranked list of laboratory safety data should include the following:
• Laboratory exhaust ventilation
• Fire safety
• Emergency response
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• Chemical handling
The manager can rank the above items by knowledge of user needs and his or her experience
and professional judgment.
Systematically Organizing a Safety Planning Programme: A laboratory expansion
management team usually have three or more members selected by the laboratory head. The
members may be engineers, architect, chief scientists, support managers or consultants.
Planning and safety data developed must be in coordination with the data from all the members
of the team.
Exploration of Critical Safety Requirement: In evaluating safety requirements it is important
to get a second opinion from an experienced colleague. In technical matters we are specialists,
and when we go outside of our field we seek expert guidance. The same attitude should apply
to safety. Specialist can help with alternatives, entirely new concept, cost comparison and so
on.
Basic Causes of Accident in Laboratory During Work:
1.
Improper design, construction or layout.
2.
Protective devices not provided or proper equipments and tools are not provided.
3.
Failure to use protective devices provided and proper equipments and tools not
provided.
4.
Lack of knowledge or improper mental attitude.
5.
Laboratory outside the organization.
6.
Use of devices with unknown defects.
7.
Bad physical conditions or handicap.
8.
Failure to follow instruction or rules.
9.
Failure of person incharge to give adequate instructions or inspections.
10. Failure of person incharge to properly plan or conduct the activity.
Organization for Laboratory Safety:
In order to fruitful results there must be a national level organization which will
coordinate and guide the research activities in research laboratory.
• The primary objective of such departments is to provide the guidance to the
organizations and institution and not acts as policing agent.
• The member of the organization must be aware of technological advances so that they
may provide best possible advices and trainings.
• Second major responsibility of such organization is to monitor the activities and
management research laboratories in different institutions.
• The organization must be provided to with the enforcement authority to properly
monitor compliance/compulsory adoption of the rules formulated by organization.
Organization for safety in Laboratories:
V.C/ President of University
Staff and university safety committee
Cooperated or university safety department
Laboratory director, Dean
Local safety committee
Safety engineer or coordinator
Supervisor or senior faculty
Employee, junior faculty members and student
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Laboratory Hazards
If general consideration of lab safety is not followed, any of the following or more
hazards might be encountered in the laboratory.
1. Fire Hazards
2. Chemical and Toxicity Hazards
3. Radiation Hazards
4. Electrical Hazards
5. Biological Hazards
1.
Fire Hazards:
During working periods lab research worker are liable to receive burns caused by
burners that are blown back, hot glass, non-luminous flames, ignition of inflammable solvents
or clothing’s catching alight. Combustible materials are frequently used labs involving fire risks
against which worker must protect himself as well as lab. Unprotected chemicals may provide
fuel to increase the size and extent of the damage of a small fire. Research notes, theses
material, unique chemicals, financial and academic records and above all a precious life; are
more difficult to reproduce than a building and equipments.
Prevention:
•
An appropriate extinguishing system should be installed.
•
Accumulation of materials in lockers and corners, near machinery, steam pipes
and furnaces and stoves should be avoided.
•
Fire protected storage should be there for records chemicals etc.
•
Rubber gas connected tubes must be inspected regularly to minimize the chances
of slipping and splitting of a tube.
•
Regular inspection of all installations, apparatus and wiring is necessary to
ensure that they are safe and secure.
2.
Chemical and Toxic Hazards:
Chemical are of immense requirement in laboratories. Certain acids like mineral acids,
sulfuric acids or nitric acids may prove dangerous. Splashes of these acids on the persons
exposed body part or clothes may produce some detrimental effects. Perchloric acid is perhaps
the most dangerous chemical. Certain chemicals are having a quite high inflammability in
them. Certain substances like arsenic and potassium cyanide. The insidious slow poisonous
chemicals are most hazardous. Eye irritation like swelling of eyelids, inflammation and
conjunctiva caused by corrosive substances like acids, alkalis, H2S, many salts, organic
compounds, certain gaseous chemicals like CO, amyl acetate, benzene, mercury and lead are
quite dangerous if they are accidentally inhaled. Substances which have no appreciable action
on the sense or which do not allow body to offer resistance by reflex action are very dangerous.
Prevention:
• Evaluations of toxic material should be done.
• Do not allow chemicals to react which might be dangerous for laboratory.
• A shower bath should be taken immediately after work.
• Using special goggles for chemical works may protect eyes injuries.
• Neatness and cleanliness should be maintained.
• To protect the skin special clothing such as impervious gloves sleeves and aprons
masks and goggles should be use.
3.
Radiation Hazards:
Radioactivity is caused by the instability of certain atoms which radiates x-rays, -rays,
-rays; all of which having ionizing properties, they penetrate substances to a different degree.
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Chronic local exposure to the radioactive radiations irritates the skin and can produce ulcers
and cancers. Radioactive substances that have reached the interior of the body; damage the
tissue, especially the blood forming organs. The action of UV-rays is acute causing
inflammation of conjunctiva in eyes. Infrared may cause haziness of cornea and produce
cataract of the lens.
Prevention:
• Avoid secondary infection by not rubbing your eyes following exposure.
• Shielding with the lead of necessary thickness, controlled equipments and adequate
ventilation can be useful against radioactive material.
• Protective glasses against UV-light and infra red should be worn. Each one should have
separate goggles to avoid the infection.
• In labs where radioactive substances are handled there should be trained health
physicist in the staff.
4.
Electrical Hazards:
If electrical equipments are not handled carefully they can even prove to be fatal for a
life. So lack of or improper use of electrical grounding system not provided with double
insulation system can result in:
o Fire in electrical equipments and facilities.
o Fatal or non fatal electrical shocks, burns and secondary injuries to personnel; if long
continued currents in excess may provide collapse, unconsciousness and death.
o Disruption of operation.
o Possible faulty operation of electrical equipments by generation of spurious signals.
Prevention:
• It is necessary to work live on electrical equipments the person doing so should be of
fully knowledge and have a second person around who is trained in rescue, first-aid and
cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
• Use conductors that are corrosion resistant and chemically compatible with the soil in
which they are buried.
• Use equipments and tools with non-conducting handles when working on electrical
device.
• Protective lockout and tagging of equipments should be done.
• Electrically connect and ground metallic non-current carrying parts enclosing electronic
equipments in the same area to prevent differences of potential and eliminate hazards.
5.
Biological Hazards:
The importance of healthy animals for experimental research has been well recognized
by scientists. Since experimental animals must be free of disease. There are chances of
transmission of a disease from man to animals e.g. salmonellas, influenza, tuberculosis etc. man
may also contract disease from animals during research. In microbiological labs accidental
infections resulting from laboratory manipulations of pathogenic microbes may be there. Five
most frequently recognized laboratory infections are:
o Centrifugal accidents.
o Animals bites
o Sprays with syringe.
o Accidental inoculation with syringes and needles.
o Accidental oral aspirations of infectious material.
Prevention:
• Develop the habit of keeping your hands away from your mouth, nose, eyes and face.
• Wear only clean laboratory clothing’s.
• Never do direct mouth pipetting of of infectious or toxic fluids, use an appropriate
pipette.
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•
Laboratory personnel should be healthy enough; vaccination of laboratory personnel
should be done.
• Before and after injection an animal, swab the site of injection with disinfectant.
General Precautions: There are certain precaution that we should keep in mind.
1.
Don’t follow the idea that “this can happen to him but not me”.
2.
Ensure the first-aid facility in the lab.
3.
One should not allow working alone in the lab.
4.
Except in emergency don’t run in the lab buildings as there could be collision with
person carrying apparatus.
5.
It should be forbidden for anyone to work behind the locked room.
6.
Orderliness and cleanliness should be always there in the lab.
7.
Material should never be put in an unlabelled container.
8.
The common practice of eating anything in the lab should be deprecated.
9.
Laboratories in which mercury is being used should be well ventilated.
10. Turn off all gas, electricity and water etc. after finishing the work.
11. Goggles worn should be of specific design to prevent the effect of hazardous rays.
Conclusion
1. Layout of the laboratory should be architecturally will built.
2. There should be a national level organisation to co-ordinate, guide and inspect the
activities of laboratories of the country.
3. Laboratory safety should be considered as a separate suggest.
References
Steere, Norman V. ed (1982). CRC handbook of laboratory safety. 2nd edition – Boca Raton:
CRC press.
Fure, A. Kieth (2000). CRC handbook of laboratory safety. 5th edition – London CRC Press.
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14
Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing
and Education
The popular debate over animal use has been taken up by proponents holding a wide
spectrum of views, ranging from belief in abolition of animal use on moral and ethical grounds
to belief in free rein on the use of animals in research, testing, and education. An increasing
number of groups are taking a middle ground. In the mid-1980s, it is misleading and often
impossible to characterize many vocal groups either as simply “pro-animal” or “pro-research”.
There are three kinds of animal use: research in the biomedical and behavioral sciences;
testing of products for toxicity; and education of students at all levels, including the advanced
life sciences, and medical and veterinary training. The use of animals in these three situations
with regard to research, testing, and education differs considerably, and each has different
prospects for development of alternatives. The assessment excludes examination of the use of
animals in food and fiber production; their use in obtaining organs, antibodies, and other
biological products; and their use for sport, entertainment, and companionship. Such purposes
include numbers of animals generally estimated to be many multiples greater than the numbers
used for purposes described in this report. Issues of animal care, such as feeding and
maintenance, are also beyond the scope of this assessment.
In this chapter, animal is defined as any non-human member of the five classes of
vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Within this group, two kinds of
animals can be distinguished warm-blooded animals (mammals and birds) and cold-blooded
animals (reptiles, amphibians, and fish). Other creatures customarily included in the animal
kingdom, such as invertebrates (e. g., worms, insects, and crustaceans), are excluded for this
work. The concept of alternatives to animal use has come to mean more than merely a one-toone substitution of non animal methods for animal techniques. For alternatives, OTA has
chosen a definition characterized by the three Rs: replacement, reduction, and
refinement.
Scientists may replace methods that use animals with those that do not. For example,
veterinary students may use a canine cardiopulmonary resuscitation simulator, resusci-Dog,
instead of living dogs. Cell cultures may replace mice and rats that are fed new products to
discover substances poisonous to humans. In addition, using the preceding definition of animal,
an invertebrate (e.g., a horseshoe crab) could replace a vertebrate (e.g., a rabbit) in a testing
protocol.
Reduction refers to the use of fewer animals. For instance, changing practices allow
toxicologists to estimate the lethal dose of a chemical with as few as one-tenth the numbers of
animals used in traditional tests. In biomedical research, long-lived animals, such as primates,
may be shared, assuming sequential protocols are not deemed in humane or scientifically
conflicting. Reduction can also refer to the minimization of any unintentionally duplicative
experiments, perhaps through improvements in information resources.
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Existing procedures may be refined so that animals are subjected to less pain and
distress. Refinements include administration of anesthetics to animals undergoing otherwise
painful procedures; administration of tranquilizers for distress; humane destruction prior to
recovery from surgical anesthesia; and careful scrutiny of behavioral indices of pain or distress,
followed by cessation of the procedure or the use of appropriate analgesics. Refinements also
include the enhanced use of noninvasive imaging technologies that allow earlier detection of
tumors, organ deterioration, or metabolic changes and the subsequent early euthanasia of test
animals.
Pain is defined as discomfort resulting from injury or disease, while distress results
from pain, anxiety, or fear. Pain may also be psychosomatic, resulting from emotional distress.
Pain is relieved with analgesics or anesthetics; distress is eased with tranquilizers. Widely
accepted ethical standards require that scientists subject animals to as little pain or distress as is
necessary to accomplish the objectives of procedures. Professional ethics require scientists to
provide relief to animals in pain or distress, unless administering relief would interfere with the
objective of the procedure (e.g., when the objective is a better understanding of the mechanisms
of pain).
HOW MANY ANIMALS ARE USED?
Estimates of the animals used in the United States each year range from 10 million to upwards
of 100 million. OTA scrutinized a variety of surveys, including those of the National Research
Council’s Institute for Laboratory animal Resources and the animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service (APHIS) of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). In addition, non-reporting
institutions may not be similar enough to reporting institutions to justify extrapolation. Thus
every estimate of animal use stands as a rough approximation. With this caveat in mind, the
best data source available the USDA/APHIS census suggests that at least 17 million to 22
million animals were used in research and testing in the United States in 1983. The majority of
animals used—between 12 million and 15 million—were rats and mice. Current data permit no
statement about any trends in animal use through recent years.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
At one end of a broad spectrum of ethical concerns about animal use is the belief that
humans may use animals in any way they wish, without regard for the animals suffering. At the
other extreme is the notion-epitomized by the slogan “animals are people, too” that each animal
has the right not to be used for any purpose that does not benefit it. Each view is anchored in a
school of philosophical thought, and people considering this issue can choose from a variety of
arguable positions. Prominent within the Western philosophic and religious tradition is the view
that humans have the right to use animals for the benefit of human-kind. This view is
predicated on the assumption that human beings have special intrinsic value and thus may use
natural animate and inanimate objects, including animals, for purposes that will enhance the
quality of human life. Yet this tradition suggests that because animals are intelligent and
sentient beings, they should be treated in a humane manner. Current policies and trends within
the scientific community have reinforced this conviction by advocating that pain and suffering
be minimized when animals are used in research, testing, or education.
Advocates of what generally is called animal welfare frequently question the objectives
of animal use, as well as the means. They point out those animals can experience pain, distress,
and pleasure. Drawing on the utilitarian doctrine of providing the greatest good for the greatest
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number, some animal welfare advocates weigh animal interests against human interests. In this
view, it might be permissible to use animals in research to find a cure for a fatal human disease,
but it would be unjust to subject animals to pain to develop a product with purely cosmetic
value.
Some animal rights advocates carry this concern a step further and do not balance
human and animal rights. They generally invoke the principle of inalienable individual rights.
They believe that animal use is unjustified unless it has the potential to benefit the particular
animal being used. Animal rights advocates refer to the denial of animal rights as a form of
“speciesism” a moral breach analogous to racism or sexism. Animals, by this reasoning, have a
right not to be exploited by people.
People throughout the spectrum find common ground in the principle of humane
treatment, but they fail to agree on how this principle should be applied. Society does not
apply the principle of humane treatment equally to all animals. A cat may evoke more
sympathy than a frog, for example, because the cat is a companion species and possesses
apparently greater neurological sophistication than a frog, endowing it with both favored status
and a familiarity that suggests to humans that they can interpret its behavior. Even within a
species, all individuals are not treated consistently. Pet rabbits in the home and pest rabbits in
the garden, like human friends and strangers, are treated differently.
ALTERNATIVES IN RESEARCH
In research, scientists often explore uncharted territory in search of unpredictable
events, a process that inherently involves uncertainty, missteps, and serendipity. Some
biological research requires and in the future will continue to require the use of live animals if
the study of the complex interactions of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up an organism
is to continue. Knowledge thus gained is applied to improving the health and well-being of
humans and of animals themselves, and it may lead to the development of methods that would
obviate the use of some animals.
Some non animal methods are becoming available in biomedical and behavioral
research. As more develop, animal use in research will likely become less common. It is
important to note, however, that even if animals cannot be replaced in certain experiments,
researchers can attempt to reduce the number used and also to minimize pain and distress. Most
alternatives to current animal use in re-search fall into one of four categories:
•
•
•
•
Continued, but modified, use of animals: This includes alleviation of pain and
distress, substitution of cold-blooded for warm-blooded vertebrates, coordination
among investigators, and use of experimental designs that provide reliable information
with fewer animals than were used previously.
Living Systems: These include microorganisms, invertebrates, and the in vitro culture
of organs, tissues, and cells.
Nonliving Systems: These include epidemiologic databases and chemical and physical
systems that mimic biological functions.
Computer Programs: These simulate biological functions and interactions.
The many fields of research ranging from anatomy to zoology use animals differently
and each thus have different prospects for developing and implementing alternatives. Research
disciplines were distinguished by their characteristic patterns of animal use, as measured by the
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percentages of published reports showing animal use, no animal use, and use of humans.
Animal methods predominated in most of the journals surveyed, including the three behavioral
research journals. The exceptions in the overall survey were cell biology, which used primarily
non animal methods, and cardiology, which used primarily human subjects. Using alternative
methods in biomedical research holds several advantages from scientific, economic, and
humane perspectives, including:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reduction in the number of animals used;
Reduction in animal pain, distress, and experimental insult;
Reduction in investigator-induced, artifactual physiological phenomena; savings
in time, with the benefit of obtaining results more quickly;
The ability to perform replicative protocols on a routine basis;
Reduction in the cost of research; greater flexibility to alter conditions and
variables of the experimental protocol;
Reduction of error stemming from inter individual variability; and
The intrinsic potential of in vitro techniques to study cellular and molecular
mechanisms.
Many of these alternative methods are accompanied by inherent disadvantages,
including:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reduced ability to study organism growth processes;
Reduced ability to study cells, tissues, and organ systems acting in concert;
Reduced ability to study integrated biochemical and metabolic pathways;
Reduced ability to study behavior; reduced ability to study the recovery of
damaged tissue;
Reduced ability to study interaction between the organism and its environment;
Reduced ability to study idiosyncratic or species-specific responses;
Reduced ability to distinguish between male-and female-specific phenomena;
and
A handicap to probing the unknown and phenomena not yet identified.
Behavior encompasses all the movements and sensations by which living things
interact with both the living and nonliving components of their environment. Since one of the
chief goals of behavioral research is an understanding of human behavior, there are obvious
advantages to the use of human research subjects. There are also advantages to use animals,
including the following:
•
•
•
•
Laboratory research on animals offers a greater opportunity to control variables
such as genetic background, prior experience, and environmental conditions, all
of which affect behavior and can obscure the influence of the factor under study.
The short life spans of certain animals allow scientists to study behavior as it
develops with age and across generations.
Some animal behavior is less complex than human behavior, facilitating an
understanding of basic elements and principles of behavior.
The behavior of certain animals holds particular interest for humans. These
animals include companion species, farm animals, and agricultural pests.
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It is the continued, but modified, use of animals that holds the most promise as an
alternative in the field of behavioral research.
ALTERNATIVES IN TESTING
Several million animals are used each year in testing substances for toxicity and
establishing conditions for safe use. The resulting data together with information about use and
exposure, human epidemiologic data, and other information are used in assessing and managing
health risks. As a reduction in the number of animals is a principal alternative, proper statistical
design and analysis in testing protocols play an important role. The total number of animals
needed for statistically significant conclusions depends on the incidence of toxic effects without
administration of the test substance, the degree of variation from animal to animal for the
biological effect that is of interest, and the need to determine a quantitative relationship
between the size of the dose and the magnitude of the response. Statistical analysis plays a
similarly important role in research.
One of the oldest and, perhaps for that reason, least sophisticated tests is the LD50
(“lethal dose” for “50” percent of the test animals). In this short-term, or acute, test, a group of
animals, usually rats or mice are exposed to a single substance, and the measured end point is
death (although other observations may be made). The LD50 is the dose at which half the test
animals can be expected to die. A range of doses is administered to some 30 to 100 animals and
the LD50 is calculated from the results. Tests providing the same information have recently
been developed using as few as 10 animals, i.e., a 3 to 10 fold reduction. The LD50 is used to
screen substances for their relative toxicity and mode of toxic action. Scientists and animal
welfare advocates have criticized it in recent years, in part because it cannot be extrapolated
reliably to humans, and in part because the imposition of a highly toxic or lethal dose seems
particularly inhumane.
Another often-criticized acute toxicity assay is the Draize eye irritancy test. This
involves placing a test substance into one eye of four to six rabbits and evaluating its irritating
effects. Results are used to develop precautionary information for situations in which exposure
of the human eye to the substance is possible. Substances with certain properties e.g., a caustic
pH-could be assumed to be eye irritants and not tested. Draize procedures may also be modified
to reduce pain and in vitro methods to test for irritancy are underdevelopment.
Other common tests include those for long-term chronic effects, carcinogenicity,
reproductive and developmental toxicity, skin irritancy, and neuron toxicity. In addition to such
descriptive toxicology (i.e., tests that focus on the response of the organism as a whole), testing
may also be done to determine the mechanisms by which a substance is metabolized or
excreted, and the chemical re-actions by which toxic effects are produced. Such studies of
mechanistic toxicology aid in the selection and design of descriptive tests.
Reductions in the number of animals used can be brought about by using no more
animals than necessary to accomplish the purpose of the test, by combining tests in such a way
that fewer animals are needed, and by retrieving information that allows any unintentional
duplication of earlier work to be avoided. Refinements include increased use of anesthetics and
analgesics to ameliorate pain and tranquilizers to relieve distress. Replacements may involve
human cell cultures obtained from cadavers or in surgery, animal cell cultures, invertebrates, or
micro-organisms. For example, the use of an invertebrate in place of a vertebrate, as in the case
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of substituting horseshoe crabs for rabbits in testing drugs for their production of fever as a side
effect, is increasingly accepted as a replacement.
The most promising in vitro methods are based on an understanding of whole-organ or
organism responses that can be related to events at the cellular or sub-cellular level. Cells
manifest a variety of reactions to toxins, including death, changes in permeability or metabolic
activity, and damage to genetic material.
ALTERNATIVES IN EDUCATION
Although far fewer animals are used in education than in either research or testing,
animal use in the classroom plays an important role in shaping societal attitudes toward this
subject. As educational goals vary from level to level, so does the use of animals and there fore
the potential for alternatives. In elementary schools, live animals are generally present solely
for observation and to acquaint students with the care and handling of different species.
Although the guidelines set by many school boards and science teachers’ associations limit the
use of living vertebrates to procedures that neither cause pain or distress nor interfere with the
animals’ health, these guidelines are not observed in all secondary schools. Science fairs are an
additional avenue for students to pursue original research. The Westinghouse Science Fair
prohibits the invasive use of live vertebrates, whereas the International Science and
Engineering Fair have no such prohibition.
In the college classroom and teaching laboratory, alternatives are being developed and
implemented because they sometimes offer learning advantages, are cheaper than animal
methods, and satisfy animal welfare concerns. As a student advances, animal use at the
postsecondary level becomes increasingly tied to research and skill acquisition. As graduate
education merges with laboratory research and training, animal use becomes largely a function
of the questions under investigation. In disciplines such as surgical training in the health
professions, some measure of animal use can be helpful but is not universally viewed as
essential.
Many alternative methods in education are already accepted practice. Replacements
include computer simulations of physiological phenomena and pharmacologic reactions, cell
culture studies, human and animal cadavers, and audiovisual materials. Clinical observation and
instruction can also replace the use of animals in some laboratory exercises in medical and
veterinary schools. Reduction techniques include the use of classroom demonstrations in place
of individual students’ animal surgery and multiple use of each animal, although subjecting an
animal to multiple recovery procedures may be viewed as inhumane and counter to refined use.
Refinements include the use of analgesics, euthanasia prior to recovery from surgery,
observation of intact animals in the classroom or in their natural habitats, and the substitution of
cold-blooded for warm-blooded vertebrates in laboratory exercises.
Humane education aspires to instill positive attitudes toward life and respect for living
animals. Instruction in proper care and handling of various species may be complemented by
exposure to the principles of animal use in research and testing and to alternative methods. This
type of education promotes attitudes conducive to the development and adoption of
alternatives.
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COMPUTER SIMULATION AND INFORMATION RESOURCES
Recent advances in computer technology hold some potential for replacing and
reducing the use of animals in research, testing, and education. In most cases, however,
research with animals will still be needed to provide basic data for writing computer software,
as well as to prove the validity and reliability of computer alternatives.In research, scientists are
developing computer simulations of cells, tissues, fluids, organs, and organ systems; Use of
such methods enables less use of some animals. Limitations on the utility of computer
simulations are due to a lack of knowledge of all the parameters involved in the feedback
mechanisms that constitute a living system, which means the information on which the
computer must depend is incomplete. In testing, computers allow toxicologists to develop
mathematical models and algorithms that can predict the biological effects of new substances
based on their chemical structure. If a new chemical has a structure similar to a known poison
in certain key aspects, the n the new substance also may be a poison. Such screening can thus
preempt some animal use.
In education, computer programs simulate class room experiments traditionally
performed with animals. The most advanced systems are video-disks that combine visual,
auditory, and interactive properties, much as a real classroom experiment would. Aside from
their direct use in research, testing and education, computers also could reduce animal use by
facilitating the flow of information about the results of research and testing. Research and
testing results are published in journals, summarized by abstracting services, discussed at
conferences, and obtained through computer databases.
One way any existing unintentional duplication might be ended, and thus animal use
reduced, is to establish or refine existing computer-based registries of research or testing data.
As alternative methods are developed and implemented, a computerized registry of information
about these novel techniques might serve to speed their adoption. In 1985, the NLM
incorporated “animal testing alternatives” as a subject heading in its catalogs and databases,
which help users throughout the world, find biomedical books, articles, and audiovisual
materials. In amending the animal Welfare Act in 1985, Congress directed the National
Agricultural Library to establish a service providing information on improved methods of
animal experimentation, including methods that could reduce or replace animal use and
minimize pain and distress to animals.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
The total cost of the acquisition and maintenance of laboratory animals is directly
related to the length of time animals stay in the laboratory. With no accurate source of data on
various species’ length of stay, it is impossible to calculate the actual total dollar cost of animal
use. Reducing the number of animals used can lower acquisition and maintenance costs.
Animal use carries with it both great expense and major economic and health benefits. None the
less, it is difficult to express many of the costs and benefits monetarily. What price does society
put on the pain and distress of an animal used in research, for example, or on the life of a
person saved by a new medical treatment that was made possible by the use of animals?
In research, there is no way of knowing when a particular result would have been
obtained if an experiment had not been done. Thus, it is impossible to predict many of the costs
related to the use of alternatives in research. Attempts to do so are likely to result in economic
predictions with little basis in fact. Rapid, inexpensive toxicity tests could yield major benefits
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to public health. There are more than 50,000 chemicals on the market and 500 to 1,000 new
ones are added each year. Not all must be tested, but toxicologists must expand their knowledge
of toxic properties of commercial chemicals if human health is to be protected to the extent the
public desires. Rapid and economical testing would facilitate the expansion of that knowledge.
Government regulatory practices can be read as promoting animal testing although the
laws and practices appear flexible enough to accept alternatives when such tests become
scientifically acceptable. To date, regulatory practices have not, in fact, provided a basis for
companies to expect that acceptance of alternative methods will be an expedient process. In
addition to responding to regulatory requirements, companies conduct animal tests to protect
themselves from product liability suits. Here, the necessary tests can exceed government
requirements.
Because of the great expense and long time required for animal research and testing,
priority in research results has considerable value to investigators and testing results bear
considerable proprietary value for industry. Some data are made public by statute, and various
arrangements can be made for sharing testing costs. Yet many data are held in confidence, for
example, by the company that generated them.
FUNDING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES
In biomedical and behavioral research, it is not clear whether targeted funding efforts
would pro-duce alternatives faster than they are already being devised. The research areas most
likely to result in useful alternatives include computer simulation of living systems; cell, tissue,
and organ culture technology; animal care and health; and mechanisms of pain and pain
perception. Funding to improve animal facilities can result in healthier, less stressed animals
and can free research from confounding variables bred by a less well defined or inferior
environment.
Alternatives to animal use in education generally build on techniques developed in
research and funded by research monies. The Government Departments related to health and
human services should make grants to medical and veterinary colleges for the development of
curriculum for training in the care of animals used in research, the treatment of animals while
being used in research, and the development of alternatives to the use of animals in research.
Colleges and universities may offer courses related to humane principles or principles of
experimentation. In addition, animal welfare groups are active sponsors in the areas of humane
education and attitudes about animals. A number of humane societies and animal welfare
groups fund research on alternatives in research, testing, or education.
Reference:
1. E. Margaret and Cooper, An Introduction to Animal Law (1987) Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, Publishers.
2. D.E. Blackman, P.N. Humphreys and P. Todd, Animal welfare and law. (Editor)
Cambridge University Press.
3. http://www.wws.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/byteserv.prl/~ota/disk2/1986/8601/860103.PDF
4. http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/index.html
5. http://www.abcinformation.org/
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15
Intellectual Property Rights
The phrase ‘necessity is the mother of invention’ underlines the basic fact that all
human endeavors are directed at fulfilling some need of humans. The returns from almost all
human endeavors can ultimately be translated into monetary gains, and the money, in turn, can
be converted into the desired material possession. Therefore, monetary profit is the single most
important, in most cases the only motive, behind man’s relentless toil, inventiveness and
ingenuity. Societies and governments have long recognized this basic fact and have devised
various ways to reward their inventors so that they were encouraged to work with greater zeal
and devotion to develop newer more useful inventions. In an ideal situation, an inventor should
get a reward that is proportionate to the benefit accruing to the society from his invention. The
earliest record of such a measure dates back to 7th century BC in the Greek colony of Saberis,
south of Italy; the discoverer of a food recipe was given the exclusive right to use this recipe for
one year. The first law on patent was passed in Venice in 1474, which gave monopoly rights
to artisans for their inventions. In 1623, the House of Commons of U.K. passed the Act of
Proprietorship (Singh, 2001).
History of Intellectual Property Rights in India
In India, innovations and novel techniques were retained within the families/small
social groups that developed them, and there was no other system of protecting their rights to
the knowledge so generated. In 1856, the then Government of India introduced the Act of
Protection of Inventions; this act was based on the British Patent Law of 1852. Later, Patents
and Designs Protection Act was passed in 1872. In 1883, the Protection of Inventions Act was
introduced; it was consolidated as Inventions and Designs Act in 1888. On August 15, 1947,
the Indian patents and designs came under the management of Controller of Patents and
Designs.
The Indian Patents Act (1970), was introduced in the parliament in 1965, was modified
in 1967 and was passed in 1970. Protection of designs is covered by the Indian Patent and
Design Act (1911) with amendments in 1978 and amended rules in 1985. Trademark
protection is in force since June 1, 1948 under the 1940 Act; this Act was amended as Indian
Trade and Merchandise Marks Act (1958), which came in force on November 25, 1959. The
copyright laws in India are as per international standards. Recently, Protection of Plant varieties
and Farmers Rights Act, 2001 and The revised Indian Patent Act, 2005, are implemented in the
country from Ist January 2005.
Intellectual Property
The dictionary meaning of property is ‘estate whether in lands, goods or money’, such
property is often referred to as tangible, material or physical property. The ownership of and
the associated rights to physical property are protected by the laws of the land. In contrast,
intellectual property is an idea, a design, an invention, a manuscript, etc., which can ultimately
give rise to a useful product/application. The development of such a property, as a rule,
requires intellectual inputs, ingenuity and innovativeness; it also demands considerable
monetary and other resources. Therefore, the inventor of an intellectual property would like to
ensure at least a fair reward for his invention. But the major problem with intellectual
properties is that they can be copied, imitated or reproduced; this minimizes the returns to the
original inventor. To recognizes the right of an inventor to derive economic benefits from his
invention (i.e. intellectual property); this right is called intellectual property rights (IPR). The
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IPR, however, is recognized by the governments only so long as it is not detrimental to the
society.
Protection of Intellectual Property Rights
The protection of IPR may take several forms depending mainly on the type of
intellectual property and the type of protection sought; each form of protection has its own
advantages and pitfalls. The main forms of IPR protection are as follows: (1) trade secrets, (2)
Trade Marks, (3) patents, (4) copyright and (5) plant breeder’s rights (PBR).
Trade Secret
When the individual/organization owning an intellectual property does not disclose the
property to any one and keeps it as a closely secret to promote his business interest, it is called
trade secret. Trade secret may relate to formulae, processes or materials. The best guarded
secret of the modern times concerns the formulation of Coca Cola. In the area of
biotechnology, materials kept as trade secret include, cell lines, microorganism strains,
production processes etc.
Advantages: Trade secrets offer the following advantages:
1.
They are for unlimited duration.
2.
It is not necessary to satisfy the rather stringent requirements for protection under, say,
patents.
3.
The costs of filing, contesting and enforcing patents is saved.
4.
The risk of someone improving upon the product, process etc. is reduced.
Limitations: Trade secrets suffer from the following drawbacks, which often out weight their
advantages.
1.
Maintaining a trade secret itself is a costly affair.
2.
It is not protected from independent innovation/invention.
3.
Non disclosure of the invention/innovation does not give others a chance to improve
upon the original invention. This prevents, or at least delays, progress in the area of a
trade secret, and society/nation/ humanity is the loser in such cases.
4.
It cannot be applied to many inventions, e.g., equipment designs, plant varieties, books
etc.
Trade Marks:
Trademarks and service marks are primarily intended to indicate the source of goods
and services and to distinguish the trademarked goods and services from others. They also
symbolize the quality of the goods or services with which they are used. Most trademarks and
service marks (called “marks”) are words, but they can be almost anything that distinguishes
one product or service from another, such as symbols, logos, sounds, designs, or even
distinctive nonfunctional product configurations. Trademarks are registered initially for 7 years
and can be renewed for further 14 year periods indefinitely. Trade marks protects your brand
image and marketing investment and can cover any “sign” capable of distinguishing your
goods and services, including sounds, smells, colours and 3D shapes etc.
Patent
A patent is the right granted by a government to an inventor to exclude others from
imitating, manufacturing, using or selling the invention in question for commercial use during
the specified period. Patents are granted for (1) an invention (including a product), (2)
innovation/improvement in an invention, (3) the process of an invention/ product and (4) a
concept.
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Patent requirements: The chief requirements for the grant of a patent are as follows: (i)
novelty, (ii) inventiveness, (iii) industrial application and usefulness, (iv) patentability, and (v)
disclosure.
Novelty: The invention must be new and should not be already known to the public.
Inventiveness: The invention should not be obvious to a person skilled in the art, and should
represent an innovation.
Industrial application and usefulness: The subject matter of the patent must have an industrial
application, either immediate or in the future, and this application should be useful to the
society/nation.
Patentability: the subject matter of the patent must be patentable under the existing law and its
current interpretation. This criterion, at present, varies from country to country and with time
within the same country.
Disclosure: The inventor is required to describe his invention in sufficient detail so that a
person of normal skill is able to reproduce it. In case of biological entitles, already known
organisms may be simply named. But if they have been genetically modified, the nature and
the method of modification has to be described fully. In addition, a sample of the
microorganism, cell line etc. being patented may be required to be deposited in the designated
culture collection; e.g., in USA and Europe, this is essential. The deposited material serves the
following purposes: (1) used as a reference in cases of disputes concerning its novelty or
unauthorized use, (2) serves as a source for the microorganisms etc. to the authorized users.
A patent may be viewed as a contract between the society and the inventor where in the
inventor discloses his invention in return for the protection granted to him by the society to
control the commercial aspects of his invention to the extent that it is not detrimental to the
society. The disclosure of an invention gives an opportunity to other inventors to improve upon
the various features of the invention so that it becomes more efficient and/or useful. This, in
turn, results in scientific and economic progress of the society/nation.
Limits of A Patent: A patent is limited both in time and space. The two basic limitations of
patents are briefly outlined below:
1.
Limitation of time: A patent it is valid for a specified period of time from the date of
award; in most countries this period is 15-20 years. The Indian Patent Act (2005) grants
protection for 20 years.
2.
Limitation of space: A patent is valid only in the country of its award; it is not valid in
other countries. A group of nations may agree to honour the patents awarded by any
member country, e.g., in European Economic Community. WTO has a similar provision
in that a patent awarded by WTO will be valid in all member countries.
Procedure of Patenting: A inventor files a properly prepared application (according to the
prescribed proforma) with the patent office of the concerned country. The application is
scrutinized by patent officials; if found unsuitable for patenting, it is returned to the inventor.
But if it is considered suitable for patenting, the invention along with adequate details of the
desired patent is published for the information of all concerned. Anyone who wishes to
challenge the award of patent can do so within a specified period of time.
In case a patent application is not challenged the patent is awarded immediately after
the expiry of this period. But if a patent is challenged, the arguments and counter arguments of
both the applicant and the person challenging the application are heard by a competent
authority of the patent office and a final decision is taken on the award of the patent. Thus, if a
patent application is rejected due to a contest following its publication, the main features of the
invention stand disclosed. The inventor can not now resort to the option of trade secret.
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Therefore, it is in the interest of an inventor to ensure, before filing a patent application, that the
application is not likely to be rejected at least on account of a contest by a third party.
The main features of the Indian Patent Act, 2005 are as under:
•
•
•
Terms of every patent has now become 20 years from date of filing.
Time for restoration of ceased patent has increased from 12 months to 18 months.
A new definition of “Invention” means a new product or process involving inventive
step and capable of industrial application; has now come in force.
• A method or process of testing during the process of manufacture will now be
patentable.
• Process defined in case of plants are now patentable while a process for diagnostic and
therapeutic has been considered as non patentable.
• A list of Authorized Depository Institutions have been notified for depositing the
biological materials mentioned in the specification at the time of filing a patent
application.
• The source of Geographical origin of the biological material used in invention is
required to be disclosed in the specification.
• The application for patent will now be examined in serial order in which the request for
examination is filed.
• Provision for filing request for examination by any other interested person has now
been introduced.
• Provision for the withdrawal of application by applicant any time before grant has been
introduced.
• Time for putting the application in order for acceptance has now been reduced from
15/18 month to 12 months.
• Ground of opposition as well as revocation have been enlarged by adding following
grounds:
i)
Non disclosure or wrongly mentioning the source of geographical origin or
biological material used for invention.
ii)
Anticipation having regard to the knowledge oral or otherwise available within
local or indigenous community in India or elsewhere.
• Provision for extension of time up to 6 months for paying the overdue renewal
fees initially i e. renewal fees, which have become due, due to the late grant of
patent can now be paid within 9 months from the date or record by taking an
extension.
• Charges for supplying the photocopies of the documents available in the patent
office have now been reduced from Rs. 10/- to Rs. 4/- per page.
• Charges for amendments on name, address, nationality & address for service,
payable on Form-13 have been drastically reduced from Rs. 1000/6000 to Rs.
200/500.
• Patent applications are required to be filed only in duplicate.
• Fees required to be paid on documents can now be paid within 1 month from
its date of filing.
Copyright
Certain intellectual properties are not patentable; they are protected by copyright.
Examples of such properties are authored and edited books, audio an video cassettes etc. A
person holding the copyright to, say, a book has the right to exclude others from reproducing
the book in any form. The copyright of a book may be held by the author, editor, or the
publishers. Recently, computer software has been included in the list of copyrightable
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properties. The copyright is limited both in time and extent; it provides protection for a
specified period, and only from reproduction as such of copyright material in toto or in part. It,
however, does not prevent another person from using either the idea or the information
contained in a copyright material. The Indian copyright laws are at par with international
standards.
Plant Breeder’s rights (PBR)
Plant varieties and animal breeds are developed through years of painstaking and
scientifically planned work. These entities, therefore, should be regarded as intellectual
properties of the breeders who have developed them. Many countries recognize plant varieties
as an intellectual property and grant a protection to them through a patent (in USA) or a
suitable form of plant breeders rights (PBR) (USA, Japan, Australia, European Union, Israel,
etc.).
Plant varieties are generally protected in several countries through plant breeder’s
rights (PBRs) or plant variety rights (PVR). Through these rights, further propagation of the
variety is restricted. Under the earlier convention (of 1978) due to ‘International Union for the
Protection of New Varieties (UPOV)’, the breeder’s rights did not prohibit the farmer from
reuse (plant back) of farm saved seed of a variety from his own harvest for planting another
crop. Furthermore, the protected plant variety could be freely used earlier as a plant genetic
resource for the purpose of breeding other varieties. Since the revised UPOV convention (of
1991) extends PBR to cover the reuse, under this provision, the farmers can not use his own
seed without paying a royalty to the PBR holder. However, most countries are expected to
limit the PBR with regard to farmer’s plantback, although a farmer will not be able to sell the
seed. Enforcement of such rights as above, in case of freely reproducible material, is only
possible with large holdings of land, as in case of plantations or in very large farms, and in case
of high value cash crops (e.g. cashew, spices, medicinal plants, etc.). Even in these cases,
infringements are difficult to prove. When ‘patents’ or ‘plant breeder’s rights’ are not available
for breeding crop varieties, plant breeder (particularly private plant breeder in developed
countries like Germany) may feel tempted to focus their efforts on developing hybrid varieties.
because hybrids do not breed true and give higher yields, no one would raise a crop from
harvested seed that will give reduced yield. Thus hybrid varieties may give the plant breeder an
advantage, which is equivalent to intellectual property protection.
PBR has analogies to patents, but there are also important differences. Rights are
granted for a limited period (usually 20 years) to the breeder. Breeder seeking PBR can not
seek exclusive rights for a unique feature of his variety, although under patent this is allowed.
For instance, using PBR, a breeder of the first ‘blue rose’ cannot monopolize blue colour of
rose. It will be open to other breeders to breed and protect blue roses, which are distinct from
the first variety having blue roses. In contrast to this, under a patent, flower colour of roses can
be protected. A PBR protected variety must fulfill some requirements. It should be (i) new, (ii)
distinct, (iii) uniform and (iv) stable. ‘New’ means, the variety should not have been previously
exploited commercially. ‘Distinct’ means, it should be clearly distinguishable from all other
varieties known at the date of application for protection. ‘Uniform’ means that all plants of the
variety should be sufficiently uniform. ‘Stable’ means that the variety can be reproduced and
multiplied without losing its characteristics and uniformity.
In India, new crop varieties are bred at state Agricultural Universities and at state
Departments of Agriculture. The seed of new crop varieties flows freely to farmers and to the
private companies and no royalty is payable. This really encouraged farmers in the past, to
grow new varieties leading to green revolution. Any provisions of patents for crop varieties in
India will lead to the following problems: (i) the cost of seed will increase; (ii) there will be
delay in the spread of new variety to a small segments of farmers.
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If multinational companies are allowed patents on crop varieties in India to encourage
them to invest in seed research and development, they will have monopoly. The farmer will not
be allowed to export or supply seed multiplied by him to other farmers. This may not be in the
interest of Indian Agriculture at least for many years to come. In the present circumstances, for
India, following options are available: (i) uniform patenting of all inventories including plants;
(ii) patenting of plants not obligatory, but plant breeder’s rights (PBRs) obligatory; (iii)
complete exclusion of plant varieties from any form of IPR. The third option allows the present
practice to continue, where complete freedom for introduction and promotion of new varieties
is allowed. This option is considered by some to be the best for Indian Agriculture at least for
the time being although there is considerable pressure from developed countries on India to
accept some form of IPR.
In 1991, an international debate on ‘Biotechnology and Farmers’ Rights: Opportunities and
Threats for Small Scale Farmers in Developing Countries” was organized in Amsterdam, The
Netherlands. Following are some of the recommendations made towards the concept of
farmers’ rights: (i) Plant breeders’ rights should be maintained. (ii) Patent legislation should not
be extended to genetic material of plants and animals and there should be legal sanctions
prescribed in this connection. (iii) An ‘International Gene fund’ be established, and used to
compensate the local communities in the Third World including farmers and farm communities
(not the individual farmers) for their past and present contributions. Payment towards this fund
by member countries will be obligatory and the amount will be based on the degree of profit,
which the users of the genetic material derive from it. The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) held in 1992 took further steps to establish an
international fund, which gave substance to the ‘principle of farmers’ rights’ and also to the
concept that genetic resource is a ‘heritage of mankind’ as embodies in the FAO Undertaking’
formulated in 1990.
Plant breeders rights are the rights granted by the governing to a plant breeder,
originator or owner of a variety to exclude others from producing or commercializing the
propagating material of that variety for a period of, minimally, 15-20 years. To qualify for
PBR protection, a variety has to be novel, distinct from existing varieties and uniform and
stable in its essential characteristics. The protected (PVP) variety will be known as the Initial
variety. A variety developed from initial variety through back cross method, mutation or using
rDNA technology which retain most of the characters of a initial variety and having one or two
additional characters like disease or insect resistance etc. will be known as Essentially Derived
Variety (EDV) . The PBR titile holder for the essentially derived variety will be same as that
of initial variety. All notified varieties which are in cultivation at the farmers field and not
protected ones will be known as the Extant varieties. A person holding PBR title to a variety
can authorize other interested persons/ organizations to produce and sell the propagating
material of that variety. He should set reasonable terms for such transfer of PBR titles or for
the sale of the propagating materials; otherwise the government can grant licenses of the titles
in public interest.
It is important that the object of protection in PBR is the variety, and that genetic
components and the breeding procedures are not protectable. In addition, PBR systems also
contain some form of ‘breeders’ exemption ( under the existing laws, a breeder is authorized to
use the PVP variety in his breeding programme for the development of a new variety without
the permission of the PBR title holder of the initial variety. The PBR title will be given to the
breeder who developed the new variety) and ‘farmers’ privilege.
India has developed its own PBR system under sui generis and Protection of
Plant Varieties and Farmers Right Act (PPV&FRA), 2001 has been passed by the Parliament
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and the same has been implement in the country from Ist January 2005. The main features of
the PPV & FRA are:
•
2.
•
•
3.
•
•
4.
•
•
•
•
•
•
5.
•
•
6.
•
7.
•
•
•
•
Protection of Plant Varieties & Farmers’ Rights (PVP) authority will be vested
with necessary powers to perform all function relating to the protection of plant
varieties.
• The Authority will consist of Chairperson and 15 Members, Chairperson to be
appointed by the Central Government.
• A Standing Committee will advise the Authority on all issues including
Farmer’s Rights.
• Registrar General will be the Ex-officio Member Secretary of the Authority.
Registration of Plant Varieties:
Registration of new varieties, as notified by the Central Government.
Registration of extant varieties include varieties available in India which are notified
under Section 5 knowledge/variety which is in public domain.
Criteria for Registration:
For now varieties- new (novel), distinctiveness, uniformity and stability.
For Extant Varieties- distinctiveness, uniformity, stability as specified/ relaxed by the
Authority.
Registration and period of Protection:
Breeder to furnish information on geographical location from where plant genetic
material has been taken for development of the new variety.
Certificate of registration issues by the Registrar will prescribe the conditions of
entitlement.
For new plant varieties- 15 years for annual crops and 18 years for trees and vines.
For extant varieties- 15 years from the date of registration/date on notification in case
of varieties notified under Seeds Act.
One time renewal at the end of six years in case of annual crops and 9 years in case of
trees and vines, on payment of prescribed fee.
Registration will be forfeited if the annual fee is not paid.
Exclusion of certain varieties:
Plant Varieties can be excluded from registration in case where prevention of
commercial exploitation of such varieties is necessary to protect public order or public
modality or human, animal and plant life and health or to avoid serious prejudice to the
environment.
Registration of plant varieties will not be allowed if the variety in question involves any
technology such as ‘Genetic Use Restriction Technology’ and ‘Terminator
Technology’, which is injurious to the life or health of human beings, animals or plants.
Researches’ Rights:
Use of any variety registered under this Act will be allowed for conducting experiment
or research and using it as an initial source for creating other varieties.
Farmers’ Rights:
Farmer who has bred or developed a new variety to be entitled for protection as a
breeder of a variety.
Farmers’ variety as part of the extant variety will be entitled for registration/protection.
Farmer, who is engaged in conservation of genetic resources of land races, wildrelatives etc., entitled for recognition and reward from the National Gene Fund.
Farmers will be entitled to save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange, share or sell his farm
produce including seed or a variety, protected under this Act, with the exception that he
will not be entitled to sell branded seed of a protected variety.
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•
Rights of communities in the evolution of any variety for the purpose of staking a claim
will be accepted.
• Protection extended to farmers for innocent infringement of provisions of this Act.
• Compensation to be given to farmers if the registered variety does not meet the
promised level of performance under given conditions.
• National Gene Fund to be utilised for making payment for benefit sharing,
compensation to communities etc. and supporting the activities relating to conservation
and sustainable use of genetic resources.
8. Compulsory License:
• PVP Authority will have power to make order for compulsory license in certain
circumstances when sufficient quantity of seeds of protected variety, at reasonable
price, not available.
9. Tribunal :
• Plant varieties Protection Appellate Tribunal to be constituted to examine appeals
from PVP Authority and Registrar.
• Tribunal shall consist of a Chairman and Judicial and Technical members.
10. Penalties :
• Provisions for penalties against offences/infringement of plant breeders’ rights.
11. Miscellaneous :
• Provisions authorising the Government of India to issue directions to PVP Authority in
the public interest.
12. Present Status :
• The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Right Act, 2001 has implemented from
1/1/2005 under sui generis system.
A Comparison among UPOV Acts and Patents
The UPOV member countries were following the UPOV 1978 Act. This act is now
revised as UPOV 1991 Act. The essential changes made in UPOV 1991 Act are as
follows:
1.
Coverage is extended to varieties of all plant genera and species in place of the nationally
defined plant species of UPOV 1978 Act.
2.
The requirement of novelty has been added to the existing requirements of
distinctiveness, uniformity and stability under UPOV 1978 Act.
3.
The minimum duration of protection has been increased to 20 years from the existing
provision of 15 years under UPOV 1978 Act.
Farmer’s Privilege
PBR systems generally allow the farmers to use the material of a protected variety
produced on their farm for planting of their new crop without any obligation to the PBR title
holder. This exemption is usually referred to as farmers’ privilege. Under the UPOV 1978
Act, there was explicit provision for farmer’s privilege. But in the proposed UPOV 1991 Act,
this privilege was withdrawn. But in the face of strong opposition from various corners, the
privilege has been made ‘optional’ so that it is upto each UPOV member state to allow the
farmers to use the seed of a PBR-protected variety for propagation purposes on their own
holdings.
It should be clearly understood that farmers privilege applies to the use of seed
produced by a farmer for sowing ‘his own’ fields. It does not extend to seed produced by
another farmer. Thus PBR does not allow farmers to exchange seeds of protected varieties
produced on their farms.
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Farmer’s privilege is a very important provision or countries like India, where about 90
per cent of the total cropped area is sown by seeds produced by the farmers themselves. In fact,
the total availability of new quality seeds is < 10%. In addition, a majority of the farmers are
poor and will be subject to unjust economic burden if they are forced to pay a royalty on the
seed produced and used by them. Under the provision of the Indian PPV&FRA, a farmer can
use the seed of a protected variety produced in his own field not only for its resowing in the
next year but he can exchange the seeds with other farmer also.
Farmer’s Rights
Agriculture began some 10,000 years ago. During this vast period of time genetic
resources have been selected, developed, used and conserved by farmer families and farming
communities of, particularly, the gene rich developing countries. These same materials have
been and are being collected, conserved and used as raw materials to evolve the modern high
yielding varieties of various crops. Seeds sales of these improved varieties earn huge profits for
the seed corporations.
It has been argued that the farmers should be allowed a share in this profit in
recognition of their contribution by way of the development of germplasms of the various
crops. This has been recognized by FAO (Resolution No. 5/89) as farmer’s rights, which arise
from the past, present and future contributions of farmers in conserving, improving and making
available plant genetic resources, particularly in the centers of origin/diversity. It has been
emphasized that the farmer’s rights should be obligatory and should not be relegated as
privileges.
The key questions relating to farmers rights remain as to whom to reward, to what
extent and in what manner. It has been suggested that tribal people, rural communities and
traditional farming families deserve consideration. The quantum of reward has also been
debated, and one suggestion is for 5 per cent of the profits.
Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPV&FRA) 2001 of India :
After several years of deliberations and several amendments in the original draft, the
latest draft of “Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act” (PPV&FRA), 2001 was
passed by the Parliament (Lok Sabha) in August 2001. The President also give his assent to the
Bill on November 5, 2001, so that the Bill was notified as Act No. 53 of 2001, in the Gazette of
India. It was to be enforced from a date that was to be notified by the Union Minister of
Agriculture. As a signatory to the Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
agreement under the World Trade Organization (WTO) regime, it was mandatory for the
Government of India to enact law to provide for protection of plant varieties either by patents or
by a sui generis system (a unique set of laws) or by a combination of both. In the PPV&FRA,
the provisions relating to breeders’ rights are more or less the same as recognized by the
International Union for the Protection of New Varieties (UPOV). One of the most important
feature of this bill is that it grants Farmers’ Rights by recognizing framers as breeders,
cultivators and conservators of the seeds in their possession. It allows the farmers to use for
resowing or sell their harvested seed, although they will not be allowed to sell the seed under a
brand name. In other words the farmers will not be able to sell their harvested seed to another
farmer for the purpose of raising a crop for commercial seed production. A farmer will also be
able to register a variety developed by him, provided it conforms to the criteria of novelty,
distinctiveness, uniformity and stability. India is the first country in the world which has
provided for Farmers’ rights in their Protection of Plant Variety Act. The bill also grants
breeders the rights to conduct research with a branded variety in order to create a new variety,
but distinguishes between a new variety and an essentially derived variety (EDV). This bill
provides for the establishment of a National Gene Fund, which would facilitate ‘benefit
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sharing’ between the farmers and any body interested in their knowledge. The bill also calls
for setting up of the ‘Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Authority’
which will consider applications for granting breeder’s rights to a new variety and will also
give permission to use an EDV. The PPV&FRA has been discussed widely by plant breeders
and NGOs. Both positive and negative aspects have been brought out.
Implementation of PPV&FRA
For the implementation of PPV&FRA, the following two institutions have also been
envisaged: (i) a ‘Plant Variety and Farmers Rights (PV&FR) Authority’, which is an executive
body; at the office of this Authority, there is also a provision for setting up of a ‘Plant Varieties
Registry’, which will maintain the ‘National Register of Plant Varieties’; (ii) Plant Varieties
Protection Appellate Tribunal, which will entertain appeals against the decisions of the
Authority.
The PPV&FR Authority will encourage development of varieties by the breeders and
the farmers, who can register their varieties with the Plant Variety Registry. After the
registration of varieties, one can submit applications claiming benefits and the Authority will
decide on these claims. The authority will also ensure that the seeds of registered varieties are
available to the farmers. If at any time, the breeder holding the rights can not make available
an adequate supply of seeds needed by the farmers, then the authority can ask another seed
producer to produce the seed of this variety under the provision of compulsory licence.
The PPV&FR Authority has 15 members, with following composition (i) eight
positions are reserved for Central Government Officials, (ii) five members from different
organizations including one position each for farmers organization, tribal organization,
women’s organization, seed industry and agricultural university, (iii) two positions for state
government. The Authority thus has a strongly bureaucratic composition.
National Gene Fund.
In order to implement the concept of Farmers’ Rights, PPV&FRA provides for another
unique concept of establishing a ‘National Gene Fund’. This fund will draw its monetary
resources from the following: (i) the money received from commercial plant breeders for
benefit sharing; (ii) money received as annual royalty payable by seed companies; (iii) money
received as compensation for rewarding communities; (iv) financial contribution from any
national and international organization or similar other sources.
The above Fund will be used for financial reward to any farmer, who is ‘engaged in the
conservation of genetic resources of land races and wild relatives of economic plants, and in
their improvement through selection and preservation’. Such farmers will have to make an
application to the Fund in this regard. There is also a provision in the Act that if any person, a
group of people, a firm, or a government or non-government organization (NGO) feels that it
has also contributed to the development of a variety, it can also submit its claim for benefit
sharing.
Plant Variety Protection (PVP)
The PBR system is considered in some detail a little later, while PVP situation in USA
is described here briefly.
In USA, three different systems are available for protection of IPR related to plants: (1)
Plant Patents Act (1930), (2) Utility Patents Act (1985) and (3) Plant Variety Protection Act
(1970).
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1.
The Plant Patents Act (1930) covers varieties of asexually propagated crops, e.g.,
ornamental and fruit trees. The application procedure requires a detailed description of
the variety, and is usually handled by patent lawyers.
2.
The Plant Variety Protection Act of 1970 is US version of the plant breeders rights
system followed by the European Union and several other countries.
3.
The Utility Patents Act (1985) was originally meant to cover man-made industrial
inventions and processes. ‘Non obviousness’ is the main criterion of utility patents.
Patents to plant varieties are now being granted under the provisions of this act (during
1997-98, 55 patents were granted to maize varieties and 40 for soybean varieties).
Utility patents are considered to be the most powerful and most expansive in scope of
their coverage; a single patent may cover several varieties, an entire species/genus,
genes/ proteins or technology and processes.
International Harmonization of Patent Laws
Patents have only territorial validity, and obtaining patents is costly and time
consuming. Therefore, IPR protection in more than one country requires patents to be taken in
each country, which multiplies the cost involved. In addition, patent laws of different countries
are variable. In view of these, developed countries have been trying to harmonize patent laws
of different countries and also to find acceptable means of extending the territorial validity of
patents.
The first concrete effort in this direction was the Paris Convention for the Protection of
Industrial Property signed in 1983. It established equal protection of industrial IPR under the
laws of member countries for both nationals and residents of other member countries of the
convention. It also allows inventors to claim priority in all the member countries by filing a
patent application initially in one member state. The Paris Convention has 100 member states;
India has joined the Paris Convention on December 7, 1998.
The provisions of Paris and subsequent conventions on IPR are administered, but not
enforced, by the world Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Geneva. WIPO operates by
asking member states to ratify a convention and to introduce the agreed basic principles into
their national laws.
The European Patent Convention (EPC) began to operate in 1978 and has 17 member
states. EPC was the first to introduce specific provisions for biotechnology inventions,
including (1) the need for depositing cultures of microorganisms for which patents are sought
and (2) exclusion of plant and animal varieties bred through classical methods from patent
coverage.
TRIPs
The TRIPs (Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights) agreement, which forms a part
of the Uruguay Round to GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; signed by India and
other states), is to date the most comprehensive multilateral agreement on IPR; it became
effective on January 1, 1995. The provisions of GATT are administered and enforced by
World Trade Organization, Geneva. The member countries of WTO are obliged to meet all the
articles of TRIPS. They have been given a period of 5 years for the least developed countries.
The provision of TRIPS cover a variety of intellectual properties, including patents and
protection of new varieties of plants. Each member country has the option to frame its patent
laws within the broad framework defined in the GATT agreement (Ganguli, 1998).
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India and TRIPS
In 1997, USA complained to WTO that India has failed to meet the basic commitments
to TRIPS. The Dispute Settlement Body of WTO observed that India has failed to provide the
‘mail box’ system of protection to the concerned products, and to establish a system for the
grant of exclusive marketing rights to such patents. Ultimately, India has been given time till
April, 1999 to make the above provisions, failing which USA could call for appropriate
sanctions. India has consented to do the needful within this period.
India is required to change its patent laws as per the broad framework of TRIPS latest
by 2004. The new patent act is expected to differ from the Indian Patent Act (1970) in respect
of the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Product patents will be allowed in all fields of technology without exception.
All patents will be for a duration of 20 years.
The power of the Government of India to grant compulsory licence in public interest is
likely to be heard before grant of such a licence.
No discrimination may be made between importee and domestic products in deciding
whether a patent is working or not.
The ‘burden of proof’ will be on the alleged infringer of a patent, i.e., the alleged party
has to prove that it has not caused the alleged infringement.
The new patent bill was introduced in the Rajya Sabha in December, 1998.
Protection of Biotechnological Inventions
Biotechnological inventions are concerned with life forms and involve one or more of
the following:
1.
2.
3.
Various methods/processes of generating useful biotechnological products.
Various biotechnological products, e.g., antibiotics, purified vitamins etc.
Applications of the various processes/products, e.g., application of a biocontrol agent to
manage a pest, use of a specified promoter for regulation of gene action in transgenic
organisms, etc.
4.
Various microorganisms, cell lines, plant/animals lines obtained through
biotechnological approaches.
5.
Various DNA sequences and the proteins encoded, if any, by them.
6.
Biotechnological processes/technologies for modification of the properties of various
organisms.
The various production processes and the products obtained from them are ordinarily
protected by patents, and so are the applications of these products. However, international
conventions do not permit patenting of processes of product applications concerning alleviation
of human diseases. For example, techniques of surgery are not patentable. Similarly, the use of
a product for treatment, diagnosis or prevention of disease can not be patented.
The European Patent Office (EPO) has suggested that isolation of a subsistence from
nature is merely a ‘discovery’ and, therefore, should not be patentable. However, the process
developed for the isolation of this product is patentable. But if the substance is characterized
and is found to be ‘new’ having ‘no previously recognized’ existence, the substance per se
should be patentable. In USA, the US Patents and Trademark Office (USPTO) held that natural
products were not patentable. But in 1977, the US Court of Customs and Appeals clarified that,
although a natural product per se is not patentable, a new ‘form’ or ‘composition’ of the
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product can be patented. This decision has provided the basis for patenting of purified natural
products considering them as ‘new forms’ or ‘composition’ of the product.
The processes used for genetic modification of various organism are patentable
virtually in all countries, including India. We will first examine the status of patentability of
DNA sequences and life forms, and then turn to the question of their desirability.
Patenting of Genes and DNA Sequences
An artificially synthesized gene is considered patentable in almost all developed
countries. The patenting of genes isolated from naturally occurring organisms, however, is
rather controversial. Patents are now allowed on such genes in USA; the first patent was
awarded for the gene AroA isolated from a mutant bacterial strain and intended for transfer into
plants to confer glyphosate resistance. The patent for AroA is held by Calgene, Inc., USA in
terms of a DNBA sequence containing this gene. The US patent statute (35 USC 101) requires
an invention to be ‘useful’ for being patented. The term ‘useful’ has been interpreted to mean
‘practical utility’. Many genes/DNA sequences may not have any known practical utility at the
time of their isolation and, as a result, would not be patentable. But this requirement was
relaxed and patent awarded for isolated genes, vectors and transformed cells expressing the
hormone angiogenesis factor (AGF), which increases vascularization. When the patent
application for AGP was filed in 1985, there was no known practical utility for AGF. Thus,
USA, as in other cases, is making radical changes in its attitude towards patenting of genes and
DNA sequences.
Gene Patents and Genetic Resources
The developing countries are technology poor, but gene rich. In contrast, developed
countries are technology rich but gene poor. For example, not a single crop of significance
grown in USA had originated there. Coupled with this, developing countries are also
characterized by limited financial capabilities, usually weak infrastructure and a misplaced
sense of social and ethical values. In contrast, developed countries are strong financially, wellequipped infrastructurally and, in general, have a society responsive to challenges of a changing
world agricultural/technological scenario.
The developed countries have made extensive collections of germplasm of all
important crops, conserved and characterized them and are now deploying them for the
development of new improved cultivars. Atleast, few developing countries have made adequate
efforts to collect, conserve and characterize the germplasms of their own crops, let alone to
speak of collections from elsewhere. A time may soon come when many developing countries
may virtually depend for their germplasm supply on the developed countries, the price gat of
which is likely to match the need. This in itself is a disastrous possibility and should be
avoided by every nation. But the moral issues (e.g. germplasm is a common heritage of
humanity etc.) concerning such a situation are another story, but often money speaks louder
than morals.
Another aspect of germplasm collections made from the developing nations relates to
the patenting of useful genes isolated from them by the organizations of developed countries.
The use for genetic transformation of such a gene by anyone may be prohibited or at least
would carry a suitable fee. Thus it is ironical that the country/countries which was/were the
source of a gene may not be allowed/ may be charged a free for the use of same gene.
The story of rice gene Xa 21, which specifies resistance to bacterial leaf blight (caused
by Xanthomonas oryzae), would illustrate this point. This gene was originally discovered by
R.C. Chaudhary working in Patna (Bihar) in the wild species Oryza longistaminata, a native of
Male. Subsequently, Dr. G.S. Khush working at IRRI, Philippines transferred it into O. sativa,
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named it as Xa 21 and located it on chromosome 11. This material was passed onto Dr.
Tanksley (USA) who identified the molecular markers flanking Xa 21. Ultimately, Xa 21 was
isolated at University of California, Davis (USA) and patented. The use of Xa 21, therefore, is
now controlled by its patent holder, although O. longistaminata, from which this gene was
isolated, was collected from male, Africa.
Patenting of Life Forms
Life forms, e.g., microorganisms, plants and animals are not patentable in India under
the provisions of Indian Patent Act (1970). However, patents can be obtained for various
biotechnological processes and product applications within the limitation of international
conventions. In USA, European Union and other developed countries, microorganisms isolated
from nature or obtained by simple mutagenesis and or selection from natural isolates are not
considered patentable. In USA, the first patent to a microorganisms was allowed by the
American Supreme court in 1980. Soon after in 1981, a patent was allowed in European
Union for a microorganism by EPO. Among the higher organisms, plants were the first to be
patented in USA, in 1985, a maize line overproducing tryptophan was allowed a patent. Patent
of plant bodies is now a common practice in USA.
In addition to patent protection, plant materials can also be protected under a
system of PBR. Animal materials are protected by patents. USA again was the trendsetter in
this regard; the first animal patent in the world was awarded in USA in 1988 to ‘oncomouse’.
Subsequently, other animal patents have been allowed in USA, e.g., of a polyploid oyster
produced by applying hydrostatic pressure to zygotes. In USDA, ‘non-naturally occurring,
non-human multicellular organisms’ are now considered patentable by the US Patent and
Trademark Office.
Should Life Forms Be Patented?
‘Can life forms be protected?’ is more a valid question as they are being patented in
USA, European Union and Japan. The arguments for award of such patents are various, but the
major considerations underlying them all are simply the monetary benefits and the associated
impetus to biotechnological inventions resulting from them. It is argued with reasonable
justification that an effective protection of biotechnological inventions, including life forms will
encourage multinational corporations (MNCs) to infest in research efforts in this area. This, in
turn, would lead to newer and more and more useful innovations in increasingly newer fields.
These will ultimately result in increasingly greater economic benefits to all concerned,
including the society at large, which will have an access to more useful and cheaper products
and services generated through biotechnology.
It may be safely stated that the primary motivations in commercial activities is profit.
The opportunities of deriving profits from inventions depend, if other factors were comparable,
on the extent and degree of protection awarded to their IPR by a nation. Therefore, MNCs and
other commercial houses will selectively invest in research and development (R&D) efforts in
those areas where greater and more effective protection is available. Thus in the issue of IPR
protection, inventors (MNCS and others) constitute one party their chief concern is
maximization of the economic returns on their inventions.
The society, however, does not confine its concerns to only economic aspects; it is also
alive to moral, ethical, environmental, social and political issues. In addition, a society is rarely
a homogenous mass; it consist of a variety of interest groups each focusing more on some
separate issue. The various objections raised against patenting of life forms are largely ethical
and political in nature. Many non-government organizations (NGOs) have filed legal
objections to the issuance of patent on the oncomouse in Europe. In USA, USPTO has awarded
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patents on plants and animals, as an administrative decision; the legal validity of these patents
is not yet clear as the US Supreme Court is yet to pronounce its judgement on patenting of life
forms other than microorganisms.
Thus society becomes the second party in the issue of IPR protection. In general, one
or the other segment of the society will like to exclude some or the other subjects from patent
protection. The role of civil judicial system, therefore, becomes a critical input in the issue
since it has to arbiter all such disputes between the two opposing parties. The judicial system
also comes into play in cases brought before it for the enforcement of various IPS. There is
enough evidence that atleat US judiciary has become more and more liberal in the
interpretations of various requirements for a subject matter to be patentable. One can only hope
that the judiciary will strike a just and equitable balance between the often conflicting interests
of the inventor and the society so as to simultaneously promote both biotechnological
inventions as well as the welfare of humanity.
IPR and Developing Countries
It may be pointed out that biotechnological inventions demand huge financial inputs.
Therefore, developed nations hold a great edge over developing nations in terms of obtaining
biotechnological and other high technology patents. Patent activity is greatly concentrated in
Europe, USA and Japan. In India, the average total number of patent applications filed each
year during the period 1974-1994 was merely 3,500; this rose to nearly 5,000 in 1995. (In
contrast, the global number of new applications during 1994 was 629,611). A scrutiny of the
patents awarded during 1974-1994 reveals the major player to be transnational companies lie
Hindustan Lever, Hoechst, Johnson & Johnson, Sandoz, CIBA, Colgate Palmolive, Pfizer,
Nesle and Lucas. Very few Indian companies like Bajaj had patented their innovations. More
recently, other national companies like Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories, Ranbaxy, Lupin Laboratories
have begum patenting their innovations. But MNCs like Nordisk, Eli Lily, BASF, Englehart
etc. have also begun aggressive patent filing sin India.
It is feared that high biotechnological innovations requiring huge financial resources
and a very high degree of skill (scientific and otherwise), sophistication, motivation and
commitment would further increase the gap in IPR holdings of developed and developing
nations. In addition, holding an IPR and benefiting from it are two entirely different issues.
Therefore, Indian needs to do many radical things and at a rapid pace in order to withstand the
economic burdens imposed by the changing IPR scenario.
Broad Patents in Biotechnology
Most patents in biotechnology, especially agricultural biotechnology are rather broad in
nature. Such broad patents are considered morally unacceptable and fundamentally inequitable.
They clearly demonstrate that the IPR protection system went out of control in these cases.
Such protections, if allowed and continued in future, will work only for financially powerful
corporations. It is feared that ultimately these corporations will acquire monopoly control over
biotechnological modifications of even such crops that feed and sustain mankind. They may
even acquire legal right to determine the future of high-tech research for the entire segment of
agriculture and plant breeding and, thereby, dictate terms and conditions for future agricultural
research. Such a situation would be detrimental to scientific and technological progress, and
would pose a threat to global food security.
The Patent Imbroglio
Development of genetic engineering products requires several technologies and/or raw
materials. For example, production of a transgenic plant would require the following: (1) an
otherwise outstanding variety of the concerned crop, (2) suitable promoters and/or enhancer
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sequences, (3) appropriate reporter genes, (4) the gene specifying the concerned trait, (5)
appropriate genetic transformation method and, sometimes, (6) a specific technology, e.g.,
antisense technology for suppression of endogenous genes. Products developed using a
patented technology/raw material can not be commercialized without a licence. Patent/licence
holders generally do not raise questions of infringement during the research and development
phase, and prefer to wait till the product (in this case, a transgenic plant) is ready to be
marketed.
At that time, the patent/licence holders initiate legal proceedings claiming
infringement. Any misinformation/ miscalculation in this regard may have costly repercussions
later. The various options available to an inventor in case of use of patented processes/
products is an invention are summarized as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Licence of the product/process may be obtained.
The inventor may enter into a collaboration with the patent/licence holder.
An effort may be made for cross-licensing.
If the patent/licence is held by a company, merger/take over may be attempted.
The patented technology/product may be suitably replaced by another
technology/product for which the inventor holds patent/licence or can acquire the same.
It can be easily seen that IPR regimes have greatly complicated the commercial aspects
of biotechnological products. In several cases, these complications have resulted in legal
battles, and also in delayed marketing of the products.
Geographical Indications Act 1999
Another aspect of IPRs concerning genetic resources involves geographical indications
(GIS), which are products owing their origin or reputation to a geographical region.
Geographical Indication Act (GIA) was cleared by the Parliament in the year 1999 and was
expected to come into force during the year 2001-02. According to this Act, any traditional
produce can be registered as GI and given GI protection, although one may like to register only
those products, which are remunerative. GI registration in India will be the first step towards
international protection for indigenous products. Under TRIPS agreement, a product has to be
protected in its home country and has to be sufficiently distinctive to be recognized as a GI, so
that others are excluded from using these products for commercial gains. The National Institute
of Design has also been asked to create a logo, which will be used to identify products, which
have been given GI registration. The same logo will be used for all GI registered products,
specifying the Indian origin of the product (Gupta,2003).
According to the GI Act, only a registered body can apply for GI and the applications
can be made to GI registry in Chennai. The registrar will decide, if the product qualifies for GI
registration. The government has already identified 25 associations, which should get a GI
registration for their products. These products include Kashmiri carpets, Moradabadi brass,
Mysore silk, Kanjivaram sarees and Bidriware from Karnataka. Tea Board, Coffee Board and
Spices Board are also being contacted in this connection, so that products like Darjeeling tea
will also be registered as a geographical indication (GI). The central government will also
work with state governments and NGOs working with artisans to identify other items, which
should be registered.
References :
Gupta, P.K. (2003). Biotechnology and Genomics. Rastogi Publishers, Meerut.
Singh, B.D. (2001). Intellectual Property Rights. In: Plant Breeding : Principles and Methods.
Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
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16
Implication of WTO for Indian Agriculture: The case
of Intellectual Property Rights and Emerging Biosafety Protocol
Globalisation in trade and investment through harmonisation of national laws,
particularly dealing with intellectual property rights is one of the major impacts of
GATT/WTO. The intellectual property rights deal with the reciprocity in rights and
responsibilities of inventors and society at large. In lieu of the disclosure of the patented
innovation or invention, the society agrees to recognise the right of inventor to exclude others
not authorised, from commercial exploitation of the invention. It is a kind of social contract
between society and the inventor. Society gains by getting access to the inventive process and
product, which can be used by other inventors for making improvements as well as developing
substantive new innovations. Inventor benefits by having incentive to invest himself/herself or
assign it to some one else interested in commercial exploitation of the invention. If others could
easily copy the invention as often happens in the case of process patents, then investors will not
make major investments and inventors will have no incentive to disclose.
WTO is the only organization which deals with the rules of trade between nations. It is
the rules based member driven organization. All the decisions are made by member govt. and
the rules are the outcome of negotiation. WTO is the successor to the GATT (GENERAL
AGGREMENT ON TARIFF AND TRADE). THE GATT was launched at GENEVA in 1948
by 23 countries including India. Establishment of GATT was a part of efforts to reshape the
world economy after the Second World War (1939-45).Multilateral trading system was
developed through a series of negotiation held under the GATT. 8th round of trade negotiation
(Uruguay round) during 1986-94 leads to creation of WTO. WTO was established on 1st
JAN.1995. INDIA became a founder member of WTO by ratifying the WTO agreement on 30
DEC.1994.
FUNCTION OF WTO
• Administering trade agreements.
• Forum for trade negotiation.
• Handling trade disputes.
• Monitoring national trade policies.
• Technical assistance and training for developing countries.
• Co-operation with other international organization.
• Lowers the trade barrier, facilitates rapid expansion of trade.
The agreement on agri. Contains provisions in 3 broad areas :
• MARKET ACCESS
• DOMESTIC SUBSIDIES/SUPPORT
• EXPORT SUBSIDIES
Market access:
i. Tariffication of all non tariff barriers: non tariff barriers like quantitative restriction,
export and import licensing, quota etc. are replaced by tariff to provide the same level of
protection.
ii. All these tariffs are to be reduced by 36% over 6 year period in case of developed
countries whereas for developing countries it is 24% over 10 year period.
iii. Setting up the minimum level for import of agril. products as a share of domestic
consumption:
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iv. Countries are required to maintain the current level of access for each individual
product.
Where the current level of import is negligible the minimum access should not be less than
3% of domestic consumption.
v. Tariff quotas are to be established when import constitutes less than 3% of domestic
consumption.
vi. This minimum level is to rise to 5% by the year 2000 for developed countries & by 2004
for developing countries.
DOMESTIC SUPPORT
Provision of the agreement regarding domestic support has 2 main objectives:
1. To identify acceptable measures that support farmers.
2. To deny, unacceptable trade distorting support to the farmers.
These provisions are aimed largely at developed countries where the levels of domestic
agricultural support have risen to extremely high level in recent decades. All the D.S is
quantified through the mechanism of total AGGREGATE MEASUREMENT OF
SUPPORT (AMS) . Each WTO member has to made calculation to determine its AMS.
All such support was to be reduced by 20% over 6 year for developed countries while it
is 13% for developing one & no reduction is required for least developed countries like
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh.
AMS :
1. PRODUCT SPECIFIC SUBSIDIES
2. NON PRODUCT SPESIFIC SUBSIDIES
Product specific subsidies refer to total level of support provided for each individual
agricultural commodities.
While non product specific subsidies refers to total level of support given to whole
agriculture sector i.e subsidies on various inputs such as fertilizers, electricity,
irrigation, seeds, credit etc.
Categories of support which are not subjected to reduction under agreement:
• GREEN BOX SUBSIDIES:
• BLUE BOX SUBSIDIES:
• S& D BOX (Special and differential treatment box)
Green box subsidies includes govt. assistance on general services like: research, pest &
disease control, training, extension and advisory services. These can be for: i) food security
purpose, ii) direct payment to producers, relief from natural disasters & under
environmental assistance programme.
Blue box includes direct payments under production limiting programme, govt. assistance
to encourage agriculture & rural development& other support on small scale.
S&D box includes investment on agriculture in developing countries. Agricultural input
services given to low income & resource poor producers.
EXPORT SUBSIDIES
• Member countries are required to reduce the value of direct export subsidies to a level
of 36% for period of 6 year.
• The quantity of subsidized export is to be reduced by 21%
However such subsidies are virtually non existent in India as exporters of agricultural
commodities do not get direct subsidy.
The sue generis system created for protection of new varieties of plants by
International Convention for Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) was a response to
basically three factors (UPOV 1998), a) reluctance in fifties to the application of patent systems
to agriculture and to the plant breeding in particular, (b) realisation that a system was needed to
protect plant varieties somehow to also safeguard the interests of the breeders. And (c) the
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conditions of patentability might not be appropriate for the plant varieties. Subsequently, the
1961 Act was modified in the 1978 which was further modified in 1991. After ratification of
1991 Act by more than six countries, it has come into force now.
While TRIPS (Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights agreement)
does not explicitly state that sui generis system should be compatible with provisions of
International Union for the protection of Plant Variety (UPOV), it is implied that such should
be the case. Earlier, the option for the countries joining UPOV was to have their national laws
compatible with UPOV 1978. However, after coming into force of UPOV1991, such an option
does not exist for countries, which have not sent their draft bill to UPOV for reference.
Although, this is a contentious issue. Many countries including India have argued that
providing “effective” plant variety protection through ‘sue generis’ system need to mean parity
with UPOV 1991. Increasing use of biotechnology in producing transgenic crop varieties and
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) also requires development of biosafety norms to
regulate trade in such crops, animals and products.
This chapter deals with the experience of different countries which have enacted plant
variety protection Acts and have tried to cope with biosafety norms as a consequence of
increasing role of biotechnology in development and transfer of agricultural products, seeds,
animal breeds. The lessons for Indian policy and options for future negotiations are mentioned
in the end.
The contribution of knowledge as a factor of production is beginning to acquire
dominant role in future trade, investment and technological change in agriculture as well as
other sectors of economy. The management of knowledge not just in farms and firms but also
in non-farm sector will, thus, become crucial. But the production and reproduction of
knowledge will no more be governed by the conventional norms of public space, scrutiny and
substantive needs. It is the tension between public need and private control that will mount the
first challenge. The conflict between chemical intensive agriculture (despite declining
productivity of inputs) and the non-chemical sustainable technological innovations generated
by farmers as well as firms (national or international) will pose second challenge. The
increasing trend towards larger areas under fewer varieties and the need for food security
through diversified biological systems will be the third source of conflicts.
The strategy proposed is aimed at making Indian agriculture not only globally more
competitive but also domestically more progressive by using knowledge as a strategic resource
so that agriculture sustains livelihoods of millions of households dependent upon it in an
environmentally sustainable manner. Add to this the potential that Indian scientists have and
one would know why TRIPs under WTO can indeed make R and D in formal and informal
sector as the pivot of socio-economic transformation of our society. It is true that India must
negotiate changes in TRIPs to suit our requirements. But we can lobby for these changes
because we are part of WTO.
Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights System (TRIPS)
The Indian patent law 2005 is in conformity with WTO provisions. A particular part of
Article 27 mentioned below has direct implications for agriculture. Even the product patent
aspect will have implications for agriculture by way of protection to the inventors of new
agricultural products. Since processes are easy to copy, product patents are necessary. The
provision of TRIPs need to be strengthened to include (a) micro organisms but exclude life
forms, b) registration system of grassroots innovations (unlike utility patent system, this
registration system should be like product patent for ten years just as Australian innovation
system has been proposed, (c) widespread patent search facility for educational and
entrepreneurial networks and centres so that quality of research and education can be
competitive, (d) just as a global registry has been proposed for wines under TRIPS, India must
insist that similar global registry must exist for green small innovations too.
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A review of clause (b) of para 3 of Article 27 of the TRIPS Agreement is due in the
year 1999. This part of the Article states as under: “Members may also exclude from patentability:
(b)
Members shall provide for the protection of plant varieties either by patents or by an
effective sui generis system or by any combination thereof. The provisions of this
subparagraph shall be reviewed four years after the entry into force of the WTO
Agreement.”
Three permissible exceptions to the basic rule on patentability.
i.
inventions contrary to ordre public or morality. This explicitly includes inventions
dangerous to human, animal or plant life or health or seriously prejudicial to the environment.
The use of this exception is subject to the condition that the commercial exploitation of the
invention must also be prevented and this prevention must be necessary for the protection of
order public or morality.
ii.
diagnostic, therapeutic and surgical methods for the treatment of humans or animals.
iii.
plants and animals other than micro-organisms and essentially biological processes for
the production of plants or animals other than non-biological and microbiological processes.
However, any country excluding plant varieties from patent protection must provide an
effective sui generis system of protection.
The knowledge and activity of breeders is sought to be protected more vigorously. It
has to do so by protecting the public sector research and development (much of which
unfortunately has become weak over the years) but also create environment for promoting (a)
farmer led research, (b) farmer and scientist partnership in research, and (c) private and public
sector collaboration in research.
Basic purpose of UPOV is to ensure national treatment for any breeder of the world at
par with domestic breeders. The UPOV 1991 as the UPOV documents show (Jan, 1999), tries
to achieve the following:
Article 14(1)(a) of the 1991 act made the breeders' rights more precise. There is a view
that inclusion of "conditioning for the purpose of propagation" does not extend the
breeder's domain (since conditioning is just one step in the chain of developing
propagation material) but instead makes his rights enforceable.
By extending the breeder's right under article 14(2) OF 1991 ACT, UPOV
1991 act to harvested material where 'breeder has not had enough opportunity to
exercise his right in relation to the propagating material' (1999). Infringement in some
cases may become apparent only when the harvested produce comes into market
though one has to prevent absence of diligence in prior scrutiny and objection. The
provision of compulsory licensing can of course be invoked in the event of special
national interests. Farmers' Privileges can be protected in terms of rights to save seed,
exchange it for non commercial purposes. The issue here is that Indian breeders will
need all these protections in other countries. The mind set where we evaluate every
thing from an importers' perspective must change.
Methodology:
The Plant Variety Acts of thirty five countries excluding India, both developing and
developed have been reviewed. In addition various debates have been covered to (a) identify
the unique features evolved by different countries to protect the intellectual property produced
in their own country, (b) mobilise the useful technologies from abroad and (c) protect their
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rights in other countries. While biosafety is only one sub set of environmental regulations, a
very brief review of some of the environmentally induced disputes in international trade in
agriculture is presented so as to draw lessons for trade policy in agriculture. However, the
detailed implications are drawn only for biosafety which has the potential to influence
biodiversity and genetic wealth adversely if not regulated adequately. Labelling of food or
food products based on output of transgenic crops is becoming a very serious issue in Europe
and USA is also likely to accept this demand of EU. The import of unlabelled transgenic crop
based food items is either completely baned or strongly restricted in EU as well as Japan.
Some of the issues that need to be addressed in future are:
a)
The rights of local communities and farmer breeders in land races as well as recent
improvements in these land races, could be a major source of stability in food supply in the
wake of fluctuating climate and other environmental conditions. A registration system of land
races will have to be developed to recognise the community rights in these races. Indian Plant
Variety and Farmers’ Right Act makes a very bold attempt in this direction which has not been
tried by any other country whose PVP bills has been reviewed here.
B Without wider participation in production of intellectual property such as plant
varieties, a diverse country of India's size can not grow in a sustainable manner in
future. France offers an interesting model in which small farmers' co-operatives
dominate the seed industry instead of large multinational corporations. The
preference for taste by consumers can be harnessed for promoting decentralized cooperative and small scale entrepreneur based seed industry. The public sector
research institutions will have to provide hand holding support to such cooperatives and entrepreneurs. There is no policy for encouraging small scale
breeders. Recently when a farmer bred variety of groundnut , 'morla' (developed by
Thakarshee bhai) was taken up by ICAR's AICRIP on ground nut, the NGO
SRISTI had to arrange the seed required for multi location trials. Despite good
intentions, the scientists concerned had no provision to pay for seeds of such small
farmer breeders. This incidentally was the first time in last fifty years, that a farmer
bred variety had been taken up for All India trials. Such cases must multiply and
soon.
c)
There must be a registration system for encouraging protection of local land races
and incentive system must be generated for in situ conservation. ten per cent of
area under threatened land races may receive incentive price computed by
productivity multiplied by price to equal similar productivity price equivalent of
modern variety in that area.
d)
National database on local varieties with systematic documentation of local
knowledge of women and men is very necessary. For making our breeding system
responsive to global demands, we must know which land races can offer genes for
which kind of characters.
e)
We have to create a Knowledge Network, which will connect creative farmers,
scientists and policy makers in real time so that macro policy can be responsive to
micro level innovations, and other urges.
1.
f) Sustainable Technologies: The Honey Bee data base demonstrates that
productivity can be increased without impairing the environment and quality of
outputs. National technology mission on non chemical technology development is
must and this should not restrict its scope to innovations by formal centres of
research alone. Informal innovations should also get the same attention.
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g)
Demand for organic food and spices is increasing world over but we still do not
have decentralized arrangements for certification by NGOs, and public sector
research organisations (exceptions apart).
h) We have to strengthen phytosanitory control systems to prevent import of
diseases, pests, weeds etc., in the wake of liberalised import of seeds material
from abroad. Training of customs officials in this regard is necessary. They should
also be trained to prevent clandestine export of restricted seed material out of the
country. The export of soils samples without proper authorisation should also be
prevented since patents already exist on micro-organisms taken from soil from
Gujarat and many other regions of the country.
Biosafety Protocol (BP), Bioethics and Environmental implications of Trade in
transgenics and forest products
It is true that a proper BP may take some time to evolve as a consequence of debate in CBD
(Convention on Biological Diversity). But there is an urgent need for constituting Ethics
committees for overseeing the test on transgenics by domestic as well as international
producers at the level of each research institute where such research is being done in the
country. The trade in GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms) will need to be strictly
regulated and for that capacities need to be created urgently. Prior informed consent of farmers
must also be ensured while pursuing on-farm trials on transgenics. Public notice must be given
for all such trials and informed debate should take place on these issues rather than exposing
people to only populist propaganda, as has been often the case.
There have been widespread protests in developed as well as developing countries
about alleged insensitivity of WTO to the environmental and bioethical considerations.
Some developing countries fear that developed countries may use environmental
standards as protective barriers to import from developing countries. The agricultural
produce having pesticidal residues or other chemical residues have faced similar
restrictions. The issue is that environmental considerations cannot work only one way.
In the case of biosafety rules, the boot is on the other leg. Developed countries are
complaining that the protocol being requested by developing countries under CBD is
extremely restrictive, though on environmental grounds. India will have to develop its
strategic position keeping in mind the arguments it wants to advance in the biosafety
debate vis-a-vis its concern for non-tariff barriers in the form environmental standards
being imposed by the developed countries. However, it is important to note that the
Plant Variety Act providing for registration of transgenic crops would involve
environmental, ethical and biosafety issues. It is in this context that the contentious
nature of global opinion on the subject must be viewed.
The Biosafety Regulations
The biosafety regulations focus on the direct and indirect consequences of introducing
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or living modified organisms (LMOs) into the
environment such as:
a)
What is the probability that the characteristics of the GMO may be transferred to the wild
relatives of the species?
b)
To what extent the toxin producing or other genes introduced into the organism can
be transferred to other organisms even unrelated.
c)
Whether consumption of GMO can cause any allergy or other health hazards?
d)
Whether the introduction of GMO can create new weeds, affect biological vectors or
disrupt the co system?
The global trade regime has to deal with several related issues in above regard such as
ability of the host or importing country to assess the risks and deal with them, regulations for
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labelling or GMO products so that consumers can make informed choice, restrict GMOs which
may pose hazard to the very viability of the food security, for example, through terminator gene
technology, etc.
Why Biosafety Regulations?
The trade in transgenic commodities whether for research or commercial purposes
involves various risks mentioned earlier. Lackey (1998) provides in table 1 latest scientific
understanding of the hazards in transgenics
Environmental Hazards in Transgenic Crops:
Modes Of Gene Escape In Rapeseed
Genes of B. napus may be transferred out of the test area by seed or by pollen.
Seed is capable of germinating in subsequent seasons; therefore, some means of
collecting all seed, preventing bird or other animal movement, and ensuring that in
subsequent seasons transgenic plants derived from any shattering loss are destroyed.
Although the survival and maintenance of hybrids is relatively unlikely, plants
receptive to Brassica napus pollen should not be in the area. Specifically, B. napus
plants should not be within bee pollination range, and B. rapa or B. oleracea plants in
flower should not be within the area during the period of flowering of the transgenic
crop.
Modes of Gene Escape in Corn
Genes of corn may escape from the test plot in two ways. The first is by pollen transfer.
The second is by movement of the grains. If viable pollen of the transgenic plants can
be transferred by wind to any receptive corn stigma within the 30 minute period of
pollen viability, an escape of genetic material could take place. This potential transfer
becomes more unlikely as distance increases from the transgenic plants, and from a
practical standpoint becomes increasingly unlikely at distances much beyond the
foundation seed isolation distance of 660 feet. In addition, any physical impediment to
this movement, such as effective detasseling or bagging, would completely eliminate
the possibility of gene escape by way of pollen.
Modes of Gene Escape in Cotton
Genetic material of Gossypium hirsutum may escape from a test area by vegetative
material, by seed, or by pollen. Propagation by vegetative material is not a common
method of reproduction of cotton. Physical safeguards that inhibit the movement of
vegetative material from the area should be adequate to prevent gene movement by this
means.
Movement of seed from the test area can likewise be inhibited by adequate
physical safeguards. Movement of genetic material by pollen is possible only to those
plants with the proper chromosomal type, in this instance only to those allotetraploids
with AADD genomes. In the United States, this would only include G. hirsutum, G.
barbadense, and G. tomentosum. Gossypium thurberi, the native diploid from Arizona
with a DD genome, is not a suitable recipient. Movement to G. hirsutum and G.
barbadense is possible if suitable insect pollinators are present, and if there is a short
distance from transgenic plants to recipient plants. Physical barriers, intermediate
pollinator-attractive plants, and other temporal or biological impediments would reduce
the potential for pollen movement. People are worried about two kinds of risks from
genetically modified organisms: risks to human health and risks to the environment including all of the animals, plants and micro-organisms that inhabit the earth.
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Risks for the Environment by the GMOs
1.
Excessive increase in the numbers of organisms released to the environment, and
their establishment
2.
Direct but unanticipated effects on non-target species - infectivity, pathogenicity,
predation on other micro-organisms, plants and animals, or shifts in host range
3.
Negative influence on the interactions among species - predators, prey, hosts,
symbiots, etc.
4.
Unanticipated involvement in biogeochemical cycles - nitrogen-fixation, mineral
cycling etc.
5. Transfer of undesired characteristics to other organisms.
These depend on a series of events:
1.
Incorporation of a gene for a particular trait into an organism
2.
Deliberate or accidental release in the environment
3.
Survival and multiplication of the organism in the environment
4.
Contact with species or ecosystems which tan be injured by the organism
5.
Harm to the species or ecosystems.
A group in London reports that from 1980 to 1996 about 600 plant
DNA sequence patents were applied for, about half granted. Maize was the
mostly heavily patented, and the genes involved dealt with nutrition (20%),
pathogen resistance (20%) and gene regulation (18%). It is obvious that
transnationals hold sway in this field. To avoid dominance of transnationals in
international trade, India will have to negotiate sufficient safeguards, flexibility
on behalf of small innovators as distinct from local communities conserving
land races-a rich resource for future plant breeding and biotechnological
applications- and at the same time create good domestic examples. The greatest
weakness of Indian position is that India has not created any concrete example
in its domestic polices as yet which can be taken as evidence of its intentions
and genuine interest in safeguarding the interest of local communities
conserving land races or individual farmers developing new varieties. Many of
the measures suggested in the draft National Biodiversity Bill try to achieve
this goal. Unless voluntary co-operatives of seed producers and farmer breeders
are given encouragement by state, dominance of large corporations can not be
avoided. Likewise scientists in public sector must be encouraged to participate
in private sector so that two-way flow of knowledge, skills and perspectives
takes place apart from marriage between the respective strengths. Tendency to
see private sector always with suspicious eyes will affect adversely the growth
of both.
Highlights of Indian Protectuion of Plant Variety and Farmers’ Right Act, 2001
a)
The Indian government has preferred to use sue generis system instead of
patents because of three major advantages: a) flexibility, b) better protection of
farmers’ rights, and c) stronger researchers’ exemption.
b)
The Indian Draft Bill on Plant Variety and Farmers’ Rights provides for the
option of compulsory licensing when reasonable quantity of seed or
reproductive material of protected variety is not made available in the country.
c)
Government has the power to determine which genra and species would be
covered under the Plant Variety Protection.
d)
In case of any disputes regarding orders of Indian PPV & FRA Authority,
the high courts will have the jurisdiction for resolving any complaints.
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f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)
q)
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Clause 25 of the Act has a provision for non-registration of the varieties
which are injurious to the public morality or health as in the case of `terminator
gene’.
There is a provision of setting up gene fund, which will determine the share
of benefits to be given to farmers or other breeders and also decide the
eligibility for getting benefits, whether benefits are given one time or on
recurrent basis.
There is a provision for registration of extant varieties, i.e. the ones notified
under Seed Act, 1966 released by the Central Seed Committee. The provision
also exists for preservation jointly or severally of wild species or a traditional
variety with or without added value and which has economic use.
The farmers rights include the right to I) produce his crop, ii) use product of
crop as seeds for producing further crop, iii) sell product of crop except its sale
exposing it as a seed.
The new varieties are supposed to be those varieties, which have not been
grown earlier than one year outside India and in case of trees and vines not
earlier than six years. In all other cases, the limit is four years.
The distinctiveness of the variety is defined by its distinguishability by at
least one essential characteristic from any other variety whose existence is a
matter of common knowledge in any country at the time of filing of
application. Failure of an application for the grant of breeders right to a new
variety or its derivatives shall deemed to render that variety as a matter of
common knowledge.
The applicant is required to provide complete passport data of the parent line
from which new variety or its propagating material has been developed.
The duration of protection is 18 years for trees and vines and 15 years in the
case of extant varieties and 15 years for other crops except extant varieties in
which 15 years will be calculated from the date of notification by the
government under the Seed Act, 1966 or from the date of release or date of
registration as a farmers’ variety whichever is earlier. The validity of farmers
varieties particularly land races should actually be at least be 99 years instead
of only 15 years. This clause needs to be modified in the Indian bill.
Gene Fund: Breeder will deposit in gene fund the amount determined by the
authority. In case of default, this amount can be recovered as an arrear of land
revenue.
The breeder will be required to deposit appropriate quantity of the
propagating material.
Researchers Right: Authorisation of breeder or plant variety protection holder
is necessary when repeated use of parental lines of a variety is required.
Otherwise nothing will prevent any researcher from using a protected variety
as a research material.
Farmers right: Farmers has the right to save, use, exchange, share or sell his
farm produce of a protected variety except when covered by contractual
market arrangement.
Rights of communities: People of any community or an NGO representing
them can represent the contribution of people to a variety granted protection
under the Act. The authority would very such claims. And if found valid,
compensation would be paid to NGO/people who submit claims of people
against which existing breeder/s enjoying protection would be heard and given
notice. The compensation granted by the breeder will be deposited in the gene
fund. The NGO or the community shall withdraw the compensation even if
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such a fund has not been deposited by the breeder concerned in the gene fund.
The compensation shall be recovered from the breeder in case of default as an
arrear of land revenue.
r)
National Gene Fund: The functions of national gene fund are, I) benefits
sharing in the prescribed manner, ii) royalty paid at such rate as may be
prescribed by the central government on the sale price of the seed or
propagating material of a registered variety, iii) contribution from national or
international organizations can be received in the gene fund.
s)
All plants under the order Plantae are included for protection except micro
organisms.
As mentioned earlier, the Indian PPV & FRA has many unique features such as opportunity for
registration of extant varieties, registration of farmer’s traditional varieties by communities of
NGOs on their behalf, constitution of National Gene Fund though it aims to collect revenue
mainly from seed companies only- a point that we will like to critique.
The measure suggested in this note imply a three pronged strategy to deal with the
implications of WTO on Indian agriculture from the perspective of intellectual property rights,
particularly Plant Variety Act: (a) make domestic inventive and innovative activity more
buoyant at grassroots as well as at formal institutional level, (b) provide protection to breeders
within the country and outside to trigger two way technological flow from and to India and (c)
ensure through viable and effective farmer privileges and biosafety regulations that
environmental, economic ethical, and efficiency gains are not compromised while enabling
trade and technology transfer.
One should not look at India remaining as only a technology recipient country. With
all the inventive potential that exists at different levels, India should become a leader in
provisions of sustainable technologies around the world.
Key issues for negotiation:
a.
The need for explicit recognition of farmer’s privileges and farmer’s rights in the suigeneris system.
b.
The need to harmonise the implications of CBD, CTE and international undertaking on
plant genetic resources.
c.
Every patent and plant protection authority should be required to ascertain from the
applicant seeking plant variety protection or product patent on herbal or agricultural
product that the raw material and information used in the innovation has been obtained
lawfully, rightfully and through prior-informed consent of the providing country and the
communities.
d.
Just as there exists a proposal in TRIPS for negotiating global registry of wines, India
should assert that a similar Global Registry for Grassroots Innovations is needed to include
landraces, herbal products developed by small farmers alone or in collaboration with farmer
scientists.
e.
In view of the impact of lower tariffs on deforestation, the discussion on forest products
should be carefully pursued. Since India is unlikely to become exporter of forest products
and will remain a net importer, the lower tariff will only mean lesser cost of production by
domestic industry based on imported raw material. India may consider this position while
negotiating.
f.
The environmental implications of international trade holds tremendous challenge in
agriculture particularly in fishery sector where Indian exports may come up for restrictions
due to unsafe handling of protected species, incidental catch of dolphins or other such
issues. Since the conservation is a national priority, India should not oppose environmental
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h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
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regulations unless these were discriminatory vis-à-vis importing countries on standards or
practices.
The insistence on DUS for varietal registration should be modified to include distinctive
but heterogeneous and stable over three to four generations particularly in marginal
environments. This will help in the development of varieties with buffering population and
multi line composition for rainfed regions.
The exemption of small farmers from the restrictions to save, exchange or sell seed
without using brand name may be incorporated in the revised Article 27(3b). Similarly,
restrictions on varietal protection to varieties in common knowledge must be incorporated
and penalty is introduced for such attempts.
While plant varieties have been covered by UPOV, animal breeds are not covered by
any such protection. This may be taken up for negotiation.
The products of genetically engineered varieties must be compulsorily labelled to help
consumer make informed choices. Further the biosafety implications must be also
incorporated in the Plant Variety Act so that registration is under PVP is contingent on the
satisfactory completion of biosafety and bioethical requirements.
The provision for community intellectual property rights may also be negotiated along
with the need for low transaction cost system for small farmer innovator.
The new uses of an existing product are protected as use patents in USA but not in
Europe. India may pursue this issue both domestically and internationally.
International registry proposed earlier should also include geographical indication for
varieties.
India should not negotiate with the mindset of perpetual importer but should also think
of export opportunities for technology in agricultural sector.
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17
Indian agriculture at a glance
The spectacular story of Indian agriculture is known throughout the world for its multifunctional success in generating employment, livelihood, food, nutritional and ecological
security. Agriculture and allied activities contribute about 24% to the gross domestic product of
India. The total geographical area of India is 328.73 million ha with arable land area at 168
million hectares and the total cultivable area is 142 million ha. India ranks second only to the
U.S. in sheer size of agriculture. A well-developed agricultural research system, a significant
area of almost 60 million hectares under irrigation and an increasing productivity in major
crops enable Indian agriculture to become a globally competitive player. With the application
of modern technologies, food production increased from 50 million tonnes in 1950 to over 212
million tonnes today. After the first green revolution in early 70s of the last century, India
became self sufficient in food production from a begging bowl state. Subsequently, white,
yellow and blue revolution followed in the country. Now India is making all out effort to
witness second green revolution in the country to guarantee food security to every individual of
its population which is increasing at a rate of 1.7 %. The United Nations estimates that with
assured irrigation, India's food grains output can increase SIX times within five years- enough
to feed two planet Earths! In India, about 65 per cent of the population is depending on
agriculture in one form or the other. The land holding is very small. The average land holding
is about 1.7 ha. The population increased to 78 M by decade ending 1961, 110 M during the
decade ending 1971, 136 M during the decade ending 1981 and 168 M during the decade
ending 1991. The present population is about 1060 M which is expected to stabilize at about
1500 M by the middle of next century. This trend of population growth created alarming
situation as the scope of increasing area under cultivation is limited.
Out of 328.73 M ha geographical area of the country, 19.5 per cent is under forests and
13.5 per cent is not available for cultivation. The net sown area was 140.27 M ha during 197071 which remained almost constant till today. Increase in food production was due to increase
in area under irrigation from 28 M ha during 1960-61 to about 70 M ha during 2000 and
cropping intensity from 114.7 to 129.8 per cent, besides improved farming technology. Of the
total cultivable area, problem area constitutes 173.65 M ha including areas subjected to wind
and water erosion (145 M ha), waterlogged area (8.53 M ha), ravine and gullies (3.97 M ha),
shifting cultivation (4.91 M ha) and revering terrains (2.73 M ha). Besides, about 40 and 260 M
ha come under flood and drought prone area respectively. As such, about 41.42 per cent
(136.18 M ha) of the geographical area is made available for cultivation at present to sustain
1060 M people.
Water Resources
As per the National Commission on Agriculture (1976), the total annual water is 185 M
ha m comprising 135 M ha m of surface water resources and 50 M ha m of ground water
resources. After meeting the needs of water for other purposes, about 77 M ha m would be
available for irrigation by 2025 AD. On an average, 0.8 ha m of water is required per cropped
ha. On this basis, the available water resources would suffice for irrigating about 96 M ha.
However, with efficient use of irrigation water (0.7 ha m ha-1), ultimate irrigation potential has
been taken to be 110 M ha. This would be about 52 per cent of the sown area of 210 M ha
expected in the early part of the current century. Irrigated area increased from 22.6 M in 1951
to 60 M ha of gross irrigated area by 1991. The gross and net irrigated areas at present are
about 65 and 44 M ha respectively. Creating irrigation potential without provision for drainage
leads to land degradation as indicated already. Water resources have been discussed
elaborately under the chapter on irrigation water management.
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In years to come, agricultural development in the country would be guided not only by
the compulsion of improving food and nutritional security, but also by the concerns for
environmental protection, sustainability and profitability. Following the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) and the liberalization process, globalization of markets would call for
competitiveness and efficiency of agricultural production. Agriculture will face challenging
situations on the ecological, global climate, economic equity, social justice, energy and
employment fronts.
Research Infrastucture :
During the last four decades, remarkable progress has been made on creating research and
education infrastructure, input production and delivery system and production oriented farmer’s
friendly policy package which is conducive to provide a boost to agricultural production and
productivity. There has been mushroom growth of agencies connected with agricultural
development such as National Seed Corporation, State Seed Corporations, State Seed Farms,
Agro-Industries Corporations, Fertilizer Corporation, State Cooperative Marketing Federations,
etc. In seed sector alone, 1000 small and big companies including multinations companies are
now functioning. The public research system in totality is supported by about 30,000 scientists
of ICAR and State Agricultural Universities.
These infrastructural supports appear to make very little headway in meeting the
requirements of rural families. The state of affairs at the national scenario alls for land based
strategy to get the best out of the limited and shrinking land resources. For improving
agricultural situation in the country, the following should be stressed upon as indicated by
eminent agricultural scientist M.S. Swaminathan in late 1980’s.
•
Production pattern on the basis of land saving crop husbandry and grain saving animal
husbandry,
•
Ecological sustainability and equity in the use of natural resources,
•
Promotion of beneficial growth linkages among primary, secondary and territory sectors
of economic activity.
The aggregate rate of return on Research and Development investments in agriculture
has been between 40 and 80%, many times more than the 18 percent internal rate of return of
the banking sector. India attained self-sufficiency in food in the 1970s, it was the 1990s that
saw it join the ranks of the major food grain exporting countries. Along with wheat, India now
exports substantial quantities of rice, and is in fact a leading rice exporting country accounting
for a third of world rice trade and the largest exporter of the world's best rice, known as
basmati.
Ancient Indian records speak of the existence of rice varieties of curative value for
various ailments as detailed in the Ayurvedic Treatise (Indian Materia Medica) of the 15th and
16th Centuries AD. Varieties like ‘Njavara’ and ‘Gathuran’, for instance, were used in the
treatment of arthritis, while rice surveys in modern times in central India have found several
varieties of medicinal value such as ‘aalcha’ for treatment of pimples, ‘maharaji’ for strength
and stamina to assist post-delivery recovery, ‘baisoor’ for epilepsy and "laicha" for pregnant
women to deliver healthy and disease-free children. Thanks to the Department of
Biotechnology of India's Ministry of Science and Technology and the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, India now has the critical mass and research infrastructure for using the
cutting edge of scientific knowledge to solve problems that hitherto defied solution through
conventional approaches.
Among the various research programmes being undertaken,
the most important are building of resistance to major pests and enhancement of nutritive
quality such as B-carotene (vitamin A) and protein content using novel genes cloned from near
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and distant life forms. Apart from the transgenic approach, marker technology is being used to
develop harmonious race-specific resistance genes.
A brief account of sustainable crop production in India is highlighted below:
Wheat: India is the largest producer of wheat in the world, accounting for about 15% of global
wheat production. Native Indian wheat is universally recognized for its quality and has always
been in demand. During the latter half of the 19th century, several Indian wheat varieties were
used as parental lines in Australia, Kenya and other countries to improve their own grain
quality and tolerance to abiotic stresses. For several decades, British India exported annually
one million tonnes of wheat to England, Belgium, Spain, Italy and France and wheat flour to
the Middle East, Africa, Yemen and several other nations. Indian wheat exports should cross 5
million tonnes, not bad for a country that only a few decades ago sought American wheat to
feed its people.
India's green revolution is visible anywhere in the country
Edible oil : India is among the largest vegetable oil economies in the world accounting for
about a seventh of the world’s oilseeds area and a tenth of oilseeds production. It is the largest
producer of castor safflower, sesame and niger, ranks second in groundnut and rapeseedmustard, third in linseed and fifth in soybean and sunflower. The Technology Mission on
Oilseeds set up in 1986 saw oilseeds production treble in a few years, with the country
achieving self-sufficiency.
Potato : A short duration crop like potato, which produces more dry matter, edible energy and
edible protein per unit land and time than many other major crops such as wheat, rice and maize
is the most potential and nutritionally superior crop for fighting hunger and malnutrition. It also
generates larger returns per unit land and time. According to the estimates published by the
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and International Potato Center (CIP),
India is likely to have the highest growth rates in production and productivity of potatoes
during 1993-2020.
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Spices : History indicates the extreme fascination of the world for the fabled wealth of India,
especially its spices. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices in the world.
More than half of the world's listed spices are grown in India, and it accounts for more than half
of world trade in this sector, exporting its fabulous spices to more than 150 countries. Besides
being the foremost producer and exporter of chilli, Indian ginger, one of the oldest known
spices in the world, is very highly regarded in global markets for its characteristic lemon like
flavour. Among other Indian spices, turmeric is a multipurpose crop valued for its colouring
pigment, spicy flavour and medicinal properties. In fact, major pharmaceutical companies are
rushing to buy Indian spices for production of medicines and neutraceuticals. Some major
Indian medicinal spices are garcinai that contains hydroxy critic acid, an "appetite suppressant”,
effective against obesity. Piperine from black pepper is a potent inhibitor of drug metabolism,
while chillies, usually known as an irritant spice, have counter irritant properties and are used in
skin ointments. They also help prevent rectum/colon cancer. Garlic, onion and fenugreek are
well known for their properties to reduce cholesterol and to cure diabetes.
Rubber : The rubber industry holds a place of pride in the country. India has the status of both
a leading producer and consumer. It has the highest per unit productivity in natural rubber, of
which it is the world's third largest producer. In the last four decades, production has increased
36 times and productivity 6 times!
The cup that cheers : India is the world's largest producer of tea, accounting for a third of
global production and sixth of global tea exports.
Tea garden in Assam
Fishing for food : The Indian fisheries sector plays a significant role in food and nutritional
security, national economy, employment generation and exports. India is among the ten largest
fish producing nations of the world with an annual landing of about 3 million tonnes. The
sector employs over one million fishermen, and 2 million workers, half of them women, in the
post-harvest sector. The country exports a wide range of seafood to more than 52 countries.
Vegetables : A large number of studies have shown that the consumption of vegetables reduces
the risk of cancer, particularly cancer of alimentary canal and respiratory tract. Vegetable
production in India has now reached almost 100 million tonnes, one of the highest in the world.
Fruits : India is the second largest producer of fruits, total production last year being estimated
at almost 50 million tones.
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Harnessing rain water : Rain water harvesting is an ancient and traditional Indian technology,
first used some 5,000 years ago. It is now being revived. The technologies available include
contour bunding, contour stone wall, contour trenching, providing check dams and construction
of percolation ponds. Runoff water with silt soil is obstructed and stored to recharge ground
water that can be used for irrigation. Further, roof (rain) water from buildings is also collected
and recharged through recharge pits after filtration.
Space technology in agriculture: Increasing food grains production requires bringing more
area under agriculture, increasing cropping intensity and productivity. Thus it is essential to
identify and delineate culturable wastelands, increase irrigation potential, and emphasize
judicious and optimal management of both land and water resources. Thus comprehensive and
reliable information on land use/cover, soils extent of wastelands, agricultural crops, water
resources on the surface and underground, hazards and natural calamities like drought and
folds, and agrometeorology is essential. In India, thanks to its outstanding scientists and
technologists, space based remote sensing has emerged as a front running provider of
information. Remote sensing refers to the science of identification and classification of earth
surface features using electromagnetic radiation as a medium of interaction.
A common sight in the Indian countryside
Food preservation : As in other parts of the world, India has also practiced various methods of
food preservation such as sun drying, pickling and fermentation which were supplemented with
more energy consuming techniques such as refrigeration, freezing and canning. Man has always
been in search of newer methods to preserve foods with least change in sensory qualities. Food
irradiation is one of the latest methods.
Food irradiation involves exposure of food to short wave energy to achieve a specific purpose
such as extension in shelf-life, insect disinfestations and elimination of food-borne pathogens
and parasites. Compared to heat or chemical treatment, irriadiation is a more effective and
appropriate technology that offers a number of advantages to producers, processors, retailers
and consumers.
The future : Having proved to the world that agricultural success is not limited to the
developed world, India is ready to share its experience in the conquest of hunger with friendly
countries. In fact, agriculture is one of the priority sectors that has been identified for bilateral
cooperation. The Indian example shows that the green revolution can be made evergreen.
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18
Agriculture In China
Today Chinese agriculture sustains 22 percent of the world's population, with less
than 8 percent of the world's arable land. The pattern of intensive agriculture varies in
accordance with regional differences in environmental conditions: double or even triple
cropping in the southern coastal regions; double cropping with a summer rice crop in
the Chang (Yangtze) River basin of central and eastern China; winter wheat–summer
crop cycles on the North China plains; single-crop, spring-grown cereals in the
Northeast.
Total geographical area
1207 mha
Total population
1.3 billion
Total cultivated area
321 million acres
Population depend on agriculture
50%
Share of agriculture to GDP
20%
Cultivable land availability
1acre per agricultural worker
Total area under irrigation
30%
Agricultural Land Use: Agricultural land includes cultivated land, forests, inland water,
grassland and others. Cultivated land and forests are mainly in the east and the centre, and
grassland in the west. The east is dominated by farming and the west by grassland husbandry.
Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan and Gansu are the six main pastoral areas.
Table 1. Agricultural Land Use Characteristics
Land Use
Area (000 ha)
Percentage of Total
Cultivated Land
120,040
13.53
Forest
158,940
16.56
Inland Water
17,470
1.82
Grassland
400,000
41.67
Useable Grassland
313,330
32.64
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Others
253,550
159
26.41
Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2000a)
Economic Development. The national economy has improved greatly since the founding of the
People's Republic. Since the beginning of the Reform and Opening in 1978, the average annual
growth rate of the gross domestic product (GDP) is 9.8 percent at fixed prices, and the goal of
quadrupling GDP over 1980 was achieved in 1995, five years ahead of the plan. China's
economic gross product is now the seventh largest in the world.
National agricultural gross output value in 1999 was 2451.91 billion RMB Yuan (1
US$ was worth 8.2 ¥ in 1999), of which, agriculture was 1410.62, forestry 88.63, animal
husbandry 699.76 (28.53 percent of the total), and fisheries 252.90. The number of domestic
herbivores in China is 429,506,000 head (at December 1999), of which, cattle, buffalo and yak
are 126,983,000, horses 8,914,000, donkeys 9,348,000, mules 4,673,000, camels 330,000,
sheep are 131,095,000, and goats 148,163,000.
In 1999, 5,054,000 tons of beef, 2,513,000 tons of mutton, 8,069,000 tons of milk (cow
milk 7,176,000 tons), 283,152 tons of sheep wool (fine wool 11,410 tons and semi-fine wool
73,700 tons), 31,849 tons of goat wool and 10,180 tons of cashmere were produced. In 1997,
65,700 beef cattle, 4,585 sheep, and 9,882 goats were exported; 479 beef cattle, 84 sheep, 1,543
goats, 244 horses were imported. Imported stock was for breeding.
Climate
With its vast territory and the effects of topography and surrounding atmosphere, China
has three climatic zones: East Monsoon Zone, Northwest Arid and Semi-arid Zone and the
Qinghai-Tibet Alpine Zone.The East Monsoon Zone occupies 45 percent of the land, with
prevailing wind directions: northwest, north and northwest winds are common in winter and
southeast, south and southwest winds in summer. Rainfall varies seasonally according to wind
and coincides with high solar radiation, which gives good conditions for plant growth. Drought,
waterlogging, wind disaster and cold snaps are frequent in the east because of the protean
monsoon, typhoon and cold wave.
Eastern China can be divided into three climate zones from south to north:
-Tropical Zone
- Subtropical Zone and
- Temperate Zone.
Temperature differences between zones are quite large in winter, but small in summer.
Winter temperatures are lower than other areas at the same latitude, but higher in summer. The
major vegetation in the east monsoon area is different types of forest.
The Northwest arid and semiarid area is in inner Eurasia and is controlled by a
continental climate all year round. Precipitation decreases gradually from east to west from 400
mm to less than 100 mm. Steppe and desert dominate the landscape. Vertical variation of
climate on the Qinghai-Tibet alpine area is very significant, which is characterized by low
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temperature, strong solar radiation, wind, and uneven rainfall. Precipitation declines from
southeast to northwest on the plain of the plateau and the natural landscape varies accordingly
from forest, alpine shrub and alpine steppe to alpine desert.
The Chinese Agricultural Calendar (Nongli)
A calendar is a system of arranging days according to astronomical events for regulating
everyday life. The traditional Chinese calendar is known as the Agricultural Calendar or
Nongli, as the calendar divides the year into seasons for agriculture.
Calendars that are based on the moon's orbit around the Earth are known as lunar calendars
(Yinli). Solar calendars (Yangli) are another category of calendars that are based on the
positions of the Sun through the seasons. The Agricultural Calendar is an integrated lunar-solar
calendar (Yinyangli) as it embraces the movement of the moon as well as that of the Sun.
"Tropical year" and "synodic month" are the basic elements of the Agricultural Calendar. A
tropical year is the time from a vernal equinox to the next, which is 365.2422 days (365 days 5
hours 48 minutes and 46 seconds). The time between two successive occurrences of new moon
or full moon is called a synodic month, and equals 29.5306 days (29 days 12 hours 44 minutes
3 seconds).
Crop Cultivation
China’s main grain crops are rice, wheat, corn, soybeans and tuber crops. Rice is the
major grain crop in China, grown mainly in the Yangtze River valley and southern China, and
on the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. Its output accounts for two-fifths of the total grain output. The
output of wheat accounts for slightly more than one fifth of the total output of grain; it is
planted throughout China but mainly on the North China Plain. The output of corn, grown in
the provinces of northeastern, northern and southwestern China, accounts for one fourth of the
total grain output. Soybeans are grown on the Northeast China Plain and the plains along the
Yellow and Huaihe rivers. Sweet potatoes are grown widely in China, but mainly in the Pearl
River valley, along the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the lower reaches of the
Yellow River and in the Sichuan Basin. Cash crops include cotton, peanuts, rape, sesame,
sugarcane, tea, tobacco, mulberry and fruit. Cotton is grown mainly along the Yellow River and
the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and in the Manas River valley in Xinjiang.
Peanuts are grown in Shandong, Guangdong, Guangxi and Liaoning. Rape is produced along
the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and in the Sichuan Basin. Sugarcane is
grown in southern China. Beets are grown for the most part in Heilongjiang, Jilin and Inner
Mongolia.
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Agricultural Development
China is a country with a large population and less arable land. With only seven percent
of the world's cultivated land, China has to feed one-fifth of the world's population. Hence
Chinese agriculture occupies an important position in the world. Some people once raised the
question: "Who will feed China?" China's leaders and agricultural experts' reply was: "We
Chinese people will feed ourselves."
Since 1978 when China adopted the policy of reform in its rural areas, China's
agriculture has developed rapidly. In the past two decades or so, the Chinese countryside, under
the premise of adhering to collective ownership, has taken the market economy as guidance.
Reform has brought benefits to the farmers, as a result, Chinese agriculture has made
remarkable achievements. In the five years from 1996 to 2000, the total increment of
agriculture in the GDP came to 7,129.18 billion yuan. In 1998, the grain output came to 512.3
million tons, the highest figure in history. Today China leads the world in the outputs of grain,
cotton, rapeseed, leaf tobacco, meat, eggs, aquatic products and vegetables. Along with the
development of production, the amount of agricultural products per capita has been remarkably
raised. In 2002, the amount of grain per capita was 357 kg; and the amount of meat (pork, beef
and mutton), milk and aquatic products per capita reached 40.8 kg, 10.2 kg and 35.6 kg,
respectively, exceeding the world's average levels. Meanwhile, fundamental changes have taken
place in the supply and demand of most agricultural products, showing a qualitative change
from chronic shortage to a new stage
Table 2. Import and Export of Main Agricultural Products in
China in 1998. Unit: million US$
Classification
Products
of
Agricultural Import Export Net
Export
Cereal grains
1989.47 2147.98 158.51
1. Wheat
278.57 1.41
2. Rough rice, rice
120.04 927.17 807.13
3. Maize
31.77
531.68 499.91
4. Sorghum
0.02
2.46
5. Other cereals
265.54 34.76
6. Processed cereal products
70.05
Other produce
3219.54 5537.19 2317.65
1. Vegetables
71.29
2. Fruits
241.78 433.31 191.53
3. Processed
products
-277.16
2.44
-230.78
368.10 298.05
1473.85 1402.56
vegetable & fruit 23.58
1022.42 998.84
4. Coffee, tea
19.73
520.10 500.37
5. Sugar and sugared food
2787.83 1310.04 -1477.79
6. Drinks, wine, and vinegar
75.33
450.10 374.77
7. Miscellaneous products
83.32
327.37 244.05
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China-CGIAR Partnership
China has been collaborating with CGIAR Centers since the early 1970s, and became a
CGIAR member in 1984. The CGIAR works through the Chinese Academy of Agricultural
Sciences (CAAS), the research arm of the Ministry of Agriculture. Seven CGIAR Centers
including, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), International
Potato Center (CIP), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI),
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), and International Water Management Institute
(IWMI), maintain regional offices in China.
Over 50 Chinese institutions have collaborated closely with CGIAR Centers. More than
3,400 Chinese scientists have received training at CGIAR Centers, many of whom are now
occupying leadership positions throughout the CGIAR and at Chinese organizations. China's
partnership with CGIAR Centers focuses on major food crops (maize, potatoes, rice and
wheat), land and water management, livestock, forestry, fisheries, and food policy. And as a
result of this partnership, China has bred more than 260 crop varieties containing genetic
material from CGIAR Centers.
A Snapshot of Partnership Activities
Fighting hunger through improved maize: More than one million ha of CIMMYT maize
varieties have been planted across China. CIMMYT collaborates with the Asian Maize
Biotechnology Network (AMBIONET) and CAAS in applying advanced biotechnology for
maize improvement throughout China. More than 100 Chinese scientists have participated in
CIMMYT knowledge exchange programs on hybrid maize technology and seed production.
Raising rice productivity: High-yielding rice lines and varieties from IRRI (including "IR-8")
were being utilized by Chinese researchers well before formal relationships were established in
1984. Today, approximately 20% of China's rice contains IRRI varieties. Since China and IRRI
began collaborating, more than 20 IRRI breeding lines have been released to farmers. In the
1980's, over 5 million ha of land were planted annually with IRRI's "Shanyou 63", an indica
hybrid rice.
Pigeonpea planting expands: In 1998, ICRISAT researchers successfully introduced
pigeonpea in Guangxi Province. Four years later, the total area planted to pigeon peas increased
to 60,000 ha. Pigeonpea is a hardy, drought-tolerant food legume high in protein and vitamin B,
and offers the added benefit of fixing nitrogen and other nutrients in the soil. Pigeonpea is also
a valuable source fodder for cattle, goats and rabbits.
Reducing Disease in Roots and Tubers: In 2004, CIP and Chinese scientists began working at
the new CIP-China Center for Asia and the Pacific, a platform to upgrade research,
development, and training for root and tuber crop researchers in the region. China is one of the
largest users of potato and sweet potato germplasm received from CIP International Institute
on Potato, Lima, Peru) worldwide.
In 1978, China and CIP worked together to develop a disease-resistant potato, "CIP-24", which
is grown on approximately 70,000 ha, principally in China's drought-prone Northern provinces.
CIP collaborates with the Root and Tuber Crop Research Institue of Yunnan Normal University
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and the Huize Agricultural Extension Center and has developed "Cooperation 88", a highyielding potato variety currently grown on more than 100,000 ha in Yunnan Province alone.
Winning steps for wheat: Since CIMMYT and China began collaborating, China has provided
more than 1,000 commercial wheat lines to CIMMYT. In turn, over the years, China's wheat
program has received more than 10,000 experimental wheat strains from CIMMYT. Crossbreeding with CIMMYT wheats has led to the development of leading varieties such as "Jinan
1" and "Jinmai 19", which are sown on more than 1 million ha each year.
Partnerships to improve crop-livestock farming systems: Mixed farming systems (where
crops and animals are integrated on the same farm) form the backbone of small-scale Asian
agriculture. ILRI has partnered with CAAS and with National Agriculture Research Systems
(NARS) from four Southeast Asian countries to form the Crop-Livestock System Research
Network (CASREN). This network is applying participatory approaches to improve
smallholder crop-livestock systems for poor farmers in the Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces,
among others. The country has sufficient land and water resources to feed its projected
population of 1.48 billion by 2025.
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19
Agriculture in Israel
The State of Israel lies at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, within the region
known as the Middle East. The state was established in 1948 as a homeland for the Jewish
people. Israel has had to forge a nation from the diverse Jewish people who immigrated from
all parts of the world, while trying to integrate a large Arab minority. The total land area of
Israel is 7,886 square miles (20,425 square kilometers), excluding East Jerusalem and the
territories occupied in the 1967 war. The country extends about 290 miles (470 kilometers)
from north to south and only some 85 miles (135 kilometers) from east to west at its widest
point. Israel's agriculture is the outcome of a long struggle against harsh, adverse conditions and
of making maximum use of scarce water and arable land. Its success lies in the determination
and ingenuity of farmers and scientists who have dedicated themselves to developing a
flourishing agriculture in a country which is more than half desert, thus demonstrating that the
real value of land is a function of how it is utilised. Agriculture plays an important part in
Israel's economy, representing today some 2.5 percent of the GDP and 3.6 percent of exports.
The proportion of agricultural workers among all employed persons in the labour force
is about 3.7 percent. Israel produces 95 percent of its own food requirements, supplemented by
imports of grain, oil seeds, meat, coffee, cocoa and sugar, which are more than offset by a wide
range of agricultural products for export. The United States is Israel's largest trading
partner.The principle U. S. exports to Israel include computers, integrated circuits, aircraft
parts, defence equipments (10% of world total), wheat and automobiles. Israel's chief export to
U. S. includes diamonds, jewelry printing machinery and telecommunication equipment. The
countries signed a free trade agreement (FTA) in 1985 progressively eliminated tariffs on most
goods traded between the two countries over the following 10 years. An agricultural trade
accord was signed in Nov., 1996 which addressed the remaining goods not covered in FTA.
Israel also has trade and cooperation agreements in place with the European Union and Canada
and is seeking to conclude such agreement with a number of other countries including Turkey,
Jordan and several countries in Eastern Europe.
Climatic Conditions
Despite its small size, Israel has a great diversity of landforms and climatic conditions.
The country has four main geographic regions: the coastal plain in the northwest, the highlands
in the north and center, the Negev in the south, and the Great Rift Valley in the east. Most of
the population lives on the coastal plain, a long, narrow strip of land along the Mediterranean.
This region includes sandy beaches and sand dunes, the large urban areas of Tel Aviv–
YafoIsrael's major rivers are the Jordan, Qishon, Yarqon, and Yarmuk. Most of the other
waterways are seasonal streams called wadis, which flow for part of the year and dry up for the
rest. The Jordan River forms part of the country's eastern border, dividing Israel and the West
Bank from Jordan. The river meanders generally southward through the Great Rift Valley, from
the Hulasrael's climate is Mediterranean, with mild, moist winters from October through April
and hot, dry summers from May through September. The climatic conditions vary by location
and terrain, however, and range from subtropical to desert. The northern mountainous areas
have great temperature variations, with some freezing and even occasional snow. The
Mediterranean located at the crossroads of three continents—Africa, Asia, and Europe—among
diverse terrain and climatic conditions, Israel's plant life is among the world's richest. Among
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the more than 2,800 species of plants are some adapted to alpine conditions and others to
deserts.
Stretching Limited Resources
Israel's agricultural development has always been challenged by the country's scarcity
of arable land and water resources. When Jews began resettling their historic homeland in the
late 19th century, their first efforts were directed towards reclaiming the land, mostly semi-arid.
Rocky fields were cleared, and terraces built in the hilly regions; swampland was drained, and
systematic reforestation begun; erosion of the loess soil of the coastal plain and the south was
counteracted, and salty land washed to reduce soil salinity.
Since Israel attained its independence (1948), the total area under cultivation has
increased from 408,000 acres (165,000 ha.) to some 1.07 million acres (435,000 ha.), and the
number of agricultural communities has grown from 400 to 725. During the same period,
agricultural production has expanded 16-fold, more than three times the population growth.
Water is in constant short supply. Rain falls only between November and April, with
uneven distribution of yearly precipitation usually ranging from some 28 inches (70 cm.) in the
north to less than 2 inches (5 cm.) in the south. About 75 % of the annual renewable water
resources is used for agriculture. To overcome regional imbalances in water availability, an
integrated network of pumping stations, reservoirs, canals and pipelines which transfers water
from the north, where most of the sources are, to the agricultural areas of the semi-arid south.
As a result, the amount of irrigated farmland has increased from 74,000 acres (30,000 ha.) in
1948 to some 460,000 acres (186,400 ha.) today.
To reduce water consumption for agriculture, advanced water-saving techniques to
direct water flow straight to the root zone of plants are applied, computerised irrigation systems
are used and green house/hothouse agriculture is being significantly expanded. Supervision of
the country's water supply includes setting water quotas, determining prices and initiating
supply-enhancing projects. A ten-year program which has been recently introduced proposes a
cut in the supply of improved water for agriculture; expanded utilization of purified brackish
water; a reduction of high water-consuming crops which do not obtain a high return; the storing
of flood waters; development of capital-intensive greenhouses; and massive desalination of sea
water.
The Co-operative Approach
Most of Israel's agriculture is organized on co-operative principles, the early pioneers
set up two unique forms of agricultural settlements: the kibbutz, a collective community in
which the means of production are communally owned and each member's work benefits all;
and the moshav, a farming village where each family maintains its own household and works
its own land, while purchasing and marketing are conducted co-operatively. Fish and Fowl
Activities of the country's fish sector consist of salt-water fishing in the Mediterranean
Sea, fresh-water fishing in Lake Kinneret and fish growing in artificial ponds located mainly in
northern Israel Poultry-raising is a major component of Israel's agriculture. Domestic
consumption of eggs and poultry is very high, with poultry comprising about two thirds of all
meat consumed. Poultry farming, which consists of producing table eggs as well as raising
chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks for meat, is particularly suitable for areas lacking sufficient
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water and arable land. In terms of market value, 85 percent of poultry and eggs are produced by
moshavim, with the rest coming from kibbutzim and other sources.
Milk, Meat and Honey
Israel's dairy farms supply all milk for domestic consumption as well as a surplus of
butterfat, used for the production of a wide variety of dairy products. The dairy herd consists
largely of Israel-Hoisteins, a high-yielding, disease-resistant breed, developed through careful
selection procedures. The annual average production of some 17,000 pounds (9,220 kg.) of 3.3
percent butterfat milk per cow is an international breeding, based on computerised production
data and genetic factors. The sheep milk sector has developed significantly in recent years, with
large quantities of milk being exported, mostly for cheese-making. Israel is the world's largest
per capita consumer of Turkey meat and the industry represents 2.5 per cent of total meat
output. A wide variety of Turkey products is exported, mainly to Western Europe. Bull calves
from the dairy herd and locally-raised sheep provide only a small part of the country's meat
requirements, mainly due to lack of natural pasture. The hundreds of tons of honey produced
annually by the country's apiarists are more than sufficient for local demand.
Research and Development
Israel's agricultural R&D has developed science-based technologies which have
brought about dramatic increases in the quantity and quality of the country's produce. The key
to its success lies in the two-way flow of information between research personnel and farmers.
Through a network of extension services, problems in the field are brought directly to the
researcher for solutions, and scientific results are quickly transmitted to the field for trial and
implementation. The drive to achieve maximum Yields and crop quality has led to the breeding
of new seed and plant varieties, as well as to development of innovations such as a soilenhancing substance (vermiculite) which, when mixed with local soils, boosts crop yields.
Agricultural Mechanisation and Agrotechnology
With a view towards lowering costs, increasing yields, improving quality and saving
manpower, innovative agricultural machinery and electronic equipment have been locally
designed and manufactured, and are widely used. Mechanised milking and egg-collecting
equipment, computerised feeding systems and production-recording computers have been
introduced, as well as machinery for the grading, packing, storing and transporting of produce.
Locally-developed agrotechnologies include computerised fertilization, which injects fertilisers
through the irrigation system, and advanced temperature and humidity control methods, which
provide healthful environments for raising poultry, flowers, out-of-season vegetables and the
like.
Countrywide Planning
Measures directed towards reducing agricultural costs include a countrywide effort to
switch to specialised farming, as opposed to mixed farming, and to halt production of crops for
which there are no sufficiently profitable markets. The Ministry of Agriculture supervises the
activities of the country's agricultural sector, including maintaining high standards of plant and
animal health, and promotes agricultural planning, research and marketing.
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Sharing Know-How
Since the late 1950s, Israel has been sharing its agricultural expertise with scores of
countries. The Centre for International Co-operation (MASHAV) of the Israel Ministry of
Foreign Affairs is active in Asia, Africa and Latin America; it is utilising the horizons of cooperation opened with Egypt since the Camp David Accords (1979); and, as a result of the
ongoing peace process, it is broadening its co-operation programs with a growing number of
countries in the Middle East and Eastern Europe as well as with countries of the
Commonwealth of Independent States. Agricultural projects and research collaboration
constitute about half of all Israel's international co-operation programs. Emphasis is placed on
training courses in agricultural subjects, with some 1,400 participants from over 80 countries
attending specialised farming courses in Israel every year.
Government Involvement
The Ministry of Agriculture supports and supervises the activities of the country's
agricultural sector, including maintenance of high standards for plant and animal health,
promotion of agricultural planning, extension, research and marketing. For many years,
agriculture was tightly controlled, with the allocation of production and water quotas for each
crop. At present, only quotas for milk and some control of eggs, broilers and potatoes are in
effect. Ongoing programs to increase the country's water potential involve rainfall enhancement
through cloud seeding, desalination of brackish water and sewage recycling. The search for
more water has recently led to exploitation of the huge underground reservoir of brackish water
in the Negev desert, which has been found suitable for growing specific crops. A ten-year
program has been introduced recently, which proposes a cut in the supply of improved water
for agriculture; treatment of all urban waste-water; expanded utilization of desalinated brackish
water; a reduction of high water-consuming crops; storing of flood waters; development of
capital-intensive greenhouses; and massive desalination of sea water.
Growing Crops in the Desert
Since 1948, the sparsely populated desert area between Be'er Sheva and Eilat has
played an important role in agricultural production. More than 40 percent of the country's
vegetables and field crops are grown in the Arava and Negev and 90 percent of the melons
exported come from the Arava. The common advantages of the two regions are their long hours
of sunshine and relatively high temperatures, as well as the fact that land is relatively cheap and
abundant and adequate water (saline or recycled) is available. Attempts to expand the growing
of flowers, grapes for wine, olives for oil, cattle for meat, ostriches and fish are now taking off.
The new wave of 'greening of the desert' has been encouraging. Israel tries to learn from other
countries: in recent years it has introduced a large range of arid land plants from Asia, Africa,
Australia and the Americas, and is trying them out under local conditions, occasionally
adapting and commercializing them.
High-Tech Farming
High-tech farming is the only way to survive in Israel. Indeed, market forces at home
and abroad, and a scarcity of land, labor and water are forcing major changes on Israeli
agriculture. Increasingly, there is a shift from extensively-farmed, mass-produced crops to
intensive growing of niche products based on scientific and technological R&D, such as hybrid,
virus-resistant tomatoes or tissue-culture propagated banana-tree saplings. The country's
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farmers face increasing competition. On the one hand, ties with the Palestinian Authority have
caused an influx of vegetables and poultry, depressing prices. On the other hand, readjustment
of world trade patterns in the wake of the GATT agreement has led - for the first time in Israel's
history - to imports of fresh and processed produce from Europe and the US. On the export
side, Israeli products like citrus and flowers face stiff competition from other producers in the
Mediterranean region. Their output today comprises the lion's share of the country's fresh
produce, as well as many processed food products, both for the domestic market and for export,
and almost all meat, poultry and fish.
Agriculture - by Branches
Fruit
Fruit sector is able to offer juicy citrus, creamy avocados, tangy kiwis and litchi,
aromatic guavas and succulent mangoes from the orchards of the coastal plain, sweet bananas
and honey-rich dates from subtropical areas; and crisp apples, tasty pears and plump cherries
ripened in the chilly air of the northern hills. The varied climate also enables fruit to be picked
out of season, or at the beginning or end of a season, prolonging its appearance on the shelves.
The cultivation of vineyards, first promoted as a commercial enterprise at the beginning of the
century, has been expanded to include special varieties of grapes for making a wide range of
prize-winning red and white wines. These include grapes grown with saline water in desert
conditions - a worldwide first. Citrus, the country's oldest export sector, continues to be a
leading export product with hundreds of thousands of tons of oranges, pink and white
grapefruits, lemons, pomelos and several varieties of easy-peeling tangerines, as well as
concentrates, juices and other products, shipped abroad annually. Efforts are now being
directed to the development of new citrus varieties that have a smaller seed content, a longer
shelf life, a pleasant appearance and a long marketing season.
Vegetables
Growing vegetables has become an art in Israel - based on choosing the right hybrid
varieties, fertilizers and irrigation methods, selecting greenhouse covers designed for specific
crops and employing innovative post-harvest treatments. Vegetables account for about 17
percent of Israel's total agricultural production. Technologically advanced methods are
employed, including soil-less greenhouses with climate control systems. Some 1800 hectares of
vegetables are grown in greenhouses. While tomatoes growing in the open field reach yields of
up to 80 tons per hectare, an average 200-300 tons can be grown in greenhouses under
controlled climatic conditions. Israel exploits the sunshine and high temperatures to grow high
quality vegetables during the competitors' off-seasons. In the last few years varieties of some
crops, notably tomatoes and melons, have been adapted for growth in the desert with saline
water irrigation. These are marketed under the brand name "Desert Sweet."
Field Crops
Some 220,000 hectares are devoted to field crops in Israel. Of these, 160,000 ha. are
rain-fed winter crops such as wheat for grain and silage, hay, legumes for seeds and safflower
for oil. The remainder is planted with summer crops such as cotton, sunflowers, chickpeas,
green peas, beans, corn, groundnuts and watermelon for seeds, mostly irrigated. The lion's share
of the 80,000 ha. of wheat is devoted to growing grain, while some 7000 ha. are for silage.
Almost the entire cotton crop of 28,500 ha. is drip irrigated, using mainly recycled wastewater.
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Cotton yields per unit of land are currently the highest in the world, averaging 5.5 tons per ha.
of seed cotton for the Acala variety (with 1.8 tons of fiber) and 5 tons per ha. of seed cotton for
the Pima variety (with 1.6 tons of fiber). The cotton sector is completely mechanized.
Floriculture
Individual farms averaging less than a hectare, are small by international standards, but
highly profitable. The expertise of the farmers contributes to the high quality and wide variety
of flowers (over 100). This include cut flowers such as roses, carnation gerbera anemone,
solidago and ornamental plants. New acclimatized varieties introduced from other countries
accounts for about 50 per cent of Israel's flower exports. These varieties includes "Summer
flowers" from Europe, acclimatized so that they can be picked and exported during Europe's
winter season and flowers indigenous to the Southern hemisphere.
Today most flowers are sold by the individual growers directly to buyers in the flower auctions
of the Netherland, Belgium, Germany and Elsewhere.
Production :- (2003/2004)
Product
Cotton
Cereals
Root and tuber crops
Meat
Production
80 thousand bales
107 thousand metric tons
305 thousand metric tons
323 thousand metric tons
Import :
Crops
Barley
Corn
Sorghum
Wheat
Coarse grains
Imports
450 thousand metric tons
750 thousand metric tons
50 thousand metric tons
1,500 thousand metric tons
240 thousand metric tons
Agriculture In Israel: Challenges And Responses
During its short history, agriculture in Israel has gone through different stages:
from improved productivity in traditional agriculture, to diversified agriculture, to (at
present) specialized agriculture geared towards a market for local consumption and
export. Agricultural production in Israel - an industrial country - accounts for only
about 3 per cent of GDP. The agricultural workforce in Israel is small: only 2.5 per cent
of the population is engaged in agriculture, compared with 20 per cent some 25 years
ago. The professional level of farmers is high, and they invest in high-level agricultural
inputs and the use of advanced technologies. The challenge of finding ways and means
to optimize the use of scarce natural resources has been met in two main ways. The
first involves extensive research, which has led to the introduction of new plants and
seed varieties along with more productive agricultural techniques which are adapted to
Israel's specific climatic, soil and water conditions. The second is the setting up of an
institutional framework which involves the government, the private sector and the
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individual farmers, and consists of national extension services and credit, and export
and farmers' organizations.
Israel's Agricultural Exports: Total: $590 million
Conclusions
The Israeli model of agricultural development can be characterized as one
which did not stem purely from privatized agriculture but was strongly influenced by
the state. Israel may have enjoyed some advantages over other developing countries in
the form of high levels of external financial support and skilled labor facilitating the
transition to a specialized agricultural economy. Nevertheless, the mechanisms of
market systems coordinated jointly by government, private entities and producer
organizations, the provision of an effective organizational structure, export promotion,
the integrated approach of research and extension services, and the sustainable use of
natural resources may serve as a model of agricultural development for other
developing countries.
170
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20
Agriculture In Turkey
Agriculture-the occupation of the majority of turks continues to be a crucial sector of
economy in the mid 1990 , although industrial production rising turkeys fertile soil and hard
working farmer make the country one of the ffew in the world that is self sufficient interims of
food . Turkeys grate variety of micro climate and adequate rainfall permit a broad range of crop
farming is conducted through out the country , although it is less common in the mountainous
region ,where animal husbandry is the principal activity. Ian the mid 1990 crop cultivations
accounted for about 2/3rd and live stock for 1/3rd of the gross value of the agriculture
production , forestry and fishing combined contributed a minimal amount
Agriculture share in overall income as fallen progressively ., decline from almost 50 %
of GDP in 1950 to around 15% of GDP by 1993 . During the same period grew only 1% faster
than the country population and per capita food production in absolute terms . The relatively
poor sowing the agricultural sector reflected parts govt. polices that had made rapid
industrialization a national priority since 1930 . In addition , farmer where slow to adopt
modern technique with agri. Out put suffering from in sufficient mechanization , limited use
of fertilizer excessive fallow land & un exploited waster sources the result has been low yield.
PRESENT STATUS OF AGRICULTURE IN TURKEY
Population
69.6 million
Population density sq/km
85
GDP per capitta (pp puss)
5890
total un employment
11%
employment in agri.(% of total employment
76%
gross demostic saving (% of GDP)
19.6%
.% population under 2$/day(ppp)
10%
Size if informal sector
41%
Depth of finance sector(m2/GDO)
45.5
Rrgulated micro finance institution banks,halk&zirrat bank(micro-finance industry)
Land Use Holoding
TOTAL GEOGRAPHICL AREA-78 MILLION HECTARE
__________________________________________________
Used in some form of agriculture
Area covered under field crop
Area covered by lay fallow
Area covered in vine yard & olive grove orchard
Area covered under forest and wood land
(26% of total geographical.area)
48 million ha
24.2 million ha
5.2 million ha
3.7million ha
20.2 million ha
Other remaining 28million hectares included lakes,marsh, waste land and build-up
area and 9million hecrare of permanent pasture land
Total cultivated area is about 28 million ha out of which 3.7 million ha irrigated remaining
depend upon distribution of rain fall
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LAND HOLDING
There are 4 categories of farmers according to the land holding
Category
area
farm land (%)
Small
<5 to 5ha
58%
Medium
5 to 29
22%
Large
20 to 100
18 %
Super large
>100ha
2%
Anatolia one of the poorest region of turkey fallow Feudal Style i.e.
Land lord system of farming in which single person control entire village land land and land
less families .
CROPPING PATERN AND PRODUCTION
MAIN CEREAL CROPS—cereal crops occupied 12.5 million ha area i.e. ½ of total
cultivated area
Wheat—9million ha
Barley -3million ha
Other minor cereal crops-rye,millets,corn,coarse grain
Turkish wheat consumption per capita is highest in the world
CROPS
PRODUCTION
Wheat
Barley
Corn
20million tones/year
7 million tones /year
2million tones/yea
Turkey is the main pulse producer in the middle east including dry beans, pea ,chickpea, and
lentil.
Total pulse production is 1.1million tones/year
Cotton is the major industrial crop mainly grown on coastal plain of south west
Cotton lint production is 600000tonnes/year
Out of which 10% exported
Tobacco is a classic industrial crop mainly Virginia tobacco is grown (European consumers
preference much more to this tobacco )
Tobacco production is 300000 tonnes /year
MAIN VEGETABLES GROWN
Sugerbeet
14million tones/year
Tomato
6 million tones /year(20000 production under green house)
Green vegetable1,2million tonnnes /year
MAIN OIL SEED CROP
Sun flower
1.1 million tones seed production
Medicinal plant: Opium poppy (production)30700 tonnes /year
Cultivation of fruits, nuts occupied about 13% of total cultivated land contributed 33% of total
value of crop production..
Main horticultures plants are hazel net, grapes, pistachionut, cashewnut and olive.
Turkey is the major producer high quality exported to USA and italy.
The average annual production is 4000000tonnes /year out of which 200000 tonnes expored
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Turkey is the largest producer of nmut in the world
Total fruit and veg. forgian exchange ids about 1bilion us $/year
Cropping intensity of turkey 23%
AGRICULTURAL OUT PUT IN TURKEY 2004
AGRICULTURAL OUT PUT
BIOTURKIS LIRA MIOeur %
TOTAL
26724351 44481
100
CROP
OUT 14920080 24834
55.8
PUT
CERAL CROP
3092936
5148
11.6
7.6
WHEAT
2100502
3496
645117
1074
2.4
BARLEY
MAIZE
244583
407
0.9
RICE
48046
80
0.2
OTHERCEARL 54687
91
0.2
1708728
2844
6.4
INDUSTRIAL
6116
13.7
CROP
3674327
VEGGETABLE 4644860
7731
17.4
6.7
FRUIT
1799229
2995
OTHERS
LIVESTOCK
66522055 11072
24.9
SHEEP
1401603
2333
5.2
CATTLE
4212935
7011
15.8
HENS
650068
1082
2.4
LIVESTOCK
388359
8576
1.5
ANIMAL
PRODUCT
5152206
8576
19.3
Share Of Most Important Product Or Product Group In Total Agriculture Trade 20022004
PRODUCT
CEREAL
OILSEED ANDOLIGENICFRUIT
EDBLE FRUIT AND NUT
LIVE ANIMALS
DAIRY PRODUCTS
PRODUCT OF ANIMAL ORIGIN
IMPORT%
TOTAL
AGRI.IMPORT
100%
11.6
8.4
2.8
2.1
EXPORT % TOTAL
AGRI. EXPORT 100%
1.0
1.1
0.7
0.5
0.9
.0.9
5.1
1.3
7.7
2.9
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ANIMAL OR VEG. FATS AND 13.2
OILS
0.6
PREPRATION OF VEG. FRUITS
AND NUTS
5.9
13.2
SUGAR
AND
SUGAR 0.5
CONFECTIONARY
COFFEE,TEA,MATE,SPICES
1.0
COCOA
AND
COCOA
PREPARATION
2.5
TOBACCO
AND
TOBACCO
PRODUCTS
11.2
6.6.
OTHERS
13.1
43.4
1.5
2.5
.
2.4
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21
Agriculture in Argentina
The total land area of Argentina is 274 million ha, of which 142 million ha is under
permanent pasture, 34 million ha under arable crops and one million ha under permanent crops.
About 1.6 million ha are irrigated (FAO).
Argentina can be divided into three large agricultural regions:
•
•
•
The humid region covering about 68 million ha (25 percent).
The semi-arid region, 48 million ha (15 percent), where irrigation is often
necessary.
The arid region, 170 million ha (60 percent), consists of practically all of
Patagonia to the south of Rio Colorado.
For the purposes of this agricultural study, three large regions are examined
Pampa
This region includes the three most important provinces of the country, Buenos Aires,
Cordoba and Santa Fe. The annual rainfall varies from 800 mm in the west to 1 000 mm
in the east.
Northern region
The northern region comprises:
•
•
Noroeste (NOA): Salta, Jujuy, Tucumán, Santiago de Estero and Catamarca
Nordeste (NEA): Corrientes, Chaco, Misiones and Formosa
Irrigated valleys
This region comprises:
•
•
Cuyo: La Rioja, San Juan and Mendoza
Comahue: Rio Negro and Neuquén
San Juan and Mendoza account for 41.5 percent of the irrigated area in the country.
Argentina is an important world producer and exporter of soybeans, maize and wheat and
certain other agricultural products. The total land area of Argentina is 274 million ha, of which
142 million ha is under permanent pasture, 34 million ha under arable crops and one million ha
under permanent crops. About 1.6 million ha are irrigated (FAO). Argentina can be divided into
three large agricultural regions:
•
•
The humid region covering about 68 million ha (25 percent).
The semi-arid region, 48 million ha (15 percent), where irrigation is often necessary.
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•
176
The arid region, 170 million ha (60 percent), consists of practically all of Patagonia to
the south of Rio Colorado. As there is little agricultural activity, this region is not
covered in this report. Figure 1 shows the agro-ecologial regions of Argentina.
Figure 1 : Agro-ecological regions in Argentina
Source: Adapted from Diffrieri (1958).
The irrigation of fruit and horticultural crops with pressure systems (sprays, drip and similar)
has increased at an exponential rate.
Generalizing, most grain crops are produced in the Pampa region, while the northern regions
are the main producers of industrial crops. The irrigated valleys region is important for the
production of higher value crops, such as fruits and horticultural crops. Mendoza is the main
wine-producing region of the country. Horticultural crops are also produced around the main
urban centers.
The main activities are the production of meat (51 percent), milk (27 percent), poultry (13
percent), eggs (6 percent) and pigs (3 percent). Bovine meat is produced using both the
traditional extensive system and in feedlots.
•
•
•
Fruit crops
Industrial crops
Horticultural crops
The crops are grouped according to the level of technology used (Table 1).
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In the case of grains, high and medium technology producers account for 82 percent of the area
and 86 percent of the production, while in the case of fruit crops the 8 percent of producers with
a high level of technology produced 42 percent of the production. In the case of industrial crops
14 percent of producers with a high level of technology produced 50 percent of the output.
Table 1.Areas, number of producers and production according to the technical level
Crop group
Producers Production
Main crops
Technical Area
level
('000 ha) ('000)
('000 tonnes)
Cereals and oil crops
Low
3 187
38
7 015
Soybean
Medium
8 413
75
24 564
Wheat
High
5 103
28
19 545
Maize
Total
16 703
141
51 124
Sunflower
Low
64
14
532
Citrus
Medium
80
8
1 864
Grapes
High
75
2
1 751
Apples
Total
219
24
4 147
Pears
Low
361
31
3 733
Cotton
Medium
543
22
8 761
Sugar cane
High
370
9
12 318
Tobacco
Total
1 274
62
24 812
Yerba mate
Low
27
4
516
Potato
Medium
23
3
533
Garlic
High
48
1
2 036
Onion
Total
98
8
3 085
Tomato
Fruit crops
Industrial crops
Horticultural crops
Note: These are not national totals. They concern producers for which information on levels of
were available.
TABLE
Differences in yield at different technical levels
2
Crop group
Low-medium
Medium-high
Low-high
Grains
Fruit crops
Horticultural crops
Industrial crops
27%
55%
18%
37%
24%
38%
15%
28%
44%
70%
44%
55%
Three levels of technology adoption were defined, according to the type of technology used by
a given sector. The variables included yields, areas of production, number of producers[1],
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economic indicators, the size of farms and constraints to the adoption of technology. The latter
were evaluated according to a range from no constraints (0) to serious constraints (3). Table 2
summarizes difference of yield between levels, expressed as a proportion of the yield of the
higher level. The gap between the low level and the medium level in general is higher than that
between the medium level and the high level, with some exceptions within each group. The
difference between the extremes is about 50 percent for each group of crops.
PRODUCTION BY REGION
Pampa
This region produces the main grain crops (wheat, maize, soybean and sunflower).
Approximately 15 percent of farms in the humid Pampa are mixed, 28 percent exclusively
arable and 17 percent exclusively livestock. There has been an increase in the purely arable
farms at the expense of purely livestock farms. In 1992 arable farms represented about a third,
increasing to 44 percent in 1999 (White, 2000). The cattle population fell during the same
period from 32 to 27 million head.
In terms of the areas cultivated, the main crops are soybean, wheat, maize and sunflower in that
order. Secondary crops are sorghum, barley, groundnuts and flax.
Following the abolition of the export levy in 1991, grain production became much more
attractive. An average production of cereals and soybeans of 29 million tonnes between 1989
and 1991 rose to over 50 million tonnes by the end of the decade.
There has been a substantial concentration of land, reduction in the number of producers and
increase in the average farm size in the Pampa region (Table 4).
The most important technical changes in the 1990s were the increase in the use of fertilizers
and direct seeding. Today approximately one in three ha sown in the humid Pampa is direct
seeded. This development is explained by the increase in the cost of fuel, the availability of
cheap and efficient herbicides and the yield potential of herbicide resistant soybean varieties.
With the improvement in fertilizer technology, direct seeding is increasingly used also for
cereals crops.
TABLE
Number and average area of farms in the Pampa region
Pampa region
Buenos Aires
NEA
NOA
Irrigated valleys
4
farms Average
(ha)
size
Number
('000)
of
1988
2002
1988
2002
196
85
65
69
136
68
56
52
391
222
261
363
531
284
238
498
In a decade, the sown area in the four provinces of Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Salta and
Chaco has increased from one to more than three million ha, with an annual rate of increase of
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6 percent. Until 1997 rice and cotton destined for the Brazilian market were important but with
the progressive devaluation of the Brazilian Real they became less profitable and much of their
area has been replaced with soybean.
Land is available with regard to the cultivation of fruits and horticultural crops and so is export
capacity but there are inadequacies in the production chain. The traditional stakeholders lack
capital and their ability to manage production for export is limited.
If the production of 100 million tonnes of soybean is to be reached by 2013, an annual growth
rate in production of 3 percent will be required, compared with 6 percent during the 1990s. This
increase would be obtained by an increase in the cropped area and in yields. There has been
little increase in the overall cultivated area in the Pampa region during the past decade, except
in the northern provinces, principally Chaco, Santiago del Estero, Salta and Tucumán, where
there are large reserves of fertile land. Little progress can be expected from an increase in the
proportion of the total area that is fertilized in the Pampa, since it is already close to the ceiling.
As regards the Northern Regions, in Chaco, Santiago del Estero and Salta scarcely 25 to 30
percent of the best land is cultivated. The cultivated area in these regions has grown at a rate of
5 percent per year. Directly sown herbicide resistant soybean is the main new crop, rotated with
maize and, marginally, with wheat. The sunflower area is also increasing; soybeans and
sunflowers are expected to reach 60 to 70 percent of the total area. The land in these new areas
is relatively fertile and is not much fertilized. However, the nutrient reserves of their soils
decline very rapidly, unlike the case with humid Pampa’s soils.
Changes in the profile of producers
During the past decade there have been profound changes in the profiles of the agricultural
producers, especially those of the Pampa.
Level of education : One in four producers has completed tertiary or university education.
However, 43 percent of producers in the humid Pampa have not completed secondary
education. There are considerable variations between regions.
Place of residence: Approximately 28 percent of the producers in the humid Pampa live on the
farm. However, in certain other regions only 10 percent live on the farm. Only 15 percent of the
producers live in cities with more than 50 000 inhabitants, apart from the region of the
southeast area of Buenos Aires, where the figure is 38 percent. Out of a total national
population in 2001 of 37.5 million people, only 4.4 million were classed as rural, and 3.7
million, or 10 percent of the total, agricultural (FAO).
Access to technical assistance: Many institutions are involved in the provision of technical
assistance to agriculture. They include state, national and provincial programmes, private nonprofit institutions, profit making institutions, consultancy organizations, independent
technicians, distributors of agrochemicals, seed and other inputs etc. The level of assistance has
improved significantly during the past decade. In 1992, 44 percent of the producers did not
receive advice whereas today this is the case with only one in four. Eighty four percent of the
producers receive advice on accounting and taxation.
Land ownership: About 50 percent of the producers today cultivate rented land (Table 3). The
real estate market in land is very active. The growing trend towards the purchase of land for
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renting reflects the attraction of investment in land due to lower debts in agriculture, the
absence of alternative investment opportunities and the low cost of capital. A land-owning
farmer may expand the area of his farm with rented land.
References:
Diffrieri, H. 1958. Las Regiones Naturales In La Argentina. Suma de Geografías. Tomo I. Cap.
IV. Ed. Peuser. Buenos Aires.
FAO. FAOSTAT Database http://www.fao.org/.
FAO/UNESCO. 1974. Soil Map of the World 1:5 000 000. Volume I. Legend. UNESCO, Paris.
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22
Agriculture In Denmark
Denmark has about 5,415,971 inhabitant. The population density is approximately
125 per sq. km. About three quarters of the total population live in towns or in urban areas.
About a quarter live in the rural districts and half of these are directly engaged in farming.
Denmark is almost completely surrounded by water. There is only one land frontier of 68 km.
(42 miles). This is in south Juteland and borders Germany.
Juteland has a little more than half of Denmark’s total land area. The coastline, therefore, is
particularly long more than 7,400 km (4,600 miles) in total and the country is strongly
influenced by this close association of land and sea. Denmark is a low-lying country. The
average height of the land above sea level is 30 meters (98 feet) and Denmark’s highest point is
only 173 meters (568 feet) above sea level. Denmark lies in the deciduous belt of the northern
temperate zone, near the border of coniferous belt. Cultivated fields dominate the Danish
landscape, and represent almost three-quarters of the total area. Because of that agriculture is of
great importance to the national economy. With only a small part of the land under permanent
grass, Denmark probably has the highest ratio of arable land in the world.
Denmark’s natural conditions are relatively favourable to good farming. This is true in
relation to the general configuration of the land as well as to soil and climate. Over the greater
part of the country all the main arable crops can be grown. The soil of the country also contains
a considerable amount of organic matter. Erosion is rare and does not present any noteworthy
problem. The division of Denmark into districts in terms of agricultural geography mainly
reflects the variations in soil types because climatic differences are relatively small. The rainfall
is somewhat higher in the western part of the country than elsewhere. The average temperature
in Denmark is 7.5 degrees Celsius with January and February as the coldest months minus 0.1
Celsius and July as the warmest-16 degrees Celsius.
ABOUT DENMARK
Country
Capital
Language
Climate
Area
Population
Average Density
Currency
Calling Code
Gross Domestic
(GDP)
GDP per capita
Per Capita Income
Basis of GDP
Annual Growth Rate
Export
Import
Denmark
Copenhagen
Danish (1st), English (2nd)
Temperate
16,640 sq.miles (43,096 sq.km.)
5,415,971
125 persons per sq.km.
Danish Krone, (7.88 kroner = US $ 1 )
+45
Product $ 174.4 billion
$ 34,718
$ 37,883
3% Farming (2.4% Agriculture and Fishery)
26% Industry
71% Services
2.1%
$ 64.2 billion (annually)
$ 54.5 billion (annually)
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Key Trading Partners
182
USA (5%) and Mostly European Countries like
Germany (21%), Sweden (13%), Norway (5%),
UK (8%) and others.
INTRODUCTION OF DENMARK AGRICULTURE
About 14 percent of Denmark’s population is directly engaged in farming, but they
produce about three times as much food as the home market requires, sixty five to seventy
percent of Denmark’s food production must, therefore, be exported. Food amounts to half of
Denmark’s total exports. These facts indicate a high degree of efficiency in production, the
dependence of Danish agriculture upon its export markets, and the importance of farming in
Denmark’s national economy. For almost a century, Danish farming has been based on the
production in quantity of high quality products for exports.
Danish agriculture produces foodstuffs sufficient for 15 million people, which is three
times the population of Denmark. Although the part played by agriculture in the Danish
economy overall has steadily fallen in step with industrialization and economic developments
as a whole, it is still an essential occupation by dint of its net foreign currency earning capacity,
its effect on employment and its importance in supplying everyday foodstuffs. As farming
accounts for almost 2/3 of the total area of the country, the industry also plays an important part
for its impact on both the cultural and the scenic landscapes.
Area under Agriculture
In 1999, the area of Denmark devoted to agriculture constituted 2.679 million
hectares, including 0.2 million hectares set aside or used for non-food crops in accordance with
the EU set-aside rules. Topographically this area is well suited to cultivation, and plant
production benefits from a normally good climate and precipitation evenly spread over the year.
Farm Structures
In the first half of the 20th century there were about 200,000 farms with an average
area of 16 hectares, but after 1950 numbers began to decline slowly. From 1960 this trend
accelerated, and during the 1960s an average of 5000 farms disappeared each year. In the 1970s
and 1980s the decline leveled off to 2600 holdings a y the 1990s to 2300 so that in 1999 the
number of holdings had fallen to 58,000 with an average area of 46 hectares. The drop has been
most pronounced among farms offering full-time family employment, and in 2000 only 20,000
farms provided full-time employment, each with an average area of c. 100 hectares..
Since 1995 the number of organic farms has risen steadily. In 2000 Denmark counted
about 3500 organic farms, representing 6,6% of the total number of farms, and organic land
area amounted to about 165,000 hectares, corresponding to 6,2% of the total agricultural land
area. As to the distribution of organic farm types, 25% of organic farmers are cattle farmers,
14% are pig farmers c. 20% are crop farmers
Numbers Employed
In 2000, primary agriculture, including fur farming and horticulture, employed
84,000 people, or 3% of the country's workforce; in western parts of the country, employment
in agriculture can account for as much as 5-7% of the workforce. Half of the 12,200 who are
occupied in the horticulture sector are paid employees as opposed to only 1/3% in agriculture,
which is dominated by family-owned farms. About one farm in four employs one or more
permanent helpers. In manufacturing concerns relating to agriculture - i.e. dairies, abattoirs, etc.
- there were 52,000 employees in 2000. In addition a further 64,000 were in supply, transport
and other service activities. Thus, directly and indirectly, agricultural production provided work
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for altogether 200,000 people, corresponding to approximately 8% of all those in full-time
employment.
Most Danish farms are freehold, 91% of them being family-run farms in individual
ownership, 8% run by companies of various kinds, and the rest owned by the State, local
authorities, foundations, etc. In 2000 areas in leasehold make up 26,5% of the agricultural area
and principally represent land leased out to supplement existing holdings. Self-ownership is a
sustaining element of farming in Denmark. There are only few corporation-owned units and cooperatively owned farming units.
Production. The annual harvest yield in plant production varies between 160 and 170 million
crop units, of which 60% are cereal crops. Over 90% of plant production is used as animal feed,
primarily for pigs and cattle. 64% of agricultural production goes to export.
Economically, Danish agriculture has benefited greatly from the EU agricultural
policy. With the 1992 EU reform a gradual adjustment of earlier support arrangements was set
in motion with a view to reducing both agricultural production and support, partly through setaside and area subsidies rather than product subsidies. With the 1993 GATT agreement, and
later, in 1995 when GATT was replaced with WTO (World Trade Organization), the
international framework for EU agricultural policy up to the year 2000 was further determined.
The aim of the agreements gradually to introduce unsupported world market prices for
agricultural products is judged to imply a considerable advantage for the export-oriented
Danish agriculture.
Farming Methods:
Danish farmers are still predominantly mixed farmers, growing arable crops, running a
milking herd, breeding cattle and pigs, and producing eggs and chickens. Each of these lines
has been a department within a balanced system of management to give a sound rotation of
corps and to make the best use of both manpower and by-products, such as straw, skimmed
milk and manure.
This has been the general Danish system with minor variations between the different sizes
of farms in the different regions. The smaller farms have used their labour more for the
production of animal products, supplementing their homegrown fodder by purchasing feeding
stuff to do so; the larger farms have placed more emphasis on producing arable crops for sale.
Sugar beet, seed production, potatoes, beef cattle have been more prevalent in some regions
than others for historic or physical reason such as soil, climate or transport. Really specialized
farms, however, have been extremely rare until very recently. The versatile, well-balanced
system of mixed farming has undoubtedly been the source of Danish agriculture's strength,
contributing greatly to its ability to compete in the export markets.
FARM PRODUCTION BY TYPES OF FARM:
The bigger farms are more concerned with grain and other sales crops; the
smaller farms grow fodder crops, particularly beet, which makes heavy labour demands.
Similar differences are found in the number of domestic animals. Smallholdings have three to
four times the number of cows and pigs per acre than the larger farms. The medium-sized farms
have medium stocking figures. On the small, intensively run family holding, more than 90
percent of the income is from the animals. Cattle contributing nearly half and the pigs more
than a third of the income. The sale of plant products is negligible. On the medium-sized Danish
farm, the typical larger family farm, animal products still dominate with 84 percent of the total
income. Cattle and pigs each contribute around 40 percent of the total income. The poultry
flock is comparatively small. The sale of plant products, however, makes an important
contribution to income. On the large farms, the animals contribute only half the income. The
other half is from the sale of grain and other crops. Almost all the work is done by hired
workers, mainly permanent farm hands, and qualified managerial assistants and specialists.
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MECHANISATION:
Increased productivity is partly due to farm mechanization and partly to the greater use
of specialist services by other traders and professions, such as cultivation or harvesting through
machinery stations, ready-mixed concentrates, fertilizers, etc. from the merchants, and so on.
Tractors are widely used. Most farms over five hectares (12 acres) have their own tractor and
only a few thousand farms still use horses to any significant extent. Combine harvesters have
grained ground rapidly since 1960, replacing binders and threshing machines. Many of the
combines were being used on more than one farm and it was estimated that nearly three
quarters of the total grain crop was harvested by combine. There was one combine harvester to
every 52 hectares (129 acres) under grain. Mechanization of fieldwork has also been developed
in other ways. The green fodder harvester has brought great progress in the ensiling of both
grass crops and beet tops. Lifting of roots and potatoes has been extensively mechanized. The
singling of large areas of fodder beet and similar rot crops still presents great problems though
new methods in sowing and chemical weed killers have considerably reduced the work
involved.
CROP HUSBANDRY:
Production of main crops (in thousand tones)
Crop
Wheat
Rye
Barley
Oats
Pulses
Potatoes
Rapeseed
1997
4964
453
3887
155
384
1545
291
1998
4928
538
3565
161
386
1456
359
1999
4471
248
3675
130
193
1502
411
2000
4600
320
4120
250
180
1585
280
Area occupied by main crops (in thousand ha.)
Crop
Wheat
Rye
Barley
Pulses
Potatoes
Rapeseed
1997
672
84
538
95
39
104
1998
667
103
498
106
36
112
1999
611
49
551
66
38
140
2000
627
55
598
38
40
101
Danish farmers produce 85 percent of the fodder to feed their farm stock and the whole
of seed, bread grain, industrial grain, sugar and potatoes to meet the home market demand.
Moreover, seeds, grain, potatoes and sugar etc. are exported and represent in total about 10
percent of all agricultural exports.
Broadly, about 50 percent of the cultivated area is used for grain, 30 percent for grass and
green fodder, 10 percent for fodder beets and the remaining 10 percent for commercial crops
such as sugar beet, potatoes, seeds, vegetable etc.
Horses have almost disappeared. The number of cattle remains constant.
Increased yields per hectare have made it possible to use less land for grass and fodder roots
etc. and more land for grain to feed the rapidly increasing pig herd. Denmark's grain harvest
shows a very high yield by international standards, with 35-40 hectokilo per hectare.
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These large yields require considerable applications of fertilizer. Liquid and solid
manure meet about half the requirements of nitrogen, phosphates and potash. The mixed
farming system with high stocking figures per acre for cattle and pigs almost everywhere,
undoubtedly provides a more effective contribution of natural fertilizers than under more
specialized farm methods. Consumption of commercial fertilizers is modest compared with
other countries whose crop yields are on a similar level. The average annual consumption of
artificial fertilizers per hectare for the whole of Denmark's cultivated area is about 40 kg. P205,
60 kg. of K20 & 50 kg. of N.
Soil analysis is widely used to guide the farmer in the use of phosphates or potash and to
detect deficiencies in magnesium and trace elements. The mixed farming system makes
possible a sound crop rotation of grain, roots, grasses and possibly different sales crops. New
methods of weed control and disease control and more effective cultivation by modern
machines and implements have encouraged a more flexible attitude towards the rotation. Most
of the annual crops are sown in the spring. Winter wheat, winter rye and winter rape represent
only 6-7 per cent of the cultivated land. Usually manure is spread and ploughed in during late
autumn or winter. Spring-sown cereals are sown as early as possible, but the time of sowing can
vary from early March to late April, if the winter is a long one. Root crops are usually sown
during the first half of April.
The total area under grain is 1.6 million hectares (4.0 mill. acres). About 15 per cent is
used for bread grain, 60 per cent for barley and around 25 percent for oat and mixed crops.The
wheat and rye production covers the home market's bread grain requirements, which is twothirds wheat and one-third rye. The main wheat producing areas are in the districts with the best
land, particularly in Southern Denmark.
The widespread use of combine harvesters has made the harvest two to three weeks later. Grass
takes second place to arable crops. Indeed, two thirds of it is in the rotation as short-term leys.
Approximately 60 per cent of this is in rotation, 35 per cent is permanent grass, much of it
pasture too good to be broken up, and the remainder under lucerne or other green fodder.Grass
in rotation consists mostly of two-year clover and grass mixtures, which make a valuable
alternating crop in the rotation with a relatively high protein content for stock feeding. Most of
the crop is grazed but a part is kept for winter fodder as hay or silage.
The cultivation of root crops, particularly fodder beet, is a Danish specialty. The widespread
use of fodder roots in Danish agriculture dates back to before the turn of the century. Originally
mangolds and turnips dominated but they have now been replaced by fodder beets, which have
a high dry matter content, and swedes. The area is almost evenly divided between them. The
beet has a dry matter content of 17-20 per cent. Fodder beets are well suited to Danish
conditions and their feeding value is high, thinning out, weeding, lifting and transport make
heavy labour demands. Lifting has been extensively mechanized, but the manual labour
required for thinning out is costly and often difficult to obtain. New methods such as precision
sowing of specially treated seed and strip spraying against weeds have reduced the problem so
greatly that fodder beets could well retain their importance in the system.
Sugar beet production meets the Danish home consumption of sugar, and in recent years there
have been considerable exports to Germany, Finland and Sweden. Sugar beet production began
in the 1870's. It is concentrated, in the main, on the better soil of the South Eastern parts of
Denmark. The stronghold of potato growing, is the light soil in Jutland where it is a relatively
safe crop.The growing of healthy seed potatoes is well-organized and subject to highly effective
control and certification. Industrial seed crops occupy only 30,000 hectares (75,000 acres).
Rape is by far the most important. Most of the seed produced is exported. There is also a
limited production of yellow mustard, flax and linseed. Seed growing occupies around 60,000
hectares (150,000 acres) and is of great economic importance. There are high-yield Danish
strains of almost all root crops, leguminous plants and grasses. Major seed exports are for sugar
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beet, white clover seed, cocksfoot grass, smooth meadow-grass, common and Italian rye-grass,
fescue and red fescue. A wide variety of garden seeds are also produced and exported.
Danish horticulture includes fruit and berry cultivation, vegetable growing and nurseries,
with a total area of 18,625 hectares. In addition there is mushroom production and the
production of flowers and vegetables in hothouses with a total area of 500 hectares distributed
among a good 600 concerns. In 2003 total exports of potted plants amounted to 2.9 billion, the
most important export market for potted plants being Germany, which took 34% in 2003,
followed by Sweden with 18%.In geographical terms, open-air horticulture is evenly distributed
in contrast to the area occupied by greenhouses, of which 53% is found in Funen, 13% in Århus
county, 9% in the remainder of Jutland, and 24% in Zealand and the eastern islands. In market
gardens the plant growth is accelerated partly by increasing the hours of light, and during the
winter and at night many greenhouses are lit up.
Agro-Based Industries
Agro-based industries play a major role in the production of various products by using crops as
their raw material. The various crops, which are broadly used in these industries and also their
products, are as under: Crops for Liquid Biofuels: - Flax, Hemp, Kenaf, Fiber Sorghum.
Crops for Cosmetics and Toiletries: - Amaranth, Caraway, Coriander, Pot Marigold, Quinoa,
Caper spurge, Linseed, Jojoba.
Crops for Dyes: Castor, Safflower, Madder, Woad.
Crops for Lubricant and Waxes: Coriander, Rain Daisy, Rape, Crambe, Spurge, Caper
Spurge, Castor, Linseed.
Crops for Paints, Coatings and Varnishes: - Pot Marigold, Rain Daisy, Hemp, Caper Spurge.
Crops for Paper and Pulp:Hemp, Quinoa, Flax, Kenaf, Mallow, Sorghum, Miscanthus, Reed
Canary Grass.
Crops for Pharmaceutical products and Nutritional Supplements: - Amaranth, Caraway,
Coriander, Pot Marigold, Buglos, Hemp, Field Scabious, Castor, Linseed, Mallows, Poppy.
Crops for Plastic and Polymer: - Quinoa, Castor, Meadowfoam.
Crops for Soaps, Detergents, Surfactants and Solvents: - Coriander, Hemp, Quinoa, Caper
Spurge, Castor, Poppy.
Crops for Textiles: - Hemp, Flax, Cotton, Nettle.
Agricultural Research Institutes
The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University
The Central Co-operative Committee
The State Committee on Animal Husbandry
The State Committee on Crop Husbandry
The State Machinery and Equipment Testing Institute
The State Dairy Committee
The Foundation for Rationalization in Agriculture
The Farm Economics Bureau
The Institute of Commercial and Industrial Plants
The Organic Food Council
Danish Plant Directorate
The Danish Consumer Council
Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences
The Danish Research Center for Organic Farming
The Danish Society of Practical Ecology
The Danish Directorate for Food, Fisheries and Agro-Business
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23
Agriculture In Russia
Most of Russian farmland lies in the black-earth belt of forest-steppe and steppe zone
that make up these called fertile triangle. Area outside the fertile wedge are unsuitable for crop
cultivation. In 2003 the agriculture sector accounted for 5.16 per cent of GDP. Production
however has declined since the dissolution of USSR in 1991. The largest decline was in grain
production which fell by 25% between 1991-94. Livestock No. fell by 30% between 1991-95.
Efforts to move the agriculture sector towards a market structure have also been implanted in
an uneven fashion. Despite the problems facing agriculture Russia remains a major producer of
grains including wheat, barley, oat and rye and potato among vegetables and of livestocks. In
2004 Russia produced 42.2 million tons of wheat, 18 million tons of barley, 4 million tons of
rye, 37 million tons of potato and 15.7 million tons of other vegetables. Other important grains
include maize, millet, paddy, various types of temperate fruits such as apple, pear plum and
cherry are grown extensively. Country also produces significant quantity of watermelon,
grapes, peaches & various kind of berries.
CLIMATE:
The harsh climate prevalent in most of Russia reflects its high latitude. Winters are
generally long and were cold and summers are short with temperature ranging from hot to
relatively cool. High mountains running along the countries southern boundaries largely
prevent the penetration of tropical air mass from the south. Russia encompasses a number of
distinct climate zones which generally extends across the country with east west belts.
AREA & PRODUCTIVITY:
(In thousand hectares)
Total Area:
1707540
Land Area:
1688850
Arable Land Area:
125718
Permanent Crop Area:
1858
Irrigated Area:
4600
MAJOR CROP GROWN IN RUSSIA:
Major crops grown in Russia are wheat, rye, barley, oat, millets and among vegetables
potato & some temperate fruits like apple, peaches, plums. Russia was the largest grain
producer in the former USSR. At the same time Russia was behind the majority of other Soviet
Republics in yielding capacity because of natural & climatic conditions.
Crop
Area
harvested
(1000 ha)
Yield
kg/ha
Productivity (1000 MT)
Cereals
41664
2034
84729
Wheat
22400
2257
50551
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Rice
142
3136
483
Coarse Grains
19110
1763
33689
Barley
8000
2336
18688
Maize
580
2657
1541
Rye
3900
1831
7139
Oat
4400
1295
5700
Millet
1100
265
292
Potatoes
3229
9879
31900
Total pulses
697
2613
1821
Fruits
3450
FAO: yearbook 2002 vol. 56.
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION:
The situation of livestock sector is even more critical than in the crop sector of
Russian Agriculture. The cattle population decreased from 57.0 million heads in 1950 to 43.9
million heads in 1994. the number of pigs diminished from 35.3 million heads to 25.0 million
heads. Total stock of goat and sheep fall from 58.2 million to 35.9 million heads.
Livestock numbers in Russia
Cattle
:
24.8 million
Sheep
:
14.5 million
Pigs
:
16 million
Goats
:
2.34 million
Chicken
:
342 million
Horse
:
1.56 million
MAJOR INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES OF DIFFERENT CROPS OF RUSSIA
Crop
Pest
Disease
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Winter cereals
Spring cereals
189
Rodents
Root rot
Different Aphids
Leaf
spots
powdery mildew
Frit fly
Brown rust
Aphids
Leaf spots of barley
and
Crown rust of oat
Cabbage
Diamond back moth
Cabbage fly
Flea beetles
Potato
Colorado beetles
Potato mosaic and leaf
curl
Late blight of potato
Early blight of potato
Clover
Crown rot of clover
Strawberry
Grey mould
FOOD SITUATION AND CONSUMPTION PATTERNS IN RUSSIA:
The supply of basic foods in Russia – bread, potato, cow milk, hen, egg, fish was near
the optimal level in the late 1980. There was only the lack of meat, vegetables and fruits but the
Russians did not suffer any deficiency of proteins. Per capita consumption of 3380 calories per
day was estimated by FAO in 1988 but after 1991 it decreased drastically for five years.
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Per capita consumption of basic foods in Russia (kg/year)
Food
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Meat
69
60
59
50
45
Milk & its products
347
281
294
277
254
Butter
5.8
5.4
5.3
5.0
4.0
Vegetable oils
7.8
6.7
6.0
6.5
3.25
Taking into consideration possible social consequences, the government would be
forced to enlarge the scale of aid to low income population.
PRIVATE FARMS AND HOUSE HOLDS
It is now obvious to many people that small private farms will never solve Russia’s
food problem. They have a chance to survive & flourish only in the frame work of close
cooperation between themselves or horizontal integration with agro food corporation. About 11
million hectare land is of private farms. Over the past 5 years 40,000 farmers have left the
agriculture occupation.
MAJOR PROBLEMS OF RUSSIAN FARMERS
•
High taxes
•
Expensive credits
•
Poor marketing
•
Lack of government support
•
Natural and climatic conditions
GOVERNMENT IN AGRICULTURE
Government support of Russian agriculture fall sharply in the 1990’s. The share of
APK in budget subsidies decreased from 23.8% in 1987 to 14.3% in 1992 and to 8.6% in 1994.
One third of total appropriations was spent for procurement of agricultural produce.
Volume of procured produce in million tons
1993
1994
Grains
28.2
12.1
Potato
1.7
0.7
Vegetables
2.1
1.4
Cow milk
24.6
18.8
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Hen, eggs (in billions)
24.3
191
21.7
Although Russia has faced many problems after 1991, so there was total decrease in
agriculture sector of Russia. But after 1994, government and private sector and farmers together
enhances the total food production and decrease the import of food products and grains.
Government should give more funds to farmers and easily available inputs to improve
agricultural status of the country that will help in raising the national economy to new heights.
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24
Agriculture in United States of America (USA)
In North America, agriculture had progressed further before the coming of the
Europeans than is commonly supposed. Until the 19th century, agriculture in the U.S. shared
the history of European and colonial areas and was dependent on European sources for seed,
stocks, livestock, and machinery, such as it was. That dependency, especially the difficulty in
procuring suitable implements, made American farmers somewhat more innovative. They were
aided by the establishment of societies that lobbied for governmental agencies of agriculture
(see Agriculture, Department of); the voluntary cooperation of farmers through associations and
the increasing use of various types of power machinery on the farm. Government policies
traditionally encouraged the growth of land settlement. The Homestead Act and Morril Act of
1862 and the resettlement plans of the 1930s were the important legislative acts of the 19th and
20th centuries.
The total land area of the U.S. is about 917 million ha (about 2.27 billion acres), of
which about 47 percent is used to produce crops and livestock. The rest is distributed among
forestland (29 percent) and urban, transportation, and other uses (24 percent). Approximately
161 million ha (about 399 million acres) make up cropland resources. Almost 83 percent of
cropland is cultivated, including about 23 million ha (about 57 million acres) used for wheat,
about 30 million ha (about 74 million acres) used for corn, and about 25 million ha (about 62
million acres) used for hay. About 5% of the US is depend on agriculture. The farmers land
holding are large ranging from few hundered acres to even up to 10000 acres. The average farm
size is about 460 acres. More than 50 percent of croplands are prime farmland, the best land for
producing food and fiber. The nation has another nearly 400 million ha (almost 1 billion acres)
of nonfederal rural land currently being used for pastures, range, forest, and other purposes.
About 27.5 million ha (about 68 million acres) of this land are suitable for conversion to
cropland if needed.
In the 20th century steam, gasoline, diesel, and electric power came into wide use.
Chemical fertilizers were manufactured in greatly increased quantities, and soil analysis was
widely employed to determine the elements needed by a particular soil to maintain or restore its
fertility. The loss of soil by erosion (q.v.) was extensively combated by the use of cover crops
(quick-growing plants with dense root systems to bind soil), contour plowing (in which the
furrow follows the contour of the land and is level, rather than up and down hills that provide
channels for runoff water), and strip cropping (sowing strips of dense-rooted plants to serve as
water-breaks or windbreaks in fields of plants with loose root systems).
Selective breeding produced improved strains of both farm animals and crop plants.
Hybrids of desirable characteristics were developed; especially important for food production
was the hybridization of corn in the 1930s. New uses for farm products, by-products, and
wastes were discovered. Standards of quality, size, and packing were established for various
fruits and vegetables to aid in wholesale marketing. Among the first to be standardized were
apples, citrus fruits, celery, berries, and tomatoes. Improvements in storage, processing, and
transportation also increased the marketability of farm products. The use of cold-storage
warehouses and refrigerated railroad cars was supplemented by the introduction of refrigerated
motor trucks, by rapid delivery by airplane, and by the quick-freeze process of preservation, in
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which farm produce is frozen and packaged the same day that it is picked. Freeze-drying and
irradiation have also reached practical application for many perishable foods.
Scientific methods have begun to be applied to pest control, limiting the
widespread use of insecticides and fungicides and applying more varied and targeted
techniques. New understanding of significant biological control measures and the emphasis on
integrated pest management have made possible more effective control of certain kinds of
insects. Chemicals for weed control have become important for a number of crops, in particular
cotton and corn. The increasing use of chemicals for the control of insects, diseases, and weeds
has brought about additional environmental problems and regulations that make strong
demands on the skill of farm operators.
In the 1980s high technology farming, including hybrids for wheat, rice, and other
grains, better methods of soil conservation and irrigation, and the growing use of fertilizers has
led to the production of more food per capita, not only in the U.S., but in much of the rest of the
world. U.S. farmers, however, still have the advantage of superior private and government
research facilities to produce and perfect new technologies.
Government Price-Support Policies
After the outbreak of World War I the U.S. became the chief source of food for the
warring nations of Europe, with U.S. farmers bringing some 16 million additional ha (about 40
million acres) of land under cultivation and investing heavily in new land and equipment. These
measures raised production levels until 1920, when the European demand for U.S. farm
products suddenly declined, and prices began a continuing downward spiral. Although attempts
were under way to ease the economic difficulties of the farmer, farm income had not begun to
recover when the Great Depression of the 1930s intensified them even more. By 1932 the level
of farm prices was only about 65 percent of the 1910-14 average. Farmers continued to produce
almost as much as before, and even increased their production in an attempt to maintain their
income. That succeeded only in lowering farm prices further. By comparison, manufacturers
could control their production, thereby maintaining price levels to a certain degree. Although
prices for industrial goods declined, they did not drop as severely as farm prices, so that by
1932 farmers were receiving only 58 cents from the sale of their products for every dollar they
had to pay for non-farm items.
A method to limit production provided payments for shifting acreage of soil-depleting
crops such as corn, wheat, cotton, tobacco, and rice to soil-conserving plants such as grasses
and legumes and for carrying out soil-building practices. In 1939, an all-risk crop insurance
programme was initiated for interested farmers to prevent economic distress in case of crop
failure for hail, floods, and other natural disasters. Until World War II the problem of low farm
prices was not basically a result of overproduction. Rather, it was a consequence of the cycles
of business and weather, and of problems of internal distribution, transportation, and credit.
Following World War II, however, overproduction became a serious problem. Both during and
immediately after the war, farm prices were generally high. Because production costs also were
high, parity payments remained in force. The Agricultural Act of 1956, otherwise known as the
soil-bank programme, authorized federal payments to farmers if they reduced production of
certain crops. A subsidy plan was formulated whereby farmers would be paid for converting
part of their cropland to soil-conserving uses. In practice, the farmers shared the costs of
planting trees or grasses and received annual payments compensating them for the economic
loss incurred by the removal of some of their land from production.
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The U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA) during the 1960s made control of
overproduction a primary goal of farm policy. Farmers were offered what was in effect a rental
payment for a part of their land that would be taken out of production during the following
year. At the same time, measures were undertaken to expand the export market for agricultural
products. During this period the ratio of a farmer's per capita income to that of a non-farm
person increased from about 50 percent to about 75 percent. Direct subsidies for withholding
agricultural land from production were phased out in 1973. In the same year, net farm income
swelled to $33.3 billion. Poor grain harvests throughout the world, particularly in the Soviet
Union, prompted massive sales of U.S. government-owned grain reserves. World climatic
conditions also helped keep demand for U.S. produce high through the mid-1970s. Toward the
end of the decade, exports lessened, prices dropped, and farm income began to fall without a
corresponding decrease in costs of production. U.S. net farm income in 1976 fell to $18.7
billion. In 1978, a limited, voluntary output restriction was begun by President Jimmy Carter.
Called the "farmer-held grain reserve programme," the action took grains off the market for up
to three years or until market prices reached stated levels. The programme was intended also to
provide an adequate reserve, lessen food-price gyrations and combat inflation, give livestock
producers protection from extremes in feed costs, and contribute to greater continuity in foreign
food aid.
U.S. farm exports in 1980 reached an all-time high of $40 billion, but the continued rise
in costs of production and an extremely hot summer with accompanying droughts affected
many farmers adversely. A new crop insurance programme, passed by Congress in the fall of
1980, offered relief from such conditions rather than having to rely on disaster loans, which
amounted to $30 million for feed alone in that year. Whether the 1980 grain embargo had a
strong effect on the USSR was a matter of conjecture. Beef production dropped 16 percent,
pork was off 10 percent, and milk production fell 4 percent, but by the end of the year the
Soviets had apparently obtained their needed grain from other sources.
Farming Regions
The U.S. has ten major farming areas. They vary by soil, slope of land, climate, and distance to
market, and in storage and marketing facilities. The states of the northeast and the Lake states
are the country's principal milk-producing areas. Climate and soil there are suited to raising
grains and forage for cattle and for pastures. Broiler farming is important to Maine, Delaware,
and Maryland. Fruits and vegetables are also important to the region. The Appalachian region is
the major tobacco-producing area of the nation. Peanuts, cattle, and dairy production also are
important. Beef cattle and broilers are the major livestock products farther south in the states of
the Southeast; fruit and vegetables and peanuts are also grown. Florida has vast citrus groves
and winter vegetable production areas.
In the Delta states, principal cash crops are soybeans and cotton. Rice and sugarcane are grown
in the more humid and wet areas. With improved pastures, livestock production has gained
importance in recent years. It also is a major broiler-producing region. The Corn Belt,
extending from Ohio through Iowa, has rich soil, good climate, and sufficient rainfall for
excellent farming. Corn, beef cattle, hogs, and dairy products are of primary importance. Other
feed grains, soybeans, and wheat also are grown.
The northern and southern Plains, extending north and south from Canada to Mexico
and from the Corn Belt into the Rocky Mountains, are restricted by low rainfall in the western
portion and by cold winters and short growing seasons in the north. But about 60 percent of the
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nation's winter and spring wheat grows in the Plains states. Other small grains, grain sorghums,
hay, forage crops, and pastures help make cattle important to the region. Cotton is produced in
the southern part. The Mountain states provide yet a different terrain. Vast areas are suited to
cattle and sheep. Wheat is important in the north. Irrigation in the valleys provides water for
hay, sugar beets, potatoes, fruits, and vegetables.
The Pacific region includes California, Oregon, and Washington plus Alaska and
Hawaii. In the northern mainland, farmers raise wheat, fruit, and potatoes. Dairying, vegetables,
and some grain are important to Alaska. Many of the more southerly farmers have large tracts
on which they raise vegetables, fruit, and cotton, often under irrigation. Cattle are raised
throughout the region. Hawaii grows sugarcane and pineapple as its major crops.
Recent Changes.
The history of agriculture in the U.S. since the Great Depression has been one of consolidation
and increasing efficiency. From a high of 6.8 million farms in 1935, the total number declined
to 2.1 million in 1991 on a little less than the same area, about 397 million ha (about 982
million acres). Average farm size in 1935 was about 63 ha (about 155 acres); in 1991 it was
about 189 ha (about 467 acres). About 4.6 million people lived on farms in 1990, based on a
new farm definition introduced in 1977 to distinguish between rural residents and people who
earned $1000 or more from annual agricultural product sales. The farm population continues to
constitute a declining share of the nation's total; about 1 person in every 54, or 1.8 percent, of
the nation's 250 million people were farm residents in 1990.
Total value of land and buildings on U.S. farms in 1990 was $658 billion, substantially less
than the value in 1980. Value of products sold was $170 billion per year. Overall net farm
income was more than $46 billion in 1989, of which government subsidies accounted for 23
percent. Not including real estate, major expenditures by farmers in 1989 were for feed ($22.7
billion); fuel, lubricants, and maintenance ($13.1 billion); hired labor ($11.9 billion); fertilizer
($7.6 billion); and seed ($3.7 billion). Outstanding farm debt in 1989 was $146 billion, of
which about 55 percent was owed on real estate. Interest payments on the mortgage debt were
about $7.6 billion per year.
In 1980, a report based on projections by the U.S. government stated that in the next 20 years
world food requirements would increase tremendously, with developed countries requiring
most of the increase, and food prices would double. Less than five years later, however, the
U.S. farmer was enveloped in a major crisis caused by exceptionally heavy farm debts,
mounting farm subsidy costs, and rising surpluses. A number of farmers were forced into
foreclosure.
Agricultural Exports.
The U.S. is the world's principal exporter of agricultural products. In 1989 the value of produce
exported was about $39.7 billion, including roughly $1.5 billion in donations and loans to
developing nations.
A substantial percentage of the wheat, soybeans, rice, cotton, tobacco, and corn for grain
produced in the U.S. is exported. The principal foreign markets for the products are Asia,
Western Europe, and Latin America. Japan heads the list of individual countries that import
U.S. farm products.
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25
International Programme on Water Resources –
Use And Conservation
Water covers about 70 percent of the Earth's surface. Of this total, only about 2.5
percent is fresh water. Most of the Earth's fresh water is frozen in the ice caps of Antarctica and
Greenland, in soil moisture, or in deep aquifers not readily accessible for human use. Indeed,
less than 1 percent of the world's freshwater-that found in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and
underground aquifers shallow enough to be tapped economically-is readily available for direct
human use (World Meteorological Organization, 1997). This only represents about 0.007
percent of all the water on Earth! Agriculture accounts for 93 percent of the global consumptive
use of water (rainfall and irrigation). Rainfed agriculture, covering 83 percent of the world's
farmland, accounts for about 60 percent of global food production. Irrigated agriculture-which
accounts for 70 percent of global water withdrawals-covers some 17 percent of cultivated land
(about 270 million ha) and contributes nearly 40 percent of world food production.
How can we continue to expand food production for a growing world population within
the parameters of likely water availability? The inevitable conclusion is that humankind in the
21st Century will need to bring about a "Blue Revolution-more crop for every drop" to
complement the so "Green Revolution" of the 20th Century. Water use productivity must be
wedded to land use productivity. Science and technology will be called upon to show the way.
The UN's 1997 Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World
estimates that, "about one third of the world's population lives in countries that are experiencing
moderate-to-high water stress, resulting from increasing demands from a growing population
and human activity. By the year 2025, as much as "two-thirds of the world's population could
be under stress conditions" (WMO, 1997). "Water shortages and pollution are causing
widespread public health problems, limiting economic growth and agricultural development,
and harming a wide range of ecosystems. They may put global food supplies in jeopardy, and
lead to economic stagnation in many areas of the world." The world irrigated area-much of it
located in Asia-doubled between 1961 and 1996, from 139 to 268 million ha. In most of these
schemes, proper investments were not made in drainage systems to maintain water tables from
rising too high and to flush salts that rise to the surface back down through the soil profile. We
all know the consequences-serious salinization of many irrigated soils, especially in drier areas,
and waterlogging of irrigated soils in the more humid area. In particular, many Asian irrigation
schemes-which account for nearly two-thirds of the total global irrigated area-are seriously
affected by both problems. The result is that most of the funds going into irrigation end up
being used for stopgap maintenance expenditures for poorly designed systems, rather than for
new irrigation projects. Government must invest in drainage systems in ongoing irrigation
schemes, so that the current process of salinization and waterlogging is arrested. In new
irrigation schemes, water drainage and removal systems should be included in the budget from
the start of the project. Unfortunately, adding such costs to the original project often will result
in a poor return on investment. Society then will have to decide how much it is willing to
subsidize new irrigation development.
There are many technologies for reducing water use. Wastewater can be treated and
used for irrigation. This could be an especially important source of water for peri-urban
agriculture, which is growing rapidly around many of the world's mega-cities. Water can be
delivered much more efficiently to the plants and in ways to avoid soil waterlogging and
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salinization. Changing to new crops requiring less water (and/or new improved varieties),
together with more efficient crop sequencing and timely planting, can also achieve significant
savings in water use. Proven technologies, such as drip irrigation, which saves water and
reduces soil salinity, are suitable for a much larger area than currently used. Various new
precision irrigation systems are also on the horizon, which will supply water to plants only
when they need it. There is also a range of improved small-scale and supplemental irrigation
systems to increase the productivity of rainfed areas, which offer much promise for smallholder
farmers.
Clearly, we need to rethink our attitudes about water, and move away from thinking of
it as nearly a free good, and a God-given right. Pricing water delivery closer to its real costs is a
necessary step to improving use efficiency. Farmers and irrigation officials (and urban
consumers) will need incentives to save water. Moreover, management of water distribution
networks, except for the primary canals, should be decentralized and turned over to the farmers.
Farmers' water user associations in the Yaqui valley in northwest Mexico, for example, have
done a much better job of managing the irrigation districts than did the Federal Ministry of
Agriculture and Water Resources previously.
In the world, precipitation, evaporation and runoff constitute about 111.71 and 40
thousand km3 in volume as regards total land areas. Lakes contains about 0.2 ml km3 of fresh
water which is about four times the average runoff from all land areas. In contrast man-made
lakes store about 117 yearly runoff. Though the mean annual precipitation of the earth is about
973 mm the water content of the atmosphere is very small. Even if water of all the rivers of the
world could be a little smaller than lake ontans.
During the four rainy months (June to Sept.) in India the monsoon carries moisture
amounting to about 110 m ha m. The country average rainfall is about 1194 mm and the
average annual precipitation 400 m ha m. There are on an average 130 rainy days in a year and
78 days rain is of the order of 2.5 mm less moistening of the annual precipitation, about 20 m
ha m is lost to atmosphere.
On the basis of permeability of soil different region and rainfall, it has been estimated
that about 12.5% of total precipitation infiltrate to the ground in a year, only about 50 m ham
percolate to the water table and the rest retained by the soil.
In America therefore the problem of water resource development and use during
modern times really date from the filteration colonization movement of the mid 1800’s. Prior to
that time, of course, these had been along history of limited water resource development and
use in Western America.
An orient canal system found in the Gita river basin in Ari zone has been estimated as
capable of sowing as many as 250000 acres of land although the area actually cultivated at any
one time probably was comparatively small.
Spanish missionaries in California, Arizone and New Mexico also irrigated their
stream side farms and wire yards for many before the eastern seaboard was colonized.
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Table 1 : Estimates of available global water supply
Country
Mean
annual Land area 1000 km2
3
discharge km /year
Mean
runoff-mm
Africa
4220
30600
139
Asia
13200
44600
296
India
1590
3290
485
Europe
3150
9770
323
United States
2340
9360
250
Global
(excl. Antarctica)
38900
134000
290
annual
Water Resources : India is rich in H2O resource, being endowed with a network of great river
and East alluvial basins to hold ground H2O. are being developed and depleted at a fast rate and
the situation seriously underlines the need for taking up integrated plans for water conservation
and utilization for every agro-ecological area to meat the increasing demands of irrigation
water-faster, human and livestock consumption, expendably industry, hydro-electric power
generation irrigation and H2O user.
Type of Water resources : Water resource are divisible into two district categories :
1.
Surface water resources : A large no. of rivers of various
Potential and discharges are spread all over the country. The rivers in the month, which
are originate from the Himalyas are snow-fed arid, thus hence less seasonal fluctuation in their
flow than the rivers in other parts of the country. The surface water needs to be traffed in ponds,
tanks, lakes or artificial regimes when it is available is abundance. So that it on be fruitfully
used for irrigation during rain less period. The annual flow of 1700000 million cubic meters
only about 666000 million cubic meter can be utilized for the purpose of irrigation owing to be
physiological limitation.
2.
Ground water resources : Substantial supplies are also available from ground water
sources. Of the 80000 million cubic meter of rain water that seeps into the ground annually
about 430000 million cubic meters of it is absorbed by the surface layers of the earth crust and
thus can be utilized directly by the vegetation and growth. It has been estimated by the control
ground water board that the total ground water reserve are of the order of 5500000 million
cubic meters out of which 425740 million cubic meter have been assessed as the annual
recharge from rain and canal seepage.
When the rain fall intensity at the soil surface exceeds the infiltration capacity of the
soil, the overland flow begins. Once the overland flow reaches a stream channel it is called
surface runoff.
Factor affecting water resources : The water resource of a region, conceived as a dynamic
phase of the dehydrologic cycle are influenced by the following three major group of factor :
1.
Climatic factors
a. Rainfall : its intensity, duration and distribution
b. Snow
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c. Evaporation transpiration
2.
Physiographic factors
a. Basic characteristics
i. Geomatric factors : drainage areas shape, slp and stream intensity.
ii. Physical factor : Land use, surface infiltration condition, soil type etc.
b. Channel characteristics : Carrying capacity and storage capacity.
3.
Geological factors :
a. Lithlogic including composition, texture, sequence of rock type and the
thickness of rock formation
b. Structural, including chief fault and folds that interrupt the uniformity of
occurrence of rock type or sequence of rock type also beds, joints, fissures,
cracks etc.
c. Hydrologic characteristics of
transmissiciety, storability etc.
the
aquifers
permeability,
porosity
However the rainfall record are available for a long period and attempts have therefore
been made to roughly assess the H2O resource on the concept that natural runoff is
equal to the total volume of precipitation minus the volume of water lost into the
atmosphere through evapotranspiration.
The assessment of ground water resource is more difficult at it involves the evaluation
of the various hydrologic component with in the framework of a complex geological
environment. There are as yet numerous gap in the available information and the stage has not
reached when any precise basin wise assessment of the resources can be made except in highly
generalized term.
Present utilization of ground water :
Water resource are utilized mainly for three purposes irrigation industrial use and
domestic water supply, urban as well as rural. Irrigation is by for the major consumer of water
resources :
Irrigation :
As assessed later the total volume of surface water presently utilized for irrigation is
about 23.5 m ha m. It is visualized that about 35% of this total volume diverted for
irrigation would pass as deep percolation to ground water storage.
The total volume of ground water presenting used for irrigation is estimated at about
10.5 m ha m.
According to the assessment of the National Commission on Agriculture. The
contribution from surface water resources to the ground water recharge is likely to
increase to about 35 m ha m on the full development of irrigation – 25 m ha m from
surface from canal, tanks the and 10 m ha m as influenced recharge.
Present utilization
Surface water
Total utilizable Irrigation
Resources
Other uses
Total
(m ha m)
66.6
1.0
24.5
23.5
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Ground water
35.0
10.5
200
1.5
12.0
Other uses :
No scientific estimates is available of the present utilization of water resources for
industrial and domestic purposes. It is however roughly reckoned that the total utilization for
these purpose may be about 2.5 m ha m about 1 mhm from surface water and 1.5 m ha m from
ground water.
In California two-third of the water supply ones from the ground. The use of water per
person has increased rapidly. The initial states uses about 2 x 1011 gallons a day for all purpose.
Problem of utilization of irrigation water :
Though the technology of improved farm technology including water resource
utilization techniques is not so intricate and involves simple practices, its adoption has been
partial because of certain constraints. Findings and view of different investigators are
reproducts as under :
Lack of financial resources for utilization canal irrigation, non-availability of supplies
like seed, fertilizer and insecticides were the major problems. Some of the minor problems like
lack of equipment, lack of technical guidance, want of field channels were also reported by the
respondents.
Problems of lack of productive land, uneconomic land holding, lack of irrigation
facilities, lack of knowledge of new agricultural technology, limited subsidy, insufficient time
for payment or credits, lack of communication facilities, etc. were the main problems of tribal
area as expressed by the tribal farmers.
High cost of agricultural inputs like improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides
and pesticides and lack of financial resources for utilizing canal irrigation, non-availability of
technical guidance, seeds and fertilizers from the Irrigation Department were the major
problems.
Inadequate credit, low prices to farm produce, non-existence of farm roads, high cost of
fertilizers, marketing and transport facilities, poor drainage system, lack of supply of improved
seeds from agril. Universities and unleveled land were some of the agril. Problems in order of
importance faced by the farmers in command area.
Introduction of charges in the present system of water allocation, reduction of seepage
losses through lining, conjunctive use of ground and surface water, revision of the existing
water rates and pilot demonstration projects with atleast 1000 acres at selected places in the
canal command area, preferably the head, middle and tail portions.
Extent of utilization of irrigation water :
Efficient water resource utilization management technique in agriculture signifies the
utilization of available water resources to the maximum possible advantage for crop production.
Utilization of irrigation water varies from area to area even in command area due to
mismanagement. In this connection some important studies regarding utilization of irrigation
water were reviewed and are present below :
Only 50 per cent respondents utilized full irrigation water and 17 per cent respondents
were in non-use category. 50 per cent farmers utilized canal irrigation below 50 per cent of the
potential and the remaining utilized above 50 per cent of the irrigation potential. Overall
utilization was low. Forty five per cent farmers irrigated less than 50 per cent of their holdings.
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Although it is true that the percentage of nonusers was very low (%), the pattern of utilization
cannot be considered satisfactory when 6% farmers did not use it to the fullest extent. The
medium sized irrigation projects in India are low utilization, i.e. areas actually served with
irrigation water are smaller than planned, and crop yield are low. The cause for these
shortcomings are complex, probably not well understood, and have not been studied
comprehensively under actual operating conditions.
In case of major and medium projects, the main reason for underutilization is the lack
of comprehensive approach toward agricultural development. In many cases main canal,
subsidiaries and field channels are not constructed simultaneously so that when the dam is
ready, water cannot be used. The striking example of this is the Ukai Project in which case we
are not able to utilize irrigation potential fully just for want to canals.
Out of nearly 14 per
cent of the World’s cultivated irrigated land, India has the largest irrigated area currently (52.2
mh) but the efficiency of utilization is low (nearly 14 to 40%) due to excessive seepage from
the reservoirs canals and their distributaries, water courses, over irrigation etc.
Why conservation of water is necessary :
The first low of life is growth. Nothing can grow or even live long with out water. Now
we are beginning to feel the pinch and to think about conservation.
Forty million Americans are now directly affected by more or less serious water
problem.
All water problem may be summed up in six short words. Too little too much, too bad.
Water is the lifeblood of our earth. No country can attain the highest prosperity and
health it if allows this life giving circulation to be wastefully bled away or polluted.
Conservation of water :
Methods of increased to amount of water stored in the soil profile by trapping or
holding rain where it falls or where there is some small movement as surface run-off is
known as water conservation.
In India, it has estimated that out of the total precipitation of around 400 million ha
meter, the surface availability is about 178 m ha m. Out of this about 50% can only be
put to beneficial use because of topographical and other constraints.
Floods and drought effect vast areas of the country and 1/3 of the country is drought
prove. Floods on an average affect around 9 million hectare per year with is about ¼ of
the total area rated as susceptible to floods.
Considering the rich endowment of rainfall over the country there appears to be a great
scope of proper rain water management (in situ conservation bending, terresory and
from ponds etc.)
Principle of water conservation :
Where precipitation is less than crop requirement, here the strategy includes land
treatment to increase run-off onto cropped area.
Where precipitation is equal to crop requirement here the strategy is local conservation
of precipitation maximum storage with in the soil profile.
Where precipitation is in excess of crop sequence, in this case the strategies are to
reduce rainfall erosion, to drain surplus runoff and store it for subsequent use.
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This make the choice of method difficult because the desired objective may change
from season to season. When changing a method or technique we must be where of the physical
and personal difficulties. Because variables rainfall one must expect a low success rate.
Method of water conservation for crop lands :
A.
Broad bed and furrow system : The broad bed and furrow system has been mainly
developed at the ICRISAT. The width of beds about 100 cm wide separated by
surkan furrows about 50 cm wide. The preferred slope along the furrow is between
0.4 and 0.8% on vertisols. In India it has been used on deep vertisols.
Objective of method :
1.
To encourage moisture storage in the soil profile which is sufficient on long dry
spell.
2.
To dispose safely of surplus surface run-off without causing erosion.
3.
To provide a better drained and more easily cultivated soil in the beds.
B)
Conservation bench terraces :
C)
Strip village :
D)
Conservation bench terraces
CBT increase soil moisture storage and the terrace gentle storages of 0.5-1.5 presecent
are more suitable although the system has been used upto 6%.
Saving water by cultivation : The water with soaks into the soil may be disposed of in three
ways :
1.
Immediately after water has entered the soil evaporation on being at the
surface and the time if not checked the water in the greater depths will be
brought to the surface to be returned to the air in the form of water vapour.
2.
It an excess of water have been applied, another part rivers below the reach
of plant roots and may connect with country drainage and thus be lost to
the farmer.
3.
A part remains in the soil and supplied the plant with the water needed in
its growth. In irrigation the has due to sun off is sequently a very serious
matter, water is applied by the flooding method it is relatively easy to
control the sun off by building dices around the field.
Upper end will receive a very large gantry of water. While a lower end will be
relatively dry and often without a sufficient supply of moisture for abundant plant growth.
Factor which affect the water conservation :
1.
Nature of soil : (a) Physical (b) Chemical (c) depth
2.
Meterological condition : (a) temperature (b) Sun shine (c) Relative humidity (d)
Winds (e) Showers
3.
Initial percentage of watch
4.
Condition of top soil : (a) Plough (b) Cultivation (c) Rolling (d) Packaging
5.
Deep Water Table
6.
Sandy of water
Rain water management : The following suggestion are made for maximumization of
rainwater use efficiency :
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1.
The first priority is given to a broking as such water in soil as it can hold adapating
a remunerating and efficient system of agri at enhancing, productivity per unit
water.
2.
To supplement the moisture stored in the soil and to provide life reaching irrigation
at critical stage of harvesting of water in situ and adaptation of the watershed
concept.
A MANAGEMENT APPROACH TO NATIONAL WATER SCARICITY
Water scarcity in a national context :
Water scarcity is the result of pressure from population growth, of environmental
change and degration and unequal distribution of water resources. With increasing competition
for limited supplies, conflicts among water users intensify. Water scarcity and resultant conflict
are often consequences of inappropriate or inadequate management frameworks, linked to
general economic policy and Government structure, with solutions depending on national and
regional geo-political realities.
Economic theory predicts that when water becomes scare it would be expected that
water prices would increase to reflect demand pressures, and that water users would save and
restrict consumption and other use to essential social and high value uses. Water starts to
become vulnerable when annual internal renewable water resources are less than a critical
value, often being cited as 1000 m3 per capita.
Studies of major drought events in the 1970s and early 1980s showed significant
decline in GNP and domestic savings, worsening balance of payments, and loss of job
opportunities. Water scarcity is, however, an irreversible process, affecting national economies
over long time spans, and there is need to alert decision-makers to the related threats to the
economy and the state.
Water and national security : Water scarcity in increasingly seen as a cause of domestic and
international conflict, and therefore, a risk to national stability and security. Water scarcity and
its importance for national security are being given increasing priority of international donors.
The security risks, deriving from environmental scarcity, population growth and unequal
distribution of water, spear as reduced state capacity, and also civil violence, rather than
international conflict.
Water and food security :
As a result of increasing demand, the global food gtap is widening. The price of food in
international markets is projected to increase significantly, and weak economies are already
facing increasing difficulties in buying food. At present, 2400 million people depend on
irrigated agriculture for jobs, food and income. Over the next 30 years, an estimated 80% of the
additional food supplies required to feed the world will depend on irrigation. Irrigated
agriculture will be expected to produce much more food in the future, while using less water
than it uses today.
Management of national water scarcity :
Recognition of water scarcity at an early stage in planning forms the underlying
principle for any action towards water sector policy reform. Many countries, especially in
humid zones, maintain a position of no problem and so no need for management, and hence
react slowly, often not until water shortage or water quality degradation is constraining national
social and economic development.
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M.S.Punia (2006)
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Of crucial importance is that many policy measures – both traditional and of newer
provenance – for operational water resources management, short-term planning and conflict
resolution to free and provide more water are narrow, and even under ideal institutional set-ups,
will not work, and can even in time provide mis-direction in addressing national water scarcity.
Table 2 : Statewise distribution of potential and utilization of surface and ground water
resources of India, 1973-74 (Volume of Water Basis)
State
Surface water resources
Ultimate Utilization Percentage
potential of
utilization
(mil-ha) potential
of
(mil-hapotential
m)
9.820
5.180
52.75
Ground water resources
Ultimate Utilization Percentage
potential of
utilization
(mil-ha) potential
of
(mil-hapotential
m)
2.122
0.678
31.95
Andhra
Pradesh
Assam*
2.190
0.091
4.15
2.061
0.013
Bihar
6.800
2.044
30.06
2.702
0.610
Gujarat
2.850
0.517
18.14
1.258
0.891
Haryana
NA
1.010
--0.432
0.385
Himachal
------0.111
0.002
Pradesh
Jammu
and 0.550
0.065
11.82
0.493
0.008
Kashmir
Karnataka
2.850
0.871
30.56
1.234
0.510
Kerala
1.535
0.370
24.10
0.666
0.012
Madhya
7.017
1.030
14.68
3.295
0.500
Pradesh
Maharashtra
3.399
0.712
20.95
1.555
0.925
Orissa
3.947
1.673
42.39
1.974
0.055
Punjab
4.934
2.575
52.19
0.851
0.728
Rajasthan
3.510
1.129
32.16
0.811
0.411
Tamil Nadu
2.550
1.590
62.35
1.419
1.222
Uttar Pradesh
4.429
3.205
33.99
4.382
3.664
West Bengal
3.840
1.216
31.66
1.987
0.215
Union
0.110
NA
------Territories
All India
65.331
23.278
35.63
27.353
10.829
*Includes Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura. NA : Not available
0.63
22.58
70.83
89.12
1.80
1.62
41.33
1.80
15.17
59.49
2.79
85.55
50.68
86.12
83.61
10.82
--39.59
CONCLUSIONS
With changing social and economic conditions and weak governance in developing
countries, what are considered normal conditions for water resources and the capacity to
manage water scarcity can be expected to change drastically in the next decades. Current
conceptions and approaches to managing water scarcity focus on use of wter where it is
available, and re-allocation of available water for its greatest benefits. While detailed data on
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M.S.Punia (2006)
205
water scarcity and its impact are generally absent, there is evidence that these conceptions and
the focus on demand management and non-structural policy instruments are insufficient, misguiding and delaying to more effective action because they do not reflect the requirement to
manage water scarcity as part of the larger process of societal change. This is especially true in
developing countries with weak economies and unstable state formation. Traditional
approaches to water management will therefore not be sufficient in situations of extreme
national water scarcity, possibly resulting in the collapse of state and customary institutions.
Hence water scarcity management needs to given a broader scope and made part of national
strategies for societal and economic reform. To address these challenges, FAO is currently
facing potential water scarcity.