"Kuhla
Khan"
Again:
the Ocean, the
Caverns, and the Ancestral
Voices
A. B. E N G L A N D
\
D E G R E E of consensus about " K u b l a K h a n " seems
to have emerged f r o m the large a m o u n t of analysis
*
*• devoted to it i n recent years. If one examines, for
instance, the comments of Irene H . Chayes, George W a t son, and P a t r i c i a M . A d a i r , i t soon becomes clear t h a t
a l t h o u g h they differ i n t h e i r interpretations of some i n d i v i d u a l details they a l l accept as a premise t h a t the
poem's images are i n some w a y emblematic of the movement of the m i n d i n the process of creative a c t i v i t y . I a m
i n s y m p a t h y w i t h t h i s general concept of w h a t the poem
means, a n d the comments w h i c h follow do not question it,
although I k n o w that m a n y readers w o u l d . However, I
do t h i n k that c e r t a i n aspects of w h a t appears now to be
the p r e v a i l i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are less t h a n satisfactory.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , I w a n t to raise some questions about the
significance of the "lifeless ocean," a subject o n w h i c h
Chayes a n d A d a i r are substantially i n agreement.
And
b y doing this, I w a n t also to show t h a t the " A n c e s t r a l
voices prophesying w a r " are capable of b e a r i n g a n i m p l i cation w h i c h is not countenanced b y a n y analysis of the
poem w h i c h I have read.
1
B o t h Chayes (p. 12) and A d a i r (p. 118) r e g a r d the
underground sea into w h i c h the r i v e r finally falls as a n
image of the subconscious m i n d ; the sacred r i v e r rises
f r o m t h i s subterranean source a n d runs briefly above
ground, just as i n the process of a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n elements
stored i n the subconscious rise briefly to the consciousness
and are given f o r m i n the successful w o r k of a r t . T h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n suggests t h a t the place f r o m w h i c h the foun-
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A. B. E N G L A N D
t a i n rises a n d the place into w h i c h the r i v e r descends are
essentially the s a m e — t h e " a n c i e n t unconscious source of
wisdom, the hiding-place of man's power, w h i c h enriched
and fertilised great civilisations a n d poetry i n different
countries at different times, wherever a n d whenever i t
rose to the s u r f a c e " ( A d a i r , p. 133). B u t i f t h i s is w h a t
Coleridge means b y the u n d e r g r o u n d sea, it is difficult to
understand w h y he should so s t r o n g l y associate i t w i t h
s t e r i l i t y a n d death. W h e n he first refers to i t he describes
it as " s u n l e s s , " w h i c h m i g h t s i m p l y be intended to stress
that it is dark. B u t w h e n he l a t e r calls i t a "lifeless o c e a n "
he reinforces another m e a n i n g suggested b y the absence
of sunlight. Chayes mentions the shift f r o m " s u n l e s s " to
" l i f e l e s s " (p. 12), but passes over i t w i t h o u t r e m a r k i n g
on the attendant emphasis o n s t e r i l i t y , a n emphasis w h i c h
makes i t difficult to agree w i t h h e r t h a t the sea is intended
by Coleridge as a n image of " t h e unconscious." A k i n d
of defeat, or death, is i m p l i e d b y the r i v e r ' s descent into
the "lifeless ocean." T h e r i v e r is deprived of its v i t a l i t y
b y the " c a v e r n s " t h r o u g h w h i c h i t falls, a n d there is no
i n d i c a t i o n i n Coleridge's phrase t h a t i t is r e t u r n i n g to a
source of power w h i c h w i l l e n r i c h and fertilize. I w o u l d
suggest t h a t the sense of negation w h i c h t h u s accompanies
the r i v e r ' s descent is l i k e l y to be a n i m p o r t a n t aspect of
whatever m e a n i n g the poem's images are capable of bearing, and that i t is not r e a l l y accounted for b y the assumpt i o n t h a t the "lifeless o c e a n " a n d the fountain's source are
one and the same. T h e "lifeless o c e a n " seems c l e a r l y expressive of a s t e r i l i t y w h i c h is for some reason the destination
of that i n i t i a l upsurge embodied b y the f o u n t a i n . It is a
destination w h i c h is i n d r a m a t i c contrast to the violent
life of the r i v e r ' s source. A n d the contrast is not s i m p l y
between a state of arousal and a state of quiescence, but
between that w h i c h is alive and t h a t w h i c h is dead. W h a t
this means, I t h i n k , is t h a t there is a need to describe
Colerdige's "lifeless o c e a n " i n some other terms t h a n those
w h i c h appear to have become prevalent.
'•KUBLA
KHAN"
AGAIN
65
I n order to understand the m e a n i n g of the caverns a n d
the u n d e r g r o u n d sea, i t is necessary to t h i n k of t h e m
i n r e l a t i o n to the fountain. I cannot m e n t i o n here the
several complexities of m e a n i n g w h i c h have been associated
w i t h the fountain, complexities such as C h a y e s ' d i s t i n c t i o n
between the f o u n t a i n as p r i m a r y i m a g i n a t i o n a n d the r i v e r
as secondary i m a g i n a t i o n (p. 10), but generally speaking,
whenever " K u b l a K h a n " has been discussed as a poem
about the creative process, the f o u n t a i n has been associated w i t h t h a t spontaneous and passionately i m a g i n a t i v e
energy w h i c h Coleridge always felt to be the necessary
and often, f o r h i m , elusive b e g i n n i n g of creative a c t i v i t y .
F r o m this powerful t h o u g h violent source the r i v e r flows
towards the caverns a n d its descent into the " l i f e l e s s "
u n d e r g r o u n d sea, f a l l i n g , as i t has r i s e n , i n " t u m u l t . " A t
a c e r t a i n point along its course, a point where the two
t u m u l t s are h e a r d to m i n g l e i n a h a r m o n i o u s " m e a s u r e , "
the pleasure-dome is built. Since the dome is clearly an
image of the poem w h i c h , later i n " K u b l a K h a n , " Coleridge expresses a desire to create, its carefully specified
location is l i k e l y to be v e r y i m p o r t a n t to a n y interpret a t i o n w h i c h regards " K u b l a K h a n " as being about the
creative process. T h e location w h i c h is appropriate to
the pleasure-dome is l i k e the dome itself i n t h a t i t is one
at w h i c h opposites are reconciled; the t u m u l t of a n outburst into life (the fountain) a n d the t u m u l t of a descent
into lifelessness (the caves) here merge into a k i n d of
h a r m o n y . W h a t e v e r forces are represented b y the fount a i n a n d the caves, i t is clear t h a t at t h i s p o i n t along the
r i v e r ' s course some k i n d of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n between t h e m
is achieved. If " K u b l a K h a n " is a poem about the creative process, and if the f o u n t a i n is emblematic of a part i c u l a r k i n d of m e n t a l a c t i v i t y , the logic of the poem's
images, as we have so f a r e x a m i n e d them, leads n a t u r a l l y
towards the idea t h a t the caverns are emblematic of another k i n d of a c t i v i t y w h i c h is different f r o m , a n d perhaps even opposite to t h a t represented b y the fountain,
yet w h i c h can nevertheless sometimes be brought into
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A. B. E N G L A N D
h a r m o n y w i t h it. It is as if the f o u n t a i n and the caves
represent extreme versions of two different activities
w h i c h , w h e n neither is exclusively o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y present, can combine to create order, o r " m e a s u r e . "
T h e contrast between the f o u n t a i n a n d the caves is a
contrast between t h a t w h i c h bursts into life a n d t h a t
w h i c h encloses a n d carries down towards death. It is
between an extreme of energy a n d a n extreme of containment w h i c h i n the final " t u m u l t " is i n conflict w i t h that
energy. However, the sacred r i v e r does not r e a c h the
caverns i m m e d i a t e l y after t h r u s t i n g out f r o m below the
s u r f a c e — i t progresses t h r o u g h a l i m i t e d degree of cont a i n m e n t of w h i c h the final d e v i t a l i s i n g enclosure b y the
caverns m a y be regarded as a n extreme f o r m . A n d i t is
at the mid-point between the f o u n t a i n a n d the caves t h a t
the pleasure-dome is appropriately built. T h e r i v e r i n i t i a l l y bursts to the surface i n the f o r m of a violent fountain, it then settles into a m o r e steady course, contained
w i t h i n its r e s t r a i n i n g banks, but is eventually swallowed
up b y the caverns, t h r o u g h w h i c h i t falls, protestingly but
inevitably, into the sterile sea. A t a c e r t a i n point i n its
course, w h i l e it possesses the energy of its source w i t h o u t
the chaos w i t h w h i c h t h a t energy was at first accompanied, a n d w h i l e i t is contained w i t h i n banks that cont r o l it w i t h o u t d e p r i v i n g i t of life, a k i n d of h a r m o n y
between energy a n d containment is achieved, a n d i t is
there t h a t the pleasure-dome is constructed. I t is not
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Coleridge's v e r y precise definition of this
point of balance has led a n u m b e r of readers to t h i n k of
h i s statement t h a t poetry arises out of a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n
of opposite forces; the p a r t of his statement w h i c h I t h i n k
is most relevant here is his reference to the u n i o n of
"judgement ever awake and steady self-possession, w i t h
enthusiasm and feeling profound o r v e h e m e n t . "
F o r it
seems to me t h a t the sequence of images i n " K u b l a K h a n "
makes it more t h a n possible to connect the caverns w i t h
the idea of a n extreme and devitalising containment, such
as that w h i c h m i g h t occur w h e n the r a t i o n a l " j u d g e m e n t "
2
"KUBLA
KHAN"
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67
asserts itself w i t h excessive strength on a passionate, excited flow of images, and the lifeless ocean w i t h the k i n d
of uncreative s t e r i l i t y into w h i c h the m i n d m i g h t s i n k as
a result of such containment.
A n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s k i n d w o u l d i m p l y t h a t the
image of the r i v e r flowing w i t h i n its banks is emblematic
of the movement of the m i n d w h e n the flow of powerful
" f e e l i n g " or " e n t h u s i a s m " is being held unassertively w i t h i n bounds b y the c o n t r o l l i n g "judgement."
T h i s image,
of course, is h a r d l y present i n the poem at a l l . B u t i f
the general movement of the r i v e r is f r o m a n i n i t i a l u n controlled o u t p o u r i n g to a f i n a l enclosure beneath the
earth's surface, then an intermediate stage of l i m i t e d
containment makes itself felt quite n a t u r a l l y .
Moreover,
the image w h i c h is i m p l i c i t here is strongly h i n t e d at elsewhere i n Coleridge's w r i t i n g s . I n his notebook he asks
the question, " D o e s the sober J u d g m e n t previously measure out the banks between w h i c h the S t r e a m of E n t h u s i a s m shall r u s h w i t h its torrent s o u n d ? " A n d he refers to
" t h e streamy N a t u r e of A s s o c i a t i o n , w h i c h T h i n k i n g —
Reason, curbs & r u d d e r s . "
A n d i n a n essay about the
nature of " M e t h o d " i n philosophy and poetry, he describes
a n ideal " p r o g r e s s " of thought as i f he were describing the
movement of a r i v e r w i t h i n its b a n k s ; the progress requires " a constant wakefulness of M i n d , to keep it w i t h i n
the due l i m i t s of its c o u r s e . "
3
4
I should perhaps m a k e it clear at this point t h a t I a m
not i n t r o d u c i n g these parallels i n order to c o n f i r m a n
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b y means of e x t e r n a l evidence.
External
evidence is not often capable of doing this i n any case,
and the parallels w h i c h I a m g i v i n g i n t h i s analysis are
not o v e r w h e l m i n g l y close. B u t I do t h i n k t h a t Coleridge
tended to use c e r t a i n k i n d s of image i n c e r t a i n k i n d s of
context, and that to point out a few of these tendencies
can be a w a y of m a k i n g the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n I a m offering
look a l i t t l e less u n l i k e l y t h a n it otherwise m i g h t .
For
instance, as everyone knows, Coleridge w o r r i e d constantl y about the devitalization a n d the loss of spontaneity
A. B. E N G L A N D
68
w h i c h he k n e w could occur when the " i n t e l l e c t " asserted
itself too strongly upon the "feelings," a n d once, i n a letter
to T h o m a s Wedgwood, he w r o t e t h a t " . . . Feelings die
b y flowing into the m o u l d of the Intellect."
A n d i n another discussion of philosophical a n d poetic " M e t h o d " he
uses the image of stagnant, enclosed w a t e r to describe the
s t e r i l i t y to w h i c h the m i n d m a y come if that energy w h i c h
is the source of a l l creative thought is held too f i r m l y i n
check; he refers to " t h a t life-ebullient s t r e a m w h i c h breaks
t h r o u g h every m o m e n t a r y embankment, again, indeed,
and evermore to embank itself, but w i t h i n no banks to
stagnate or be imprisoned."*'' Here, of course, he is i n
an o p t i m i s t i c mood, a n d he presents the final stagnation
and i m p r i s o n m e n t as o n l y a h y p o t h e t i c a l possibility. B u t
elsewhere i n his discussion of " M e t h o d " he regards it as
a v e r y r e a l possibility, especially w h e n " a mere dead
arrangement, c o n t a i n i n g i n itself no p r i n c i p l e of progress i o n , " is substituted for a l i v i n g a n d vigorous sequentially.
5
7
I n h i s o w n case, Coleridge felt, t h i s loss of spontaneity
h a d been caused b y an excessive devotion to philosophical
and m e t a p h y s i c a l enquiry. I n " D e j e c t i o n " he speaks of
the "abstruse r e s e a r c h " w h i c h stole f r o m his o w n nature
" a l l the n a t u r a l m a n . " A n d i n a letter to T h o m a s Poole,
l o o k i n g back on a long period of illness " a s a Storehouse
of w i l d D r e a m s for Poems, or intellectual F a c t s for metap h y s i c a l S p e c u l a t i o n , " he hopes t h a t " P h i l o s o p h y & P o e t r y
w i l l not neutralize each other, & leave me an i n e r t m a s s . "
I n order to describe this " m e t a p h y s i c a l S p e c u l a t i o n " w h i c h
he feels m a y be a n impediment to the creative impulse,
Coleridge sometimes uses the i m a g e r y of caves a n d subt e r r a n e a n enclosures; at v a r i o u s points i n h i s letters, he
t h a n k s G o d for h a v i n g enabled h i m to find his w a y out of
" t h a t l a b y r i n t h - D e n of S o p h i s t r y , " he refers to the " d a r k
u n f a t h o m ' d W e l l s " into w h i c h he has probed " w i t h metap h y s i c l a n c e t " a n d out of w h i c h he is t h a n k f u l to have
come, and he locates the " N y m p h M a t h e s i s " i n the " v i s i o n a r y caves of A b s t r a c t e d Idea.""
T h e k i n d of m e n t a l
8
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KHAN"
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a c t i v i t y w h i c h Coleridge is describing i n these instances
is r a t i o n a l i s t i c a n d a n a l y t i c a l . H e implies t h a t t h i s activity is capable of e x p l o r i n g great depths, just as i n " K u b l a
K h a n " he describes the caverns into w h i c h the r i v e r falls
as "measureless." B u t he also implies, v e r y strongly, that
the penetration into these " u n f a t h o m ' d W e l l s " a n d " v i s i o n a r y caves" of intellectual thought is d e v i t a l i s i n g i n its
effect upon his creative i m a g i n a t i o n . A n d i n his use of
these images he confronts, as I t h i n k he does i n " K u b l a
K h a n , " a v i s i o n of the " l i f e l e s s " depths into w h i c h a purel y r a t i o c i n a t i v e a c t i v i t y of the m i n d m a y lead.
T o r e g a r d the "lifeless o c e a n " as a n image of t h i s k i n d
of s t e r i l i t y is a w a y of leading towards an interpretation
of the " A n c e s t r a l voices prophesying w a r " w h i c h suggests
t h a t this phrase is more f u l l y integrated into the poem's
pattern of m e a n i n g t h a n it has often been thought to be.
E l i s a b e t h Schneider feels t h a t the phrase " r e m a i n s una s s i m i l a t e d , " t h a t w h i l e it m a y have been intended as a
" h i n t at s o m e t h i n g to come i n the p o e m , " i t does not
a c t u a l l y a t t a i n t h i s function because the poem was not
completed, a n d Coleridge's i n t r o d u c t i o n of the image is
one of the reasons w h y she cannot r e g a r d " K u b l a K h a n "
as r e a l l y " c o h e r e n t . "
Chayes regards the phrase as
m a k i n g a k i n d of sense, but the m e a n i n g w h i c h she attaches to i t is d r a w n f r o m sources outside the poem, and
she does not connect t h a t m e a n i n g w i t h a n y t h i n g else i n
the poem itself (pp. 12-13). H e r interpretation, therefore,
w o u l d not satisfy Schneider t h a t the image is really assimilated into the poem. N o w I have suggested t h a t i t m a y
be possible to r e g a r d the image of the r i v e r f a l l i n g t h r o u g h
the caverns as a metaphor t h a t describes a spontaneous,
energetic overflow being deprived of its life b y a n excess
of c o n t a i n i n g r a t i o c i n a t i o n . If t h i s is i n a n y w a y a n
a p p r o x i m a t i o n to w h a t the image means, then the moment
of descent is a moment at w h i c h the r i v e r a n d the caverns
are v e r y m u c h i n opposition to each other. T h a t , I suggest, is w h y the r i v e r falls " i n t u m u l t , " as if protesting
against w h a t is being done to it. T h e relationship be10
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tween r i v e r a n d cavern at t h i s point is therefore one t h a t
involves a degree of struggle. A n d one m u s t remember
t h a t it is precisely a m i d the t u m u l t of the r i v e r ' s descent
into the caverns t h a t K u b l a hears the " A n c e s t r a l voices."
T h e y come to h i m " f r o m f a r , " but t h e i r prophecy of w a r
is i n some w a y associated w i t h the t u m u l t of the r i v e r ' s
descent.
Whereas for most of the r i v e r ' s course the
energy suggested b y the f o u n t a i n a n d the c o n t a i n i n g effect
suggested b y the caves are not i n conflict, the caves finally
become the enemy of the f o u n t a i n . T h u s , w h e n either the
spontaneous energy or the a n a l y t i c a l intellect seeks to
dominate its opposite i t engages i n a battle w i t h i t , a n d
the result is " t u m u l t . " C e r t a i n l y , " w a r " w o u l d not be a n
inappropriate w o r d w i t h w h i c h to describe a conflict of this
kind.
I t h i n k t h a t the progression of the poem's images tends
i r r e s i s t i b l y towards some such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as this. B u t
it m a y be valuable to go outside the poem just once more,
to consider a comment w h i c h Coleridge once made o n
Shakespeare, w h o was for h i m the supreme instance of
an a r t i s t i n whose w o r k spontaneous power a n d intellectual
p r o f u n d i t y were m i r a c u l o u s l y reconciled. A t one point i n
the Biographia
he suggests t h a t i n Shakespeare's e a r l y
poems there is conflict r a t h e r t h a n r e c o n c i l i a t i o n ; " I n
Shakespeare's poems the creative power and the intellect u a l energy wrestle as i n a w a r embrace.
E a c h i n its
excess of strength seems to threaten the e x t i n c t i o n of the
other. A t length i n the D R A M A they were r e c o n c i l e d . "
Here, Coleridge t u r n s to a n image of w a r f a r e i n order to
describe a conflict between two c o n t r a s t i n g forces w h i c h
are v e r y m u c h l i k e the two forces that I have suggested
come eventually into conflict i n " K u b l a K h a n . " A n d after
this image, he goes on to describe the two opposed
elements as being l i k e " t w o r a p i d s t r e a m s " w h i c h fight
against each other " w i t h i n n a r r o w a n d r o c k y b a n k s . " T h e
i m a g e r y here is of course different f r o m t h a t of " K u b l a
K h a n " because Shakespeare's " i n t e l l e c t " is itself described
as a s t r e a m possessing an immense energy, just as is his
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" c r e a t i v e power." B u t it seems to me t h a t the j u x t a p o s i tion of the image of warfare and the image of
flowing
water i n a passage describing a conflict between "creative
p o w e r " and " i n t e l l e c t u a l e n e r g y " is v e r y suggestive of
" K u b l a K h a n . " A n d w h e n Coleridge goes on to refer to
the " t u m u l t " w h i c h is caused b y t h i s conflict, the connection comes to seem even more persuasive.
I n t h i s passage, it is as if Shakespeare's e a r l y poetry
acts as a w a r n i n g about the k i n d of " t u m u l t " w h i c h can
occur w h e n that i n i t i a l energetic upsurge w h i c h leads to
creative a c t i v i t y comes into conflict w i t h the " i n t e l l e c t u a l , " r a t i o c i n a t i v e power of the m i n d , r a t h e r t h a n finding
a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h it. A n d Coleridge describes t h a t conflict as a f o r m of " w a r . " I n t h i s way, the passage r e i n forces the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t the " w a r " w h i c h is prophesied
i n " K u b l a K h a n " has to do w i t h a conflict between those
two k i n d s of m e n t a l a c t i v i t y w h i c h are s y mb oliz e d i n the
poem's images. N o w if this is the k i n d of w a r f a r e t h a t
Coleridge is r e f e r r i n g to, the voices w h i c h prophesy i t
w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y be the voices of those w h o have a part i c u l a r insight into the conflict t h a t is being described.
A n d who would be more aware of the nature of t h i s conflict t h a n those other creative artists, such as Shakespeare,
w h o have preceded Coleridge? I n the poem, of course,
i t is the ancestors of K u b l a w h o prophesy w a r . B u t K u b l a
is a creative a r t i s t h i m s e l f — h e has b u i l t the pleasuredome t h a t becomes a n image of the poem Coleridge longs
to create, a n d it is a b u i l d i n g w h i c h involves a m i r a c u l o u s
union of opposite forces. W h a t I a m proposing, then, is
that the " A n c e s t r a l v o i c e s " w h i c h he hears are the voices
of the whole a r t i s t i c a n d l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n w h i c h lies beh i n d Coleridge, a n d t h a t t h e y prophesy the k i n d of " w a r "
w h i c h the creative a r t i s t is p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e l y to encounter.
A l t h o u g h I have d r a w n attention to Coleridge's c o m ments on Shakespeare's poetry, I don't t h i n k we need
t h e m i n order to sense the p o s s i b i l i ! y of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
I have proposed. F o r i f the poem is about certain r e l a tionships between " c r e a t i v e p o w e r " and the c o n t a i n i n g
72
A. B. E N G L A N D
" i n t e l l e c t , " and if t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p is at one p o i n t prod u c t i v e of conflict a n d " t u m u l t , " t h e n it is s u r e l y not
u n n a t u r a l to relate the " w a r " t h a t is m e n t i o n e d to t h i s
conflict, and to feel t h a t those w h o p r o p h e s y such w a r fare are l i k e l y to have a special i n s i g h t i n t o w h a t causes
it.
I do not, therefore, r e g a r d the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n I have
offered as b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y far-fetched.
M o r e o v e r , it is
consistent w i t h the i d e a t h a t the w h o l e poem is about the
c r e a t i v e process, a n d i t shows t h a t the a n c e s t r a l voices
are less i r r e c o n c i l e a b l e w i t h the p a t t e r n of the poem's
images t h a n some readers have felt t h e m to be.
NOTES
' C h a y e s , " ' K u b l a K h a n ' a n d the C r e a t i v e Process," Studies in
Romanticism,
V I (1966), 1-21; W a t s o n , Coleridge
the Poet
( L o n d o n : Routledge a n d K e g a n P a u l , 1966), pp. 117-30;
A d a i r , The Waking
Dream:
A Study of Coleridge's
Poetry
( L o n d o n : A r n o l d , 1967), pp. 108-43.
-Biographia
Literaria,
ed. J . S h a w c r o s s ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r sity Press, 1907), II, 12.
zThe Notebooks of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. K a t h l e e n C o b u r n ,
V o l . II ( L o n d o n : P a n t h e o n B o o k s , Ï962), 2553 17.111; Notebooks, V o l . I ( L o n d o n : Routledge a n d K e g a n P a u l , 1957),
1770 16.150.
^Treatise
on Method as Published
in the Encyclopaedia
Metropolitana, ed. A l i c e D . S n y d e r ( L o n d o n : Constable, 1934), p. 11.
^Collected
Letters of Samuel Taylor
Coleridge,
ed. E a r l L e s l i e
G r i g g s ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press, 1956), II, 914.
"The Friend, i n The Complete Works of Samuel Taylor
Coleridge,
ed. W . G . T . Shedd ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r a n d B r o t h e r s , 1868),
II, 469.
"¡Complete Works, II, 417.
^Letters, II, 668-69.
»Letters, II, 1037; I, 295; I, 7.
^Coleridge,
Opium and "Kubla
Khan"
(Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y of
Chicago Press, 1953), p. 248.
Biographia,
ed. Shawcross, II, 19.
u