Meridian: Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
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a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
January 1998 - August 2000
ISSN 1097-9778
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Vol. 4, No. 1
Volume 4, Number 1, Winter 2001
Editor's Note
Meridian in the Cold of Polar Summer
Edwin R. Gerler, Jr.
Joan J. Michael
Features
Evolution - Update on The Living Article:
Using Technology as a Tool for Promoting
Healthy Development in Middle School
Students
Linda C. Greene
Internet Tools for Facilitating Scientific
Inquiry
Richard Huber
Christopher J. Moore
Teaching the Rules - For Better Management
and Instruction
Susan Osborne
M. Megan Ambrogi
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Vol. 4, No. 1
The Use of Educational Technologies in a
Cognitive Flexibility Theory Unit
Colleen Swain
Jennifer Greer
Stephanie van Hover
Literature Review:
Middle School Science and Mathematics
Teachers and Their Students: Adapting to
Technologies that Work
Lisa Grable
Carlos Curto
In Practice
An Italian School Project
Gian Carlo Visani
Translated from Italian to English by Marsha Alibrandi
Slow Down and Learn, Hurry Up and
Understand: Time - Management in the
Computer Room
Arnold Pulda
Reader Survey
Let us know what you think!
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Vol. 4, No. 1
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Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
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Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2001
ISSN 1097 9778
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Guidelines and Policy
Manuscripts are now being accepted until
May 15, 2001
for the Summer 2001 issue
SCOPE:
Meridian is an electronic journal dedicated to research and practice of computer technology
in the middle school.
MANUSCRIPTS:
Manuscripts should be approximately, but are not limited to, 20 pages, double spaced.
Articles should follow APA style. References should be included at the end of the paper.
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Meridian: Author Guidelines & Submission Policies
Authors must obtain copyright permission for all work owned by someone else that they
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photos.
Note: To view the Electronic Publication Agreement, you must have Adobe Acrobat or Adobe
Acrobat Reader. To obtain a current version of the Reader, go to our Resources page.
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Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
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Meridian Purpose Statement and Current Editorial Board
Meridian is an electronic journal dedicated to research and practice of
computer technology in middle school classrooms. It is published twice
yearly by an interdisciplinary team of NC State graduate students
representing a broad range of fields, from education to forestry. Located at
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/
Meridian features research findings, practitioner articles, commentary, and
book excerpts by educational researchers, technology designers, middle
school teachers, and authors who wish to share and expand teaching and
learning experiences with computer technologies in middle school
classrooms and beyond.
Current Editorial Board
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Summer 2000
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Meridian:Winter2000:Info
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Current Issue | Current Editor's Note | Submissions
About Meridian | Archive
Resources | Feedback | NC State Homepage
Text Version | Special Honors
Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Summer 2000
ISSN 1097-9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/masthead.html
contact Meridian
All rights reserved by the authors.
Meridian is a member of the GEM Consortium
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Editor's Note
| Table of Contents | About Meridian | Resources | Archive |
About the Editors Note:
With the publication of the Winter 2001 issue of Meridian we move into our fourth year of existence as
an online journal. Meridian's history is chronicled in the editor's note Winter 2000 issue. Our current
editor's note is a collaboration between former Dean Joan J. Michael and former Associate Dean Edwin
Gerler. This editor's note is an example of the creativity and imagination that inspired Meridian's
creation. Meridian was founded during the tenure of these visionary leaders. The Meridian editorial
board would like to thank Dr. Joan Michael and Dr. Edwin Gerler for their support of Meridian.
Wendy Husted
Co-Editor, Meridian
2000-2001
To Editor's Note
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Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2001
ISSN 1097 -9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2001/ednote2001/ednote.htm
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Technology as a Tool
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Update
on
The Living Article
Linda C. Greene
North Carolina State University
Image obtained from IMSI's Master Photos Collection,
1895 Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506,
USA.
"The underlying goal of
this project is to grow
beyond using the
Internet merely to
disseminate knowledge.
Rather, we hope to use
this as a forum to
engage in the process of
creating knowledge."
Note to Reader: If you have not yet read The Living Article
from Meridian's Summer 2000 issue, click on the link provided
to review the original article.
In the last issue of Meridian, we began a project we entitled The
Living Article, in hopes of beginning a new forum for scholarly
discourse. As we noted in our introduction to that article, this is
an experiment and we could not anticipate what response, if any,
we would receive. At this point, we have received responses that
fall into one of two categories. In the first category are responses
that simply affirm the usefulness of the information presented
and express appreciation for the article's message. Most of the
responses we received fall into this category. While we are
grateful for and encouraged by these messages, we will not
reprint them here as they do not provide additional perspective
on the topic at hand.
The second type of message we received involved examples of
programs that are currently using web-based approaches to deal
with some of the concerns expressed in our article.
Unfortunately, we received far fewer of these responses. Since
the additional information generated so far does not yet warrant
a full revision of the article, at this time we will simply present to
you the additional information we have gathered. For the time
being, this page will serve as a bulletin board on which we will
provide direct links to the responses we have received so far as
well as new responses generated between now and the next issue
of Meridian. In the next issue, we hope that we will have
gathered enough additional information and differing
perspectives to formulate a fuller development of The Living
Article. For now, we look forward to continuing the
collaboration with you on this project.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Technology as a Tool
Responses to The Living Article
iEARN: The Internation Education and
Resource Network
(http://www.iearn.org/)
Center for the Prevention of School
Violence
(http://www.ncsu.edu/cpsv/)
February 7, 2001
Response from:
Deborah Felton, Parent Volunteer
Warren Township School System
January 10, 2001
Response from:
Elaine Harper, Project Coordinator
Conflict Management Project
Center for the Prevention of School Violence
How to Contribute Your Response
Responses may be sent in the body of an email message or as an
attachment and should include your name and professional
affiliation (work setting, title, etc.) as well as complete reference
information for any material that you may cite in your response.
Be sure to include any relevant Internet links so that we can
include those as additional sources of information for our
readers. If sending an attachment, please describe the type and
version of software used to create the attachment and include
contact information so that we may get in touch with you if there
are any problems in reading the attachment. Send all responses
to Linda Greene with the words "Living Article" in the subject
line of the message.
We look forward to hearing from you.
Introduction to Living Article
References
Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2001
ISSN 1097—9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/winter2001/living/update.html
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Technology as a Tool
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Update on The Living Article
February 7, 2001
Response from:
Deborah Felton, Parent Volunteer
Warren Township School System
I am a parent volunteer in the Warren Township school system. For about 3 years now I have been
introducing I*earn to the district. It is a fabulous way to involve students in productive use of the
Internet. Every project is multidisciplinary and has a humanitarian component. I am disappointed
that some of the administrators I must deal with do not fully appreciate their role in the development
of children. I enjoyed reading your article very much. It supports and illustrates much of what I have
been saying in our district for years now. "Don't" is not enough. Schools must "show" children and
parents must "show" children what to do. Unfortunately many adults forget how they learned best.
None of us would be able to speak or eat with utensils if we had not been shown "how to."
I*earn shows children "how to" and enables them to make a meaningful difference in the world. We
are doing the Child Labor Project this year. As part of the project we are raising money to build a
school in a needy area. Students are able to collaborate with others around the world in a restricted
moderated educational forum. I love it!
Regards,
Deborah Felton
iEARN: The Internation Education and Resource Network
(http://www.iearn.org/)
Back to Update Page
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Technology as a Tool
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Update on The Living Article
January 10 , 2001
Response from:
Elaine Harper, Project Coordinator
Conflict Management Project
Center for the Prevention of School Violence
Protecting students from an armed intruder is virtually an impossible task but "less violent acts" such
as name calling, put downs, and insults can be more easily addressed. These actions are at the
bottom of the Center for the Prevention of School Violence's violence continuum. According to the
Center, school violence is any behavior that violates a school's educational mission or climate of
respect or jeopardizes the intent of the school to be free of aggression against persons or property,
drugs, weapons, disruptions, and disorder. If more attention is placed on these "less violent acts"
being performed by students, it is possible that there would not be an escalation in acts such as
murder and suicide which exist at the top of the continuum.
As stated in the article, a more useful approach to generate possible solutions to promote healthy
development in middle school students might be to focus on what we want students to do. This can be
accomplished by creating an environment where expectations are clearly stated, consequences are
appropriately defined, and good decision making is reinforced. Furthermore, modeling appropriate
behavior, performing self-assessments, and learning how to appreciate differences can be
demonstrated through daily activities and infused into the curriculum. It is ludicrous to think that
students will obey the Ten Commandments when many of their adult role models are not practicing
them consistently. Middle school students need educators that continually address their own motives,
actions, and beliefs and understand the affect that these have on their students' moral development.
The Center for the Prevention of School Violence is responsible for designing a conflict
resolution-conflict management curriculum to enhance pre-service teachers' and administrators'
skills in the area of conflict resolution-conflict management. Specific objectives of this curriculum
address the need of pre-service teachers to practice self-assessment, model effective communication
skills, and use various problem solving strategies to help improve the interaction, trust, and rapport
between teachers and students. Additionally, the Healthful Living as well as the Guidance
components of North Carolina's recommended Conflict Resolution Standard Course of Study have
objectives that address the promotion of healthy growth and development for middle school students.
Elaine Harper
Doctoral Student, NCSU
Counselor Education
Project Coordinator
Conflict Management Project
Center for the Prevention of School Violence
Center for the Prevention of School Violence
(http://www.ncsu.edu/cpsv/)
Back to Update Page
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Meridian: Summer 2000: Technology as a Tool
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Editor's Note:
Introduction to
The Living Article
Linda C. Greene
North Carolina State University
Image obtained from IMSI's Master Photos Collection,
1895 Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506,
USA.
"The underlying goal of
this project is to grow
beyond using the
Internet merely to
disseminate knowledge.
Rather, we hope to use
this as a forum to
engage in the process of
creating knowledge."
A Living Article, as we hope to implement it, begins with the
presentation of a strong and possibly controversial article related
to the field of technology and adolescent education. The readers
of the article are then asked to respond to what they have read in
the manner of an open forum, using the resources of the Internet
to collaborate with other readers. Our concept of a Living Article
has evolved over the course of several years and through
discussions with a rotating group of Meridian's Review Board
members. The underlying goal of this project is to grow beyond
using the Internet merely to disseminate knowledge. Rather, we
hope to use this as a forum to engage in the process of creating
knowledge. We want to expand the possibilities of academic
collaboration to include the entire audience of Meridian. In so
doing, we hope to create a new forum for academic discourse.
This Living Article is an experiment. As with any experiment,
there are sure to be some glitches as we go along. There are
bound to be some unforeseen problems. As we discover these
problems, some of the information surrounding the Living
Article may change. If you discover any such problems, we hope
that you will make us aware of your discoveries and offer some
potential solutions. Our hope is that this collaboration will
inform not only the content of the article but the process of
creating it as well.
The co-authors of this article are doctoral students in Counselor
Education at NC State University who are also members of
Meridian's Review Board. Since this project has been up for
discussion for some time among the Meridian Board, we were
unable to put this article through the same blind review process
that is our usual policy for all Meridian articles. However, we
have solicited feedback from our board members and faculty
advisors prior to publication and we plan to document the
process that we implement throughout the life of this project.
We hope to make this documentation available to Meridian
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Meridian: Summer 2000: Technology as a Tool
readers in a future issue.
The content of our first Living Article focuses on the use of
technology as a tool for promoting healthy adolescent
development. We have used examples of school violence
(particularly the incident at Columbine High School) to highlight
the need for promoting healthy development among students.
We have then used the literature on adolescent development to
outline the age-appropriate developmental tasks for middle
school students. The major question posed by this article is
"How can we use technology as a tool to promote the successful
resolution of these adolescent developmental tasks?"
In answer to this question, we hope to receive responses in the
form of anecdotal evidence, relevant research in this area, and
commentary on the topic from various points of view. As we
begin to compile these responses, they initially will be reviewed
(to ensure that they are indeed responses to the article) and then
posted intact in a manner similar to bulletin board type postings.
They will later be edited into the article and cited using links to
the entire response. In this way, the article will evolve. We plan
to maintain all versions of the article in an archive (linked from
the most current version of the article) so that the process itself
can be examined.
We hope that you will find the information presented both useful
and thought provoking. We also hope that you will share the
thoughts that the article has provoked with us. We look forward
to the collaboration.
Page 1 of 4
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Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Volume 3, Issue 2, Summer 2000
ISSN 1097—9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/sum2000/living/index.html
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Meridian: Summer 2000: Technology as a Tool
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About the Authors
Technology as a Tool
Linda C. Greene, currently serving as Co-Editor for Meridian, is
a third-year doctoral student in the Department of Educational
Research and Leadership and Counselor Education at North
Carolina State University. She received her Masters Degree in
Counselor Education with a concentration in school counseling
from NC State following undergraduate work in Psychology at the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She has worked as a
school counselor at the middle school and elementary school
levels. Her research interests include career development,
spirituality, and expressive arts therapy. Her goal is to pursue a
career in academics that will include research and writing in the
area of curriculum development and school counseling.
Charlie Blackburn, a member of Meridian's Editorial Board, is
a second-year doctoral student in Counselor Education at North
Carolina State University. His research interests include
developmental issues in counseling and intervention. A native of
middle Tennessee, he graduated from high school in Lebanon, TN
and then pursued his undergraduate degree at the University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He then returned to Tennessee to
complete a Master's degree in Human Development Counseling at
Vanderbilt University. Charlie has worked in a variety of settings
to include psychiatric hospitals and wilderness programs. Most
recently, he worked as a therapist with a focus on victim and
perpetrator issues.
References
Arbuthnot, J., & Gordon, D.A. (1988). Crime and cognition:
Community applications of sociomoral reasoning development.
Criminal Justice and Behavior, 15(3), 379-393.
Blatt, M., & Kohlberg, L. (1975). Effects of classroom moral
discussions upon children's levels of moral judgment. Journal of
Moral Education, 4, 129-162.
Bosworth, K., Espelage, D., & DuBay, T. (1998). A computer-based
violence prevention for young adolescents: Pilot study.
Adolescence, 33, 785-795.
Gielen, U. (1991). Kohlberg's moral development theory. In L.
Kuhmerker (Ed.), The Kohlberg legacy for the helping profession
(pp 18-38). Birmingham, AL: Doxa Books.
Gregg, V., Gibbs, J.C., & Basinger, K.S. (1994). Patterns of
developmental delay in moral judgment by male and female
delinquents. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40(4), 538-553.
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/sum2000/living/refs.html (1 of 2) [2/23/2001 2:01:52 PM]
Meridian: Summer 2000: Technology as a Tool
Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking
from childhood to adolescence. New York: Basic Books.
Kohlberg, L. (1981). Essays on moral development: Vol. I.
Philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the idea of
justice. New York: Harper and Row.
Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development: Vol. II. The
psychology of moral development. New York: Harper and Row.
Kohlberg, L. & Mayer, R. (1972). Development as the aim of
education. Harvard Education Review, 42(4), 449-496.
Selman, R.L., & Schultz, L.H. (1990). Making a friend in youth:
Developmental theory and pair therapy. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Rest, J.R., & Thoma, S.J. (1986). Education programs and
interventions. In J.R. Rest (Ed.), Moral development: Advances in
research in theory (PP 59-88). New York: Praeger Publishers.
Introduction
Page 1 of Living Article
Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Volume 3, Issue 2, Summer 2000
ISSN 1097—9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/summer2000/living/refs.html
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Internet Tools for Scientific Inquiry
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Internet Tools for Facilitating
Scientific Inquiry
Richard A. Huber
Watson School of Education
University of North Carolina-Wilmington
and
Christopher J. Moore
Saint Mary Catholic School
Wilmington, North Carolina
Abstract
Effective use of the Internet in K-12 science education
may have little or nothing to do with surfing the web.
In this paper we examine another way of using the
Internet in inquiry-based middle school science
classrooms--using Internet resources that provide
relevant databases along with useful and engaging
tools for exploring and interpreting the data.
Specifically, in this paper we discuss the educational
applications of two Internet utilities that use water
quality data to facilitate teachers and students
developing various science process skills.
"...the most productive and
effective science education
applications of the Internet
involve teachers and students
accessing specific pre-selected
sites in order to accomplish
pre-determined objectives."
Contrary to a common misconception, effective use of the
Internet in K-12 science education has little or nothing to do
with surfing the web. Quite the contrary, the most productive
and effective science education applications of the Internet
involve teachers and students accessing specific pre-selected
sites in order to accomplish pre-determined objectives (Huber
and Harriett, 1998; Moore and Huber, in press; Watson, 1999).
This is not to imply, however, that the Internet should not be
used to support relatively open-ended inquiry-based
instructional approaches. Such approaches are essential
because students learn only by constructing their own
conceptualizations -- that is by making their own meaningful
connections between what they already know and the new
information they encounter (Martin 2000). Fitzgerald, Buie &
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Internet Tools for Scientific Inquiry
Cuales (1998) draw upon Tufte's (1983) seminal work on the
visual display of quantitative information in a discussion of
how "elegant" and "transparent" interfaces of computerized
displays of quantitative graphics can facilitate users in drawing
such personal meaning from the displayed information. In a
similar vein, Huber and Harriett (1998) describe the following
three inquiry-based types of Internet-supported science
instruction, all of which are constructivist oriented:
(1) the use of daily access sites, which are comparable to
"newspaper in the classroom" programs;
(2) virtual field trips; and
(3) Internet-based projects.
All of these approaches, especially Internet-based projects, are
highly compatible with the goals of constructivist-oriented
inquiry-based science instruction (Moore and Huber, in press).
In this paper we examine another way of using the Internet in
inquiry-based middle school science classrooms--using
Internet resources that provide relevant databases along with
useful and engaging tools for exploring and interpreting the
data. Specifically, in this paper we discuss the educational
applications of two Internet utilities that use water quality data
to facilitate teachers and students developing various science
process skills. The resources are particularly useful in helping
students build strengths in the areas of
(1) manipulating, visualizing and interpreting data;
(2) making and testing scientific hypotheses; and
(3) practicing scientific inquiry.
Water on the Web
(http://wow.nrri.umn.edu/wow/index.html)
River Run
(http://www.uncwil.edu/riverrun/)
Each of the Internet utilities reviewed in this paper provides
access to a substantial database. "Water on the Web"
(http://wow.nrri.umn.edu/wow/index.html) contains data on
lakes and the "River Run"
(http://www.uncwil.edu/riverrun/) contains data on rivers.
Additionally, each utility offers powerful data manipulation
and processing tools appropriate for use by middle school
students. The tools allow teachers and students to generate
animated graphic displays showing relationships among water
quality parameters through space and time. These displays use
line graphs and color gradients to display data on multiple
water quality parameters while also animating the graphs,
displaying a sequential series of graphs, in order to show
changes through time. The animated graphs function much
like a computerized enhanced version of the "small multiples"
described by Tufte (1983; 1990) as highly effective means of
displaying complex, multi-variable, quantitative information.
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Among the strengths of these utilities is the fact that they
provide Internet-based tools supportive of inquiry-based
science instruction. Although there is no universally accepted
concise definition of the term "inquiry-based science
instruction," there is broad general consensus regarding the
fundamental nature and value of inquiry-based instruction.
Strong support for inquiry-based instruction has been
articulated by the National Science Teachers Association
(NSTA), the American Association for the Advancement of
Science (AAAS), the National Commission on Science
Education Standards and Assessment (NCSESA), and the
National Research Council (NRC). The nature of inquiry-based
instruction is perhaps most clearly described in the "vision" of
the National Science Education Standards, published under
the auspices of the National Research Council (1996). As
envisioned in the Standards, inquiry-based teachers function
as facilitators and supporters of student learning rather than as
disseminators of knowledge. The vision of the Standards is one
of dynamic learning communities working within enriched
learning environments supported by an educational system
that has been overhauled to provide the support those
communities will need. Within these learning communities,
students are actively engaged in cooperative, inquiry-driven,
experiential, "hands-on and minds-on" learning activities that
emphasize problem solving and creative thinking. Through
these experiences, curriculum goals and objectives are met as
students construct meaningful, broadly applicable,
well-structured, information-rich knowledge, skills, abilities,
and affective domain attributes. Within this setting, the
Standards recognize the symbiotic nature of science and
technology and science- and technology- education. The
response to the Standards has been strong and supportive
(Moore and Huber, in press; Loucks-Horsley, 1998; Zeidler,
1998; Bereiter, Scardamalia, Cassells, and Hewitt, 1997;
Collins, 1997; Mergendoller, 1997; Bybee and Champagne
1995; Bybee 1995; Pratt 1995; Riechard, 1994).
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Internet Tools for Scientific Inquiry
"We have found the type of We have found the type of Internet resources reviewed in
Internet resources reviewed this paper to be useful for facilitating the delivery of the
type of inquiry-based instruction envisioned in the
in this paper to be useful
National Science Education Standards. The resources
for facilitating the delivery provide access to outstanding databases that are relevant
of the type of inquiry-based to studies of water quality along with engaging and useful
instruction envisioned in the tools for exploring that data. Students using these Internet
resources become engaged in inquiries that promote their
National Science Education development of scientific-, computer-, and
Standards. "
graphic-literacy. Additionally, the value of these tools can
Students as Scientists
Project
be enhanced by integrating their use in the classroom with
other compatible Internet-based educational resources.
For example one of the resources discussed in this paper,
the "River Run Data Visualization Tool," can be readily
and seamlessly integrated with another Internet-based
educational program, the "Students as Scientists Project"
(http://smec.uncwil.edu/GLAXO/SAS/index.htm - best viewed
using Internet Explorer 4.0 or higher). When used in
concert, these two programs provide students with
experience in a wide range of scientific activities including
obtaining water samples, analyzing those samples,
publishing and processing their data using the Internet
and Excel, and generating and interpreting literally
hundreds of graphs displaying comparable data to their
own (though more valid and reliable than data drawn from
student analyses alone).
Water on the Web (WOW) provides water quality data
collected from remote underwater sampling stations
placed in five Minnesota lakes
(http://wow.nrri.umn.edu/wow/index.html), which
continuously sample and analyze water from different
depths in the lakes. "Data visualization tools," accessible
from the WOW web site, allow students to see and explore
relationships among the data points that would probably
be lost to them were the data merely displayed as matrixes
of numbers. Most importantly, students can, with a few
points and clicks, change parameters defining the dynamic
graphic displays. Thus, the utilities provide simple and
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engaging mediums for open exploration and powerful
effective tools for hypothesis testing. For example, in an
inquiry-based classroom a teacher might direct students to
use the "color mapper" data visualization tool to explore
lake stratifications. Under this scenario, the teacher might
have students define the parameters so that water
temperature is color-graphed and dissolved oxygen is
shown with a line graph (note that different students could
be looking at data from various lakes and at various time
frames in this example). Through the teacher-guided
inquiry, students should quickly discover how sharp
gradients in temperature and dissolved oxygen define the
epilimnion strata at the surface of lakes. Students could
then form hypotheses predicting how other variables
might behave around this boundary and ultimately, they
could change system settings and "run" animations to test
their hypotheses. Data visualization tools within WOW are
Water on the Web (WOW)
also well suited for presenting clear pictures of various
http://wow.nrri.umn.edu/wow/index.html complex and interesting phenomena and events that occur
within lake ecosystems. For example, because water is at
its most dense at 4 degreesC, the water at the bottom of a
deep lake remains at 4 degrees C year round.
Consequently, as surface waters cool to this temperature
in the autumn and warm in the spring, the waters of a
deep lake may "turn over" twice a year. The data
visualization tool is an ideal resource for exploring and
displaying the important impacts of this dynamic event.
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Figure 1. Lake stratification from Water on the Web.
River Run Resource
http://www.uncwil.edu/riverrun/
The WOW web site offers several additional powerful
utilities that could be useful in an inquiry-driven middle
school science classroom. The site also provides teacherand student-oriented lesson plans to facilitate teachers in
effectively implementing these resources.
The River Run Resource
(http://www.uncwil.edu/riverrun/) offers two main
interactive data displays, the ARCVIEW Internet Map
Server (IMS) and the Data Visualization Tool (DVT). The
IMS in River Run is used for displaying and querying
maps of the Lower Cape Fear River drainage basin. The
maps are interactive, permitting the user to zoom in and
out of the maps with different amounts of detail being
presented at different spatial scales. This tool gives the
user the power to link databases and maps to create
dynamic displays. Global Information Service tools such
as the IMS have been demonstrated as effective support
structures to facilitate students in conducting original
research and spatial analysis (Alibrandi, 1998).
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Figure 2 Example of an IMS from the Riverrun Website.
The Data Visualization Tool is similar to the color mapper
for lake data described above, with the exception that the
X-axis of the displayed graphs is analogous to the Y-axis in
the lake data. That is, in the lake graphs the vertical
dimension is used to map lake depth whereas in the river
graphs the horizontal axis of the graph maps the flow of
the river (from upstream on the left to downstream on the
right).
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"One of the strengths of
the River Run Data
Visualization Tool is that
it provides numerous
opportunities for students
to discover and explore
extremely interesting
ecological events, which
tend to stand out when
the data is graphically
displayed."
Internet Tools for Scientific Inquiry
One of the strengths of the River Run Data Visualization Tool is that it
provides numerous opportunities for students to discover and explore
extremely interesting ecological events, which tend to stand out when
the data is graphically displayed. These provocative anomalies are
abundant because the river systems from which the data are drawn have
experienced numerous highly noteworthy events during the years over
which the data are collected. Specifically, the River Run resource
provides data and utilities for exploring data on the water quality of the
Cape Fear River and the Northeast Cape Fear River from 1995 to 2000.
During these years these river systems experienced a major poultry
farm spill, several ruptures of hog waste lagoons, five hurricanes, and a
500-year flood. Consequently, when water quality data on the rivers are
explored using the data visualization tool, conspicuous spikes in line
graphs and flashes of color on the color mapper pop up frequently.
These anomalies invite students to stop the animations, form
hypotheses, reset parameters, and rerun the animations to test their
hypotheses. For example, under the DVT default settings for September
1998, at the NAV site, the effects of Hurricane Bonnie on four water
quality parameters can be dramatically seen (Figure 3). The large spike
in fecal coliform bacteria can be attributed to the shut down of the City
of Wilmington's north side sewage treatment plant when the back-up
power generators failed resulting in untreated human sewage being
dumped directly into the Cape Fear River. By resetting the parameters,
students can easily determine the impact of Hurricane Bonnie on nine
additional parameters at the NAV site or any of the other 15 sampling
sites.
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Figure 3. Effects of Hurricane Bonnie on four water quality parameters.
These findings suggest several hypotheses that could be explored
further using the DVT and/or other resources available in middle school
classrooms. For instance, why did the dissolved oxygen drop to almost
zero shortly after Hurricane Bonnie? Additionally, when conductivity
(an indirect measure of the salinity of the water) is graphed, there
appears to have been unusually low conductivity after the storm. With
the aid of probing and guiding questions from their teacher, students
might reasonably predict that the findings shown in the data animations
occurred as the result of increase in stream flow at the NAV test site.
Runoff from flooded agricultural areas caused increases in turbidity and
nutrients including nitrogen compounds and phosphorus. Meanwhile,
the tremendous increase in the flow of water from rains associated with
the hurricane simply diluted and washed the normally salty water out to
sea and thereby decreasing the conductivity.
Interpretations such as those made above could be further tested using
the DVT and/or with other appropriate resources (such as newspaper
records of floods or animal waste spills). Regardless of the direction
students and teachers take when exploring such anomalies, the
animated color-coded graphics are an ideal tool for making the data
come alive--the graphics leave no doubt about the fact that something
interesting happened around the NAV testing station in September of
1998! Additionally the DVT provides a good resource for exploring such
anomalies using tools that hold much promise for promoting students'
ongoing development of scientific-, computer- and graphic literacy.
The WOW and River Run websites provide the middle school science
teacher with two powerful tools for assisting students in constructing
meaning from environmental events. Using these utilities the teacher
becomes a facilitator of inquiry guiding the students as they select
parameters to be observed and noting the changes over time.
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Internet Tools for Scientific Inquiry
About the Authors:
Richard A. Huber
Richard A. Huber is an associate professor of science education at the
University of North Carolina in Wilmington. He holds a Masters
Degree and Ph.D. in Science Education from the University of Iowa.
His undergraduate degree is in Biology with a minor in Chemistry.
Dr. Huber has eight years of public school teaching experience and
ten years of central office administration. Dr. Huber received
UNCW's Distinguished Teaching Professor award in 1999 and a
UNCW Innovations in Technology Award in 2000. He has served as
the P.I. on 14 externally funded projects totaling over $950,000.
http://www2.uncwil.edu/people/huberr/
Christopher J. Moore
Christopher Moore is a middle school science teacher at Saint Mary
Catholic School in Wilmington, NC. He holds a Masters Degree in
Technical Communication from the University of Washington in
Seattle, Washington. Mr. Moore also has undergraduate degrees in
scientific and technical communication and anthropology and he is
certified in elementary education. Mr. Moore has three years of
elementary and middle school teaching experience and over ten years
experience in researching and consulting in the areas of human
factors and technical communications.
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Internet Tools for Scientific Inquiry
References
For some additional Internet sites of the three
types discussed, explore these links:
Daily access sites:
http://www.weather.com/
http://www.epa.gov/airnow/
Cyber Field Trip sites:
http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/mars/photos/index.html
http://www.exploratorium.edu/
http://oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/pictures.html
Internet Based Projects:
http://WWW.Globe.gov/
http://www.learner.org/jnorth/
Alibrandi (1998). GIS as a Tool in Interdisciplinary
Environmental Studies: Student, Teacher, and Community
Perspectives. Meridian: A Middle School Computer
Technologies Journal [Online], 1:2.
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/jun98/feat2-3/feat2-3.html
[2000, November].
Bereiter, C., Scardamalia, M., Cassells, C., & Hewitt, J.
(1997). Postmodernism, knowledge building, and
elementary science The Elementary School Journal, 97
(4), 329- 340.
Bybee, R. (1995). Achieving Scientific Literacy. The
Science Teacher, 62 (7), 28-33.
Bybee, R., & Champagne, A. (1995). An Introduction to the
National Science Education Standards. The Science
Teacher, 62 (1), 40-45.
Collins, A. (1997). National science education standards:
Looking backward and forward. The Elementary School
Journal, 97(4), 299-314.
Huber, R. A. & Harriet, G. H. (1998). Applying the
Unlimited Potential of the Internet in Teaching Middle
School Science. Meridian: A Middle School Computer
Technologies Journal [Online], 1:2.
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/jun98/feat2-4/feat2-4.html
[2000, November].
Fitzgerald, P. J., Buie,T., & Cuales, M. (1998). The eyecue
system: a prototype for the next generation of educational
technology. Meridian: A Middle School Computer
Technologies Journal [Online], 1:2.
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/jun98/feat2-1/feat2-1.html
[2000, November].
Loucks-Horsley, S. (1998). The role of teaching and
learning in systemic reform: A focus on professional
development. Science Educator, 7 (1), 1-6.
Martin, D. J., (2000). Elementary Science Methods A
Constructivist Approach, Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont,
CA. p.174.
Mergendoller, J. R. (1997). From hands-on through
minds-on to systemic reform in science education. The
Elementary School Journal, 97(4), 295-298.
Moore, C J. & Huber, R. A. (in press). Support for
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Internet Tools for Scientific Inquiry
environmental education from the Internet and the
National Science Education Standards. Journal of
Environmental Education.
National Research Council. (1996). National Science
Education Standards (1st. ed.), Washington, DC: National
Academy of Sciences.
Pratt, H. (1995). A Look at the Program Standards. The
Science Teacher, 62 (7), 22-27.
Riechard, D. (1994). National Science-Education
Standards: Around the Reform Bush. . . . Again? The
Clearing House, 67 (3), 135-136.
Tufte, E. R. (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative
Information. Graphics Press: Cheshire, Connecticut.
Tufte, E. R. (1990). Envisioning Information. Graphics
Press: Cheshire, Connecticut.
Watson, K.L. (1999). WebQuests in the middle school.
Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies
Journal [Online], 2:2.
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/jul99/webquest/index.htm [2000,
November].
Zeidler, D. L. (1998). Visions: Teacher's Perceptions of
reform goals in science education. Science Educator, 7 (1),
38-46.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Teaching the Rules
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Teaching the Rules - For Better
Management and Instruction
Susan Osborne
College of Education & Psychology
North Carolina State University
M. Megan Ambrogi
Self Employed Behavior Specialist Consultant
Image obtained from IMSI's Master Photos Collection, 1895
Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506, USA.
"I don't want to quit but I
feel like I'm not doing any
good. It's just a constant
battle."
Abstract
In this article, we describe a project to improve classroom
behavior and academic functioning in a middle school special
education class of students with learning and behavior
problems. A first year special education teacher walked into a
language arts class several months into the school year to find
students performing poorly and engaging in disruptive
behavior. Students arrived late and unprepared for class. Some
students simply refused to engage in any academic work. Others
engaged in verbal and physical aggression against their peers.
We describe how we planned and implemented a proactive
program to teach students how to behave appropriately and
how to improve their academic skills in language arts. We
explicitly taught and reinforced students for coming to class
prepared, listening to the person speaking, raising their hands to
be recognized, and doing their best work. Students responded
positively to the intervention and improved both their school
behavior and their academic productivity.
Teaching the Rules - For Better Management and
Instruction
"My language arts class is a mess," Ms. Allen, a first year teacher
who had taken over a class mid-year, recently told me. "Some of
the students don't like each other and they disrupt the class. They
aren't interested in doing the work so half of them are failing. I
find myself raising my voice and they don't even care. I don't want
to quit but I feel like I'm not doing any good. It's just a constant
battle."
Although these students had been pulled together in a class
because they had disabilities that affected their ability to function
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in school, I've heard the same concerns from teachers of "typical"
students as well. In fact, difficulty with classroom management is
one of the biggest challenges teachers face (Walker & Sylwester,
1998) -- and it contributes to stress that may influence teachers'
decisions to leave the field (Miller, Brownell, & Smith, 1999;
Whitaker, 2000).
Image obtained from PhotoDisc TM,
Copyright 1996.
Many teachers in general and special education are not well
prepared to manage disruptive behavior. In special education,
preservice behavioral intervention projects often focus on the
needs of a individual rather than a group. Opportunities to
develop and implement management plans during field
placements are further limited because we try to place student
interns with effective teachers who have already established good
classroom order. The purpose of this paper is to describe our
efforts to establish better order and improve academic
engagement for 10 students attending a middle school language
arts class for students with behavior and learning problems.
Why We Need to Teach Classroom Rules
"Because students can
All too often, teachers in general and special education assume
that by the time students reach middle school, they will know
recite school rules, and
what appropriate school behavior is and be able to practice it with
perhaps even give
only occasional reminders. In fact, as Kameenui and Darch (1995)
examples of good school
make clear, even middle and high school teachers often must
behavior, does not mean proactively teach the skills necessary for students to behave
appropriately. Because students can recite school rules, and
that they actually know
even give examples of good school behavior, does not
how to behave in ways that perhaps
mean that they actually know how to behave in ways that are
are acceptable (Nelson,
acceptable (Nelson, Crabtree, Marchand-Martella, & Martella,
Crabtree,
1998). In this article, we will describe how we actively and directly
taught students what we meant by rules like coming to class
Marchand-Martella, &
prepared and waiting to be recognized. We will show you how to
Martella, 1998)."
use proactive management techniques to teach and reinforce the
academic and behavior skills we want students to exhibit.
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Teaching the Rules
The Classroom
Image obtained from IMSI's Master Photos Collection,
1895 Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506,
USA.
Ms. Allen's class was a special middle school language arts class
for students with disabilities. The ten students assigned to the
class had a range of disabilities that would strain most teachers'
management practices. One student had impaired vision and
required special seating and specially prepared assignments.
Another student had Asperger Syndrome (often described as
high functioning autism), others had a variety of learning and
behavioral problems that included noncompliance, defiance, and
aggression. Students ranged in age from 12 to 15. Some students
ignored each other while others traded insults and, occasionally,
worse. All students were performing well below grade level in
reading and written language. When I observed Ms. Allen's
classroom, she was focusing primarily on written language skills
while reviewing grammar and relating specific elements of
grammar to the students' written work.
"The bell rang and Ms. Allen When I first observed in Ms. Allen's class, I took my place in a
stepped into the doorway corner of the class before the fourth period students entered the
room. Four classroom rules that the students had helped to
to check assignment books generate were posted prominently at the front of the class:
as
● Raise your hand to be recognized
third period students left
● Listen to the person speaking
and to greet the fourth
● Come to class prepared, and
period students as they
● Do your best work
arrived."
Seats were arranged in pairs or groups so that all students could
see the board and a "word wall" that the class had established
along one side.
Student Behavior
The bell rang and Ms. Allen stepped into the doorway to check
assignment books as third period students left and to greet the
fourth period students as they arrived. Students entered the
room noisily, roamed around collecting work materials, and
complaining that they could not find books or homework. Some
chatted with Ms. Allen for a few moments as they entered or
talked to peers. Some asked for locker or hall passes which Ms.
Allen denied.
During this time, Ms. Allen exhorted her students to find their
work folders, sit down, and begin the warm up exercise she had
placed on the board. She reminded students of the class rules,
closed the door when all the students had entered the room, and
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encouraged students to finish the warm up exercise so they could
begin class. Students continued to talk among themselves even
raising their voices from time to time to call to a peer across the
room. Two students followed directions to begin work. Five or
six were sporadically engaged in their academic work and the
others made no attempt to rewrite and correct the sentences she
had assigned as a warm-up. Two students traded threats and
others contributed to the argument. Class continued in this
fashion with constant reminders to pay attention, raise hands,
and so on.
Students' Academic Skills
It was quickly apparent to me that the students had only
rudimentary understanding of the instructional content. Ms.
Allen's "review" of adjectives mystified the students as did the
complicated lesson on verb tenses she presented. The materials
that had been adopted by the school were clearly too advanced
and too complicated for these students to use successfully. In
other words, there was a mismatch between the students'
present levels of functioning and the instructional materials.
Most of the students responded by carrying on with their own
activities.
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Teaching the Rules
Setting New Behavior Goals
"...we had to adapt the
instruction and materials
to the students' present
levels of functioning. "
Later, during Ms. Allen's lunch period, she and I discussed the
class, her frustrations, and her goals for the students. First, a large
fraction of her instructional time was occupied with responding to
student misbehavior and the tone of the class was largely negative.
Second, students often were not engaged in the academic work
and did not complete work independently with any degree of
success. Several students did not even attempt the work. Together,
we identified three general goals:
● Decrease disruptions
● Increase engaged academic time
● Improve academic outcomes
We realized that we could not improve academic outcomes
without increasing time on task and that increasing time on task
required changing the academic environment in two ways. First,
we needed to decrease student disruption so Ms. Allen could
teach, and second, we needed to revise the instructional activities
to ensure that each student could be successful. In other words,
we had to adapt the instruction and materials to the students'
present levels of functioning.
We also decided to institute a new point system that would make
desirable behavior more salient to the students. We would directly
teach students the behavior they needed in order to follow the
classroom rules. In other words, we would show them exactly
what it meant to come to class prepared, to wait to be recognized,
and so on. We would provide immediate feedback and we would
highlight positive behavior. We also decided to use the physical
arrangement of the classroom to support our goals. Instead of
allowing students to sit where they pleased, we assigned seats.
Students would be required to sit in assigned seats unless they
earned the privilege to sit somewhere of their choice.
Because we determined that it was important to achieve
substantial changes in school deportment quickly, I (author
Osborne) became an active participant in the project. To get the
students' attention, I taught the class the following day while Ms.
Allen recorded points. I assigned points for following rules;
engaging in academic tasks, and being polite or helpful to another
student or a teacher.
In preparation for the class, I made name cards for each student's
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desk identifying him or her as Miss Smith or Mr. Lopez and Ms.
Allen and I devised a seating plan. Using last names and
honorifics was a small change but it served to get students'
attention and to model the respect we expected them to display to
others. I put a very simple warm up exercise on the board. (Today
we are reviewing adjectives. The baby was cute. Make this more
interesting by using better adjectives. You can earn one point for
using a better adjective.) And we placed students' work folders on
their desks until we could teach them to get their folders quietly
and quickly.
Image obtained from PhotoDisc TM,
Copyright 1996.
I met students at the door and directed them to find their new
seats and start the warm up exercise. As students sat down, I
began assigning points saying "Point for Ms. Davis for finding her
seat quickly and sitting down, point for Mr. Smith, he has his
paper and pencil out." Of course, the students did not understand
the significance of the points or my role in the class. As soon as all
the students were in the room, I introduced myself and Ms. Allen
and I explained the system. Students could earn points for
following the rules; for polite and helpful behavior and for doing
their work. We awarded points, for example, when a student got to
work quickly on an independent assignment or participated
appropriately in a class discussion. We reviewed each rule, and
had students give examples and non-examples of each one.
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Teaching the Rules
Come to class prepared was an easy rule to teach. We
operationalized the rule this way: Being prepared for class means
you bring your book, a pen or pencil, and paper. It also
"We taught each rule in the that
means that you are in your assigned seat when the bell rings. You
same way by specifying and can earn points for having your book, writing implement, paper,
and for being in your seat. I held up one finger as I named each
practicing the behavior
that constituted following item. Mr. Lopez, what is an easy way to earn four points? Mr.
Lopez earned a point for listening to the speaker because he could
the rule. "
tell me what I had said. As you see, we operationalized
"listening to the speaker" by saying that listening to the
speaker meant being able to tell what the speaker said.
We taught each rule in the same way by specifying and practicing
the behavior that constituted following the rule. We demonstrated
the point system by assigning points to students who raised their
hands, listened to the speaker, and so on. We also explained that
students would not get points every time they followed a rule, nor
would they ever get points when they asked for a point or argued
when another student received a point.
For each ten points, the students earned a ticket with his or her
name on it. All tickets went into a big jar from which a single
ticket was drawn during the last period of each day. The ticket
could be exchanged for privileges like serving as the point
recorder the next day, earning additional computer time for the
whole class, conducting the ticket drawing, sitting near a friend,
or hearing an extra chapter of a book Mrs. Allen was reading
aloud to the class. We spent about five minutes at the end of the
class discussing privileges and asking the students for suggestions
of appropriate privileges to add to the menu. Note that the
privileges cost nothing and were directly related to the successful
operation of the class.
Increasing the Pace of Instruction
In order to create more opportunities for students to respond
successfully to academic material during class, we introduced
procedures called every-student-response. For brief periods
of drill and practice scheduled throughout the class, we prepared
laminated cards with "YES" on one side and "NO" on the other.
These sessions allowed us to practice content while practicing and
reinforcing classroom deportment (i.e. listening to the speaker
and waiting to be recognized).
A drill session went something like this:
Teacher: O.K. What have we been reviewing?
Everyone?
Students reply: "Adjectives"
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Teacher: Adjectives. Right. We're going to practice.
Get out your response cards. I'm going to say a word
and then say it in a sentence. You show me if it is an
adjective. Yes or no. Point for Miss Ellison. She's
ready to go.
Teacher: Monstrous. We had a monstrous snowfall
last winter. Is monstrous an adjective? Yes or no?
Everyone? Make sure your answer is towards me. The
students hold up cards showing their
answers.
Teacher: Right monstrous tells us about what?
Everyone?
Students: Snowfall.
Teacher: Mr. Savage can you tell us what monstrous
means?
Mr. Savage: Well, I guess like a monster? It must be
big 'cause we got an awful lot of snow.
Teacher: Good thinking! Point for Mr. Savage for a
good answer.
Teacher: Brilliant. Brilliant sunshine dispelled the
gloom after three rainy days. Is brilliant an adjective?
Everyone?
Teacher, after four or five minutes of
practice: O.K. class. How did we do on our practice?
Did everyone listen to the speakers? Did people do
their best work? Use your cards.
Some students started to respond orally and
then quickly held up YES cards.
Teacher: Well I think so too. Ms. Osborne, a point
for everyone for working hard, waiting to be
recognized, and listening to the speaker.
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Teaching the Rules
Modifying and Assignments
"When teachers assign
work students cannot do,
they are not only wasting
valuable instructional
time, they are increasing
the likelihood that
frustrated students will
become disruptive. "
Students in special education classes as well as many other
students in general education are routinely given instruction and
assignments for which they are not prepared. Although teachers
receive strong pressure to "cover" materials in preparation for
high stakes tests, what Cecil Mercer (Mercer & Mercer, 2001)
terms the "spray and pray" approach to teaching content is not
effective. When students do not have the necessary preskills to
complete a task successfully, whether it is answering an oral
question in class, solving an arithmetic problem, or answering a
question about the content of a chapter in history, assigning the
task has no educational value. What students learn from such
assignments is to avoid the task. Many students quickly decide
that it is easier and less damaging to their self-esteem to say "I
won't" than "I can't." When teachers assign work students
cannot do, they are not only wasting valuable instructional time,
they are increasing the likelihood that frustrated students will
become disruptive.
In this particular language arts class, many of the students did not
have the knowledge necessary to do much of the assigned work. As
a result, Ms. Allen and I reevaulated the curriculum, taking in to
account the goals specified on students' Individual Educational
Plans (IEPs), which are required for each student receiving special
education services. All students had goals related to improving
written language but the materials used by other seventh grade
language arts classes were not appropriate for most of these
students. The materials introduced too many ideas at once, did
not provide sufficient practice, and rarely used non-examples to
show students the limits of a particular concept. Furthermore,
many explanations presumed more extensive knowledge than our
students had. We clearly needed to determine students' levels of
knowledge and revise or devise our own materials for student
practice.
Our first and second day of this project, we reviewed nouns and
adjectives. Students had a good grasp of nouns so we quickly
moved on to describing them, beginning with the warm up
exercise. I told the students that I thought the sentence "the baby
is cute," was boring. What could we say to make it more
interesting and more related to that particular baby at that
particular time? One student, intending to be a wise guy, offered
"smelly." I quickly reinforced his raised hand and his
contribution and asked students to raise their hands and make
other suggestions. The group collaborated to come up with a more
complicated sentence: The fussy baby was smelly and needed
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to have her diaper changed. Together with the students, we
generated a list of adjectives we thought might be attractive to
middle schoolers. Look at Appendix A to see some of the
adjectives that the students wanted to include on the word wall.
"Students
took the
responsibility of being
recorder seriously and
worked hard to be
accurate. As far as we
could tell, no student
abused his or her position
in order to assign
undeserved points to
friends or withhold points
from others."
Ms. Allen turned the class's attention to a poster of a mountain
climber on a peak and asked the class to generate adjectives that
described the picture. Snowy, rocky, blue, scary were suggestions.
I offered cobalt to describe the sky and perilous to describe the
climb. We modeled complimenting students on their
contributions and prompted them to do the same. New words
went up on the word wall and students began to try out the new
vocabulary in their writing. Finally, we gave the class a story
starter about mountain climbing and asked them to write at least
two sentences.
On the third day of the project, most students arrived for class
prepared and on time and began the warm up activity without
prompting. Ms. Allen began to reteach verbs. The material other
classes used to teach and practice verb tenses provided scanty
review of present, past, and future tenses and quickly moved on to
perfect and imperfect tenses. Our students needed to review the
definition of a verb and the role verbs play in writing complete
sentences. We needed to devote considerable practice to
recognizing the three basic tenses (past, present, and future) and
using the appropriate tense in their writing. We also needed to
address the concept of irregular verb tenses. (See Appendix B for
some of the materials we developed for instruction and practice
on verb tenses.) During instruction, students could earn points for
raising their hands to be recognized, giving thoughtful answers,
and being able to tell what another speaker had contributed to the
discussion.
After the warm up exercise using adjectives (like enormous and
putrid) to rewrite a boring sentence, Ms. Allen conducted the
lesson reviewing verbs using a combination of oral and written
exercises that students completed individually and as a group. I
taught the winner of the previous day's drawing to record the
points Ms. Allen awarded for each student on the simple form we
had developed. The student placed a hash mark for each point in
the first block. When that block held ten points, the recorder
moved to the next block as you can see in the example that
appears in Appendix C.
Image obtained from IMSI's Master Photos Collection, 1895
Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506, USA.
Students took the responsibility of being recorder seriously and
worked hard to be accurate. As far as we could tell, no student
abused his or her position in order to assign undeserved points to
friends or withhold points from others. We conducted occasional
reliability checks when one of us, or a teacher assistant,
independently recorded points and then compared them with the
student tally. Although there were a few discrepancies, they
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Teaching the Rules
Project Outcomes
"Classroom climate
improved when Ms. Allen
took a proactive approach
and actively taught her
students how she wanted
them to behave."
Although we did not collect formal data on time on task, student
productivity, or numbers of student disruptions, we have some
observations and anecdotes to share. Classroom climate improved
when Ms. Allen took a proactive approach and actively taught her
students how she wanted them to behave. Students acted like
engaged students and their academic productivity increased. After
two days, students got to work on the warm up activity quickly and,
more importantly, they wrote more and better in-class stories and
essays. Suddenly, students were writing independently for 20
minutes of the period -- and without pleadings or threats from the
teacher. Students raised their hands to ask an adult or a peer how to
spell a word or looked to the word wall for the perfect word. Except
for this and the occasional mutterings of students reading a
paragraph or sentence to themselves, the room was quiet during the
writing activity.
On the third day, one student asked if he could continue the previous
day's story instead of starting a new one. We encouraged him to
continue his story, a multi-chapter tale about aliens who land a space
ship in his back yard. Another student asked if she could stay in from
recess to continue a story she had begun that morning.
Links to Useful References
LD Online
LD In Depth (Technology)
Article by Dr. Tamara Ashton
Review of Inspiration Software
Case Studies about Word Prediction
Software
Students began to treat each other better as well. Another student
proudly told us how he had responded to a nasty comment about his
heritage from a "regular education" student. "And I didn't hit him!"
he told us proudly, " I told him he was just ignorant and walked off."
Incorporating Educational Technology
Although our primary purpose with this study was to improve
student behavior so that more and better instruction could occur, we
believe that instruction could have been further enhanced with the
selective use of appropriate educational technology. Had there been
sufficient computers available in the classroom (there was only one)
or had Ms. Allen been able to schedule regular periods in the
computer laboratory, instruction in written expression could have
incorporated software that assists students in planning, organizing,
and producing their written work. The students in this class generally
enjoyed using computers for educational activities as evidenced by
their suggestion that extra time in the computer lab be available as
an earned privilege. While some students used that time for
educational games such as Oregon Trail (2000), two students
selected computer time to work on their journals.
In addition to providing reinforcement for appropriate behavior and
addressing district mandates for student technology competence,
computers can provide unique tools for students to build or improve
a host of important academic skills. For example, keyboard skills
enable students to use word processing capabilities along with spell
and grammar checks to produce cleaner, neater, and more accurate
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products that are easier to edit, share with peers, and grade. Many
students with and without disabilities, however, will need direct
instruction in using these tools. The web site www.ldonline.org
provides extensive information about educational technology
appropriate for students with disabilities including articles about
making the best use of such tools. An article by Dr. Tamarah Ashton,
for example, presents a strategy to help students use spell checkers
more effectively
(www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/technology/ashton_spellcheck.html).
Specialized software such as that produced by Inspiration,
Software Inc., can help students develop writing as a process that
incorporates prewriting activities like brainstorming, planning and
organizing using story or concept maps, or refining sequence using
outlines. The ability provided by some software to use symbols as
well as text may be especially helpful to students with
language-based disabilities. A review of Inspiration software also
appears at
www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/technology/inspiration.html .
Image obtained from IMSI's Master Photos Collection, 1895
Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506, USA.
Readily available software could have been used to organize and
display student progress in following the rules and increasing
academic productivity. A better use of graphing software would have
been to incorporate lessons in making and interpreting graphs as
part of our project. Middle school students could easily have used
graphing software such as Excel (Microsoft) to graph their own
data each day. Displays of data could have been used to discuss
student progress and set new goals for behavior and academic
productivity as well as to teach graphing and interpretation of
graphed information. Self-graphing has been widely used as a
component of behavior and academic interventions that incorporate
self-monitoring (Trammel, Schloss, & Alper, 1994), an effective and
important aspect of self-control training widely used with students
with special education needs. If we had incorporated self-graphing
for all students, we would have taught students to (a) enter their
own data (number of points earned) daily, (b) to graph the data in
different ways, (c) to share their progress with parents or others, (d)
to evaluate their progress over time, and (e) to set goals for
themselves in conference with the teacher.
More specialized hardware and software, often called assistive
technology, can enable students with disabilities to participate more
fully in the general education program. Voice recognition software
which "types" from dictation, originally developed for people with
limited ability to use their hands or poor keyboarding skills, can
assist the student with spelling deficits, and fine motor problems that
limit keyboard skills. Until recently, the time and effort required to
"train" the software, limitations in handling accents and specialized
vocabulary, and overall accuracy in interpreting the spoken word
have limited the regular use of such software. More recently software
such as Dragon Naturallyspeaking (Dragon, ) , and IBM
ViaVoice have made the use of such software a reality for many
students. Again, reviews of voice recognition software can be found
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in the assistive technology section at www.ldonline.org. Another
boon for students who find writing difficult is word prediction
software. Students can type the first few letters of a word and the
software will present likely words from which the student can choose.
Because word prediction software reduces the number of keystrokes
required and provides assistance with spelling, it can speed up the
writing process for students who have physical or learning
disabilities that impact their ability to write efficiently. Several case
studies by teachers who have used word prediction software
Co:Writer 4000 (Don Johnson, Inc.) with students are available
online at http://www2.edc.org/ncip/library/wp/toc.htm .
"Can technology help the
teacher manage effective
instruction in academics
and appropriate behavior?"
Many if not most school districts around the country have experts on
assistive technology available to help students and their teachers
identify, secure, and use specialized technology for students with a
wide range of disabilities. In our experience, these individuals are
eager to help teachers find specialized technology or to identify
readily available alternatives.
Conclusions
Ms. Allen's classroom was a much more pleasant place by the end of
the week. Of course, these changes came at some cost. Having a
second adult in the class to record points was clearly an advantage
that is not available to every teacher, although paraprofessionals,
classroom volunteers, and students can easily be taught to be good
record keepers.
Identifying or developing course materials that match students'
instructional levels requires teacher time and skill. Teaching at a
faster pace is associated with greater task engagement and increases
correct responses from students but also demands more energy from
the teacher and, at least initially, much more detailed planning and
preparation.
Can technology help the teacher manage effective instruction in
academics and appropriate behavior? We believe that it can and that
the technology itself can enhance learning of critical content
(graphing, for example) and self-management. Although we did not
incorporate a technology component in this project, we would do so
in the future. We believe it would facilitate effective instruction of the
content material and discussion of student progress and goal setting.
Is the effort to teach basic classroom deportment worthwhile? Again,
we believe it is. Teaching rules for good student behavior and
embedding them in appropriate content instruction can liberate
teachers from the stress of responding to cycles of negative behavior
and enable them to teach. Students who are successfully engaged in
academic activity and who understand and comply with classroom
rules experience less frustration and are less likely to engage in
disruptive behavior. As teachers, we can liberate students, those with
and without disabilities, from habits of poor behavior and enable
them to become active and successful learners who can take
legitimate pride in their performance
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Teaching the Rules
About the Authors:
Susan Osborne
Susan Osborne earned her doctorate in special education at the
University of Virginia following several years working in special
education with pupils who had physical, cognitive, and behavioral
disabilities. She has served as director of a federal grant to develop
models for serving students with learning disabilities in the
general education program. Presently she coordinates the
Graduate Program in Special Education at North Carolina State
University and directs a project to evaluate software designed to
teach language, safety, and social skills to students with autism.
You can reach her at [email protected].
Mary Megan Ambrogi
Megan Ambrogi received her BA degree from Villanova University
in Psychology in May, 1997. She received her M.Ed. from NC State
University in Special Education with a concentration in Learning
Disabilities in December, 1999. While researching this article
Megan was a teacher of a self contained classroom in the Wake
County Public School System in Wake County, North Carolina.
Currently she is employed in Pennsylvania as a Behavioral
Specialist Consultant working with children with severe behavior
problems. This position utilizes wraparound services that involves
creating and implementing Behavior Plans that function across all
settings. You can reach her at [email protected].
References
Kameenui, E. J. & Darch, C B. (1995). Instructional classroom
management: A proactive approach to behavior management.
White Plains, NY: Longman.
Mercer, C. D. & Mercer, A. R. (2001). Teaching students with
learning problems(6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Miller, M. D., Brownell, M. T., & Smith, S. W. (1999). Factors that
predict teachers staying in, leaving, or transferring from the
special education classroom. Exceptional Children, 65, 201 - 218.
Nelson, J. R., Crabtree, M., Marchand-Martella, N., & Martella, R.
(1998). Teaching good behavior in the whole school. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 30 (4), 4 - 9.
Trammel, D. L., Schloss, P. J., & Alper, S. (1994). Using
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Teaching the Rules
self-recording, evaluation, and graphing to increase completion of
homework assignments. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27, 75 - 81.
Walker, H. M. & Sylwester, R. (1998). Reducing students' refusal
and resistance. Teaching Exceptional Children, 30(6), 52 - 58.
Whitaker, S. D. (2000). What do first-year special education
teachers need? Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(1), 28 - 36.
Software References
Co:Writer 4000 [Computer software]. (1992 - 1995) Volo, IL: Don
Johnson.
Dragon Naturallyspeaking [Computer software]. (2000). Flanders,
Belguim: Dragon Systems, Inc.
IBM ViaVoice [Computer software]. (2000 ). Armonk, NY: IBM
Corp.
Inspiration [Computer software]. (1997). Portland, OR:
Inspiration Software, Inc.
Microsoft Excel 97 [Computer software]. (1997). Redmond, WA:
Microsoft.
Oregon Trail, 4th ed. [Computer software]. (2000). Novato, CA:
The Learning Company.
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Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
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Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2001
ISSN 1097-9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2001/rules/rules7.htm
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Teaching the Rules
Appendix A: Powerful Adjectives Generated During a Class-wide Brainstorming (Activity)
Some Powerful Adjectives:
Crabby
Rosy
Experienced
Messy
Bruised
Gory
Putrid
Cobalt
Gloomy
Jagged
Cantankerous
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ISSN 1097-9778
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Teaching the Rules
Appendix B: Classroom and Homework Materials for Reviewing Verb Tenses
Activity I. Instruction and review of verbs: What are verbs? (Verbs are action words, tell us
about something we do.)
I read books.
Jerry walks his dog every afternoon.
Elise eats breakfast before she dresses for school.
Call on students to give examples of sentences and other students to identify the verbs. Verbs can also
tell us about a state of being. Example: to like.
Sentences must have verbs to be complete. Are these words verbs? Use your response cards:
Run
Sail
Fly
Wrestle
Climb
Dive
Wait
Point out that some words can be verbs or nouns depending on how they are used (e.g. SAIL, DIVE)
Give me an example of a verb. (Call on individual students.)
Verbs have a property called tense. Tense tells us when something happens.
What does tense tell us? We will study 3 tenses: Present tense, past tense, future tense
● Present tense: something that happens now. (Ask for examples)
● Past tense: something that already happened. To make the past tense, we usually
add -ed.
Yesterday, I played baseball at recess. Past tense: (? Ask for examples)
● There are also irregular verbs.
For example, we don't say Cheryl winned that game. We say Cheryl what the game?
Roger has a cold. Make that past tense. Last week, Roger ________ .
● Future tense tells about something that will happen. I will be 13 on my next birthday.
When I am 16, I will get my driver's license. To say the future tense we usually add the word
"will." Future tense: Give me an example (call on individual students)
Activity II. Checking for understanding using classroom practice with response cards:
Tell me if I have the right verb tense. Use your response cards:
1. Last night I will go the movie. Is this right? Yes or no.
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2. In language arts, we study verbs.
3. Tomorrow after school I played soccer.
Activity III. Independent practice. Introduce work sheet. Circulate while students do it.
Verb Tense Review
The verb tense tells us when something happened. We will study three tenses: present, past, and
future.
When something happens now, we use the present tense.
Example: I walk my dog every day.
When something already happened, we use past tense.
Example: I walked my dog before school this morning.
When something will happen in the future, we use future tense.
Example: When I get home from school, I will walk my dog.
Notice that the verb changes when we change the tense. Usually we add -ed to make the past tense of a
verb.
Write the past tense of the following verbs:
To call ______________________________
To play ______________________________
To bellow ____________________________
To cook ______________________________
Irregular verbs do not add -ed to form the past tense.
Write the irregular past tense of the verbs in the following sentences.
Yesterday, I __________ all the way to Adam's house.
(to run)
I _____________ a picture of Darth Vader on my notebook.
(to draw)
After dinner last night, I _________ the dishes.
(to do)
When we use the future tense, we usually add will to the present tense: I will walk my dog after
school. Write the future tense of the verb in the following sentences.
I ______________ tuba in the band next year.
(to play)
Women's soccer ____________ the next big sports craze.
(to be)
Cheryl ___________________ her horse on the weekend, if it is not too wet.
(to ride)
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Activity IV. Follow up classroom practice:
I am going to give you some sentences and I will call on you to tell me what the verb is and tense I use.
1. The more points you accumulate, the more chances you will have to win the raffle.
2. I will fly to California next summer.
3. My family enjoys the beach.
4. When our dog was a puppy, she chewed the rugs.
5. I had my birthday last month.
6. Next month will be warmer.
7. I eat lunch during fifth period.
Activity V. Introduce homework.
Homework
Name: ____________
Write a sentence for each verb in each tense. For numbers 2 and 3, you will need to choose a verb.
Example
Verb: ---to bellow
Present tense: _______________________________________________
Past tense: _________________________________________________
1. Verb: ________________
Present tense: _______________________________________________
Past tense: _________________________________________________
Future tense: ________________________________________________
2. Verb: ________________
Present tense: ________________________________________________
Past tense: __________________________________________________
Future tense: _________________________________________________
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Teaching the Rules
Appendix C: Point Sheet for Language Arts Period 4
Recorder: ____________________________ Date: ________
Name
Bates
Ellison
Faulkner
Gomez
Klein
Lopez
Savage
Singh
Thew
Walker
Points
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Tickets
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
| Table of Contents | About Meridian | Resources | Archive |
The Use of Educational Technologies in
a Cognitive Flexibility Theory Unit
Colleen Swain
Jennifer Greer
Stephanie van Hover
University of Florida
Abstract
Image obtained from IMSI's MasterClips Collection, 1895
Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506, USA.
"Cognitive flexibility learning
theory, which builds on
constructivism and work done
in media and learning
interaction, can assist teachers
in structuring activities that
avoid oversimplification of
complex concepts."
Cognitive flexibility theory is a learning theory that
enables teachers to promote the use of educational
technologies in the learning process as well as allowing
students to delve deeper into the complexities associated
with the middle school curriculum. This learning theory
has four basic tenets that dovetail into interdisciplinary
teams, an organizational structure frequently found in
middle schools. This article introduces the basic tenets
of Spiro’s cognitive flexibility theory, offers insight into
how cognitive flexibility theory can be compatible with
middle school interdisciplinary teams, presents
examples of how various educational technologies can
be used with this instructional method, and provides an
application of a unit of Florida history that
demonstrates cognitive flexibility theory for the middle
school curriculum.
Cognitive Flexibility Theory
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
Learning theories shape how teachers design educational
environments for their students. For example, constructivist
learning theories encourage lessons that allow students to relate
new information to prior knowledge, recognize the complexity of
concepts, and create new knowledge structures. However, content
is often presented in a relatively simplistic manner and the depth
of knowledge inherent in the intended learning objectives is not
recognized nor understood by students. Cognitive flexibility
learning theory, which builds on constructivism and work done in
media and learning interaction, can assist teachers in structuring
activities that avoid oversimplification of complex concepts (Spiro,
Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1999).
Cognitive flexibility is a learning theory that “focuses on the nature
of learning in complex and ill-structured domains” (Kearsley,
2000) and separates itself from many theories because it deals
with the acquisition of advanced knowledge. Spiro and Jehng
(1990) state,
By cognitive flexibility, we mean the ability to
spontaneously restructure one’s knowledge, in many
ways, in adaptive response to radically changing
situational demands… this is a function of both the
way knowledge is represented (e.g., along multiple
rather than conceptual dimensions) and the processes
that operate on those mental representations (e.g.,
processes of schema assembly rather than intact
schema retrieval) (p. 165).
QuickTime video clip of Spiro
discussing cognitive flexibility
theory:
http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/Spiro.mov
This is a large file approximately 10M - and will
take a long time to downloadpossibly an hour or more on a
modem connection.
The Theory Into Practice online database, maintained by Greg Kearsley
(2000), lists the four principles of the cognitive flexibility theory as:
v Learning activities must provide multiple representations of
content.
v Instructional materials should avoid oversimplifying the content
domain and support context-dependent knowledge.
v Instruction should be case-based and emphasize knowledge
construction, not transmission of information.
v Knowledge sources should be highly interconnected rather than
compartmentalized (p.1).
The flexibility that a computer provides makes it an ideal learning tool
in lessons crafted using cognitive flexibility theory. These principles
work well in a middle school environment, particularly when combined
with the use of interactive media. In middle schools, students study
sophisticated concepts yet often fail to recognize the complexity of
information presented. Lessons that utilize cognitive flexibility theory
and incorporate interactive educational technologies encourage
students to understand the complex nature of their learning and to
explore a concept from multiple perspectives. For example, students
can use a variety of resources on the Internet to explore topics from
many facets and use multiple methods of presenting their knowledge
such as videos, web pages, and multimedia presentations.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
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Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility
Unit
The Middle School Interdisciplinary Team
Image obtained from IMSI's MasterClips Collection,
1895 Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506,
USA.
"The interdisciplinary
team structure allows
teachers to share the
same group of students,
the responsibility of
planning, teaching, and
evaluating those students,
the same or similar
schedules, and the same
area of the building
(George & Alexander,
1993; Pounder, 1999)."
The middle school interdisciplinary team is an organizational structure
conducive to utilizing cognitive flexibility theory. The interdisciplinary
team structure allows teachers to share the same group of students, the
responsibility of planning, teaching, and evaluating those students, the
same or similar schedules, and the same area of the building (George &
Alexander, 1993; Pounder, 1999). The ways to structure a middle school
interdisciplinary team are numerous. In some schools, team teachers
plan together but each teacher maintains their own classroom. In other
situations, the teachers have more autonomy in determining how they
will share time, classroom space, and group students. Most models,
however, include common planning time that allows teachers to
coordinate efforts to produce a wide range of integrated learning
activities. As Flowers, Mertens, and Mulhall (2000) explain, “the
activities of most interdisciplinary teams fall into one of the following
three categories: (a) curricular and instructional issues; (b)
student-centered issues, and (c) issues about communication” (p. 1)
These benefits, as well as the flexibility in scheduling associated with
interdisciplinary teams, encourage the integration of technology into
the learning environment for middle school students and teachers. For
example, if students need extended time on a particular learning activity
involving the use of educational technologies (producing a video,
research on the Internet, etc.), many times the flexibility in the
interdisciplinary team model allows the teachers to readjust the time
allotment for subjects enabling students to complete learning tasks.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
"Using the cognitive
flexibility theory
approach, students have
the opportunity to explore
a concept in depth and
from multiple
perspectives. Each
subject area in the
interdisciplinary team can
explore the same concept
from the unique
perspective of that
discipline."
Regardless of the structure of the interdisciplinary team, the teaming
approach provides the opportunity to infuse educational technologies
into learning environments based upon cognitive flexibility theory.
Using the cognitive flexibility theory approach, students have the
opportunity to explore a concept in depth and from multiple
perspectives. Each subject area in the interdisciplinary team can
explore the same concept from the unique perspective of that
discipline. This can be accomplished by the cooperative planning of
teachers on the team. Common planning time provides more
opportunities for teachers to strengthen connections between the
disciplines (Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall, 2000). Additionally,
providing a common theme for the integrated activity encourages the
students to make associations between subject areas. This supports
cognitive flexibility theory by allowing students to see the conceptual
complexity and case-to-case irregularities associated with many of the
topics they study. Students can see that “real-world” learning is not
clean cut but often a messy process.
"The multidisciplinary
team approach also allows
for concepts to be studied
in depth from numerous
perspectives and provides
opportunities to use
educational technologies
in different ways. "
The multidisciplinary team approach also allows for concepts to be
studied in depth from numerous perspectives and provides
opportunities to use educational technologies in different ways. For
example, the language arts and social studies teachers could use the
Library of Congress Internet sites to find literature and accurate
statistics about a specific time period in history. Both classes could
analyze primary source documents for a deeper understanding of the
vernacular of that time period, factors shaping historical events, and
societal influences on literature. Science and mathematics teachers
could assess relevant data for charts and graphs, and conduct
experiments comparing “then” and “now”. Using different types of
software packages and technologies allows students to expand their
technological expertise as well as adding variety to the way students
display their knowledge. They are not only becoming consumers of
knowledge but also creators, producers, and presenters of this new
knowledge. In a multidisciplinary team approach students would not be
creating a web page in every class; rather, they could use a variety of
technologies to present their knowledge to their peers, teachers, and
parents.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
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Educational Technologies in a Cognitive
Flexibility Unit
Moving from Theory to Practice
Image obtained from IMSI's MasterClips Collection, 1895
Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506, USA.
"...there are strategies that
allow for students to meet all
state standards and gain a
deeper understanding of
concepts."
In many states, teaching all of the state instructional
standards is mandated by the state legislature. In
addition, it is becoming more common for the
effectiveness of teachers and schools to be evaluated by
students’ success on the state standardized test. This
pressure often causes teachers and administrators to
consider using teaching methods that allow students to
mimic the responses needed for the state-required test.
Yet, there are strategies that allow for students to meet
all state standards and gain a deeper understanding of
concepts. The middle school interdisciplinary team
utilizing the cognitive flexibility theory is a perfect
example of a vehicle to create meaningful and engaging
learning environments that approach a thematic topic
from multiple perspectives while covering numerous
state standards.
Take, for example, the concept of Florida history.
According to the Florida Sunshine State Standards,
students learn Florida history in elementary and middle
school. At the middle school level, students are
expected to understand the history of Florida and its
people. The Florida Sunshine State Standards call for
middle school students to explore the history of Florida
in more depth but many of the lessons students
encounter remain at the lower levels of Bloom’s
taxonomy. With the increase of the Internet in the
classroom, students are able to explore historical
landmarks in Florida in new ways but often the
connection between other societal and cultural events
are missed. One way middle school students can
deepen their understanding of Florida history is to
participate in a unit that models cognitive flexibility
theory. (Recall that the central premise of cognitive
flexibility theory is that it is to be used for advanced
knowledge acquisition.) Utilizing this method
encourages students to study Florida history from
several seemingly unrelated approaches while enabling
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
the learner to construct new ideas about the growth and
development of the state as well as recognize the
complexity involved in this area.
An Application of Theory to Practice
Image obtained from IMSI's MasterClips Collection, 1895
Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506, USA.
"This instructional unit allows
students to construct new
knowledge of an important
time in Florida history
through group research,
sharing information with
others, and analyzing
historical events. "
The main curricular focus of the Florida history
thematic unit is social studies but also incorporates
areas of study in geography, architecture, science, and
mathematics. For this unit, students will work together
in small groups to investigate three areas of Florida
history during the late1800s and early 1900s: the hotel
industry, the railroads, and Florida’s Gilded Age. It is
important to note that students should possess a
fundamental understanding of Florida history prior to
beginning this unit. As students investigate the three
topics, they will search for common themes.
Additionally, the groups will try to determine why these
events are important and how they changed Florida
history. Once students discover major themes, teachers
from other content areas can begin to incorporate
lessons that dovetail into the thematic unit. The project
culminates with group presentations that allow students
to share information with other students on the team.
This instructional unit allows students to construct new
knowledge of an important time in Florida history
through group research, sharing information with
others, and analyzing historical events.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
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Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility
Unit
Unit Details
"The Florida history
unit...is one practical
example of how cognitive
flexibility theory and
educational technologies
can be used with middle
school students."
The Florida history unit, located at
http://www.coe.ufl.edu/Faculty/Swain/Florida/home.htm, is one
practical example of how cognitive flexibility theory and educational
technologies can be used with middle school students. The web site
provides a unit outline for teachers. In the table of contents teachers
will find: introduction, common themes, language arts, mathematics,
science, social studies, and unit standards. The introduction presents
an overview of the interdisciplinary unit, lists the three research topics,
and offers teen safe search engines. Each subject area page provides
lesson suggestions and resources for teachers to incorporate into the
Florida history unit. For example, the mathematics section
recommends a lesson in which students chart population changes in
Florida between 1850-1950. Other subject area pages include handouts
to guide students through different activities within each discipline.
The common themes page gives teachers information about common
threads students will generate in the course of their research and can be
a springboard for discussion following group presentations. Finally, the
unit standards page ties this activity to the Florida Sunshine State
Standards. It should be noted that this web site does not provide
specific lesson plans or explicit guidelines but rather gives teachers
broad suggestions for implementing a Florida History Unit that meets
the principles of cognitive flexibility theory.
Conclusion
"Used in conjunction with
cognitive flexibility
theory, educational
technologies allow
students to learn and
discover the complexities
in concepts in seemingly
unrelated areas. "
Educational technologies can greatly enhance the learning environment
for middle school students. Used in conjunction with cognitive
flexibility theory educational technologies allow students to learn and
discover the complexities in concepts in seemingly unrelated areas. The
inherent flexibility of a computer makes it an exemplary tool for this
learning environment. The Florida History unit described in this article
meets the four principles of cognitive flexibility theory in several ways.
First, by encouraging students to use several sources to examine
common themes that emerge from different perspectives of Florida
history, the unit provides multiple representations of content and does
not oversimplify the content domain. Students can use multiple types
of educational technologies, such as the Internet, software packages,
and communication tools, to search for multiple representations of the
content. Second, the activities are based within the context of Florida
history and emphasize student construction of knowledge through
research, collaboration, and conversation among groups. Again, the
research, collaboration, and conversation can be greatly enhanced by
the use of various educational technologies. Third, the unit allows
students to revisit the historical content from many different
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
perspectives and academic areas. Finally, the unit incorporates several
subject areas and asks students to recognize the connection between the
disciplines within the larger context of Florida history. By doing this,
students make the connection between information they learn in school
and real life and can recognize that they are powerful elements in the
learning environment. Again, students can use various types of
educational technologies (multimedia presentations, videos, web pages,
etc.) to present their newly discovered connections related to the
content. Additionally, this unit works well within the middle school
interdisciplinary team structure. The flexibility in scheduling, the
continuity between the different classes, and the communication among
the team teachers promotes a stronger learning environment for
students. In conclusion, middle school students can and should be
exposed to the complexities associated with the academic content they
encounter in their educational program. Cognitive flexibility theory in
conjunction with the use of educational technologies and
interdisciplinary teams is one way this can occur.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
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Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility
Unit
About the Authors
Colleen Swain
University of Florida
P.O. Box 117048
Gainesville, Fl 32611-7048
(352) 392-9191 ext. 264
[email protected]
Dr. Colleen Swain, an assistant professor in the School of Teaching
and Learning at the University of Florida, teaches undergraduate
and graduate courses dealing with the infusion of technology into
the daily learning environment. Prior to teaching at the university
level, Dr. Swain taught middle school for 3 years and high school
for 4 years.
Jennifer Greer
University of Florida
P.O. Box 117048
Gainesville, Fl 32611-7048
(352) 392-9191 ext. 278
[email protected]
Ms. Jennifer Greer, a doctoral student in Social Studies Education
at the University of Florida, taught middle school for 8 years. Ms.
Greer currently teaches undergraduate courses for the School of
Teaching and Learning.
Stephanie van Hover
University of Florida
P.O. Box 117048
Gainesville, Fl 32611-7048
(352) 392-9191 ext. 278
[email protected]
Ms. Stephanie van Hover, a doctoral candidate in Social Studies
Education at the University of Florida, taught 7th grade geography
for 2 years. Ms. van Hover currently teaches undergraduate
courses for the School of Teaching and Learning.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility Unit
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Educational Technologies in a Cognitive Flexibility
Unit
References
Flowers, N., Mertens, S., & Mulhall, P. (2000). What makes
interdisciplinary teams effective? [On-line]. Available:
http://www.nmsa.org/resources/interdisciplinary.htm
George, P.S., & Alexander, W.M. (1993). The exemplary middle school
(2nd edition). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College
Publishers.
Kearsley, G. (2000). Cognitive flexibility theory. [On-line]. Available:
http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/spiro.html
Pounder, D.G. (1999). Teacher teams: Exploring job characteristics and
work-related outcomes of work group enhancement. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 35, 317-348.
Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., Jacobson, M.L., & Coulson, R.L. (1999).
Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access
instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured
domains. [On-line]. Available:
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/papers/Spiro.html
Spiro, R.J., & Jehng, J. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext:
Theory and technology for non-linear and multidimensional traversal of
complex subject matter. In D. Nix and R. Spiro (Eds.), Cognition,
Education, and Multimedia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
| Download .pdf file of this entire article (Acrobat Reader needed for viewing)
Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2001
ISSN 1097-9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2001/cognitive/index.htm
contact Meridian
All rights reserved by the author.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Adapting To Technologies that Work
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Middle School Science and
Mathematics Teachers and Their
Students: Adapting to Technologies
that Work
Lisa Leonor Grable and Carlos Curto
Image provided Meridian.
North Carolina State University
Abstract
"The focus of this article is The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on the use of
computer-related technologies in middle school mathematics and
to review the literature
science settings. These technologies include CD-ROMs,
primarily from the
hypermedia and websites, calculator-based laboratories (CBLs),
and microcomputer-based laboratories (MBLs). Overall, the use
1990s- on the use of
of these technologies has led to positive results in the classroom.
computer-related
The technologies used for data collection can serve as a vehicle
technologies for middle
for integration of math and science topics. Previous studies
school mathematics and
indicate that technology can meet the differing needs of varied
learning types and can lead to increased knowledge retention.
science."
Professional development for teachers can lead to successful
technology integration in the classroom if issues of
administrative support, classroom management, and access to
computers are addressed. There are a few keywords utilized in
this literature review:
● middle school science and mathematics teachers
● middle school students,
● inquiry-based activities,
● teacher licensure,
● inservice teachers,
● rural middle school teachers,
● hypermedia assisted instruction,
● animated graphics,
● CD-ROM,
● calculator-based laboratory,
● and microcomputer-based laboratory.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Adapting To Technologies that Work
The middle school provides an environment where true
interdisciplinary inquiry activities can be cultivated. Mathematics
and science are a natural pairing for interdisciplinary
collaboration: students can use data collected in experimental
situations to learn analysis, model building and equation fitting,
making predictions, and communicating findings. The pairing of
math and science can be achieved by teaming teachers - an
important factor in forming interdisciplinary cooperation, the
social environment necessary for diffusion of innovation, and a
support structure for adopting math and science reforms (George,
Stevenson, Thomason, & Beane, 1992; Rogers, 1995; Sparks,
1997).
The focus of this article is to review the literature -primarily from
the 1990s- on the use of computer-related technologies for middle
school mathematics and science. We investigated the structure of
the middle school as the environment for these technologies, the
benefits of varying technologies, student issues surrounding the
technologies, and the professional development issues
surrounding teachers' implementation of technology in the
classroom.
Several types of technology have recently become available for
science and mathematics classrooms: CD-ROMs for
computer-aided instruction (CAI) and hypermedia-assisted
instruction (HAI) as exemplified by the Web;
microcomputer-based laboratories (MBL); and calculator-based
laboratories (CBL). These technologies can be combined with
principles of best practice to support a learning environment that
integrates active learner involvement, critical thinking, and
inquiry. This technological environment in mathematics and
science classrooms can serve the needs of many types of learners
and can be an asset for the teacher willing to approach students as
a facilitator (Brasell, 1987; Cassity, 1997; Heller, 1990). The use of
technology tools can promote inquiry-based activities by allowing
collection of large numbers of data points, short time intervals,
and quick graphing. However, few teachers are fully aware of the
impact of the tools on data gathering which may foster further
exploration.
Professional development for inservice teachers may fill this gap
in awareness and technical skills, but teachers need to participate
in the professional development and achieve meaningful learning.
Teachers' adoption of the technology tools may depend on
accompanying issues with technical support, administrative
support, subject matter preparation, student behavior, and
management. For middle school students, technology tools may
introduce distractions from the science and math content as well
as misconceptions. Literature on each of these themes was
reviewed to help discern emerging patterns in the findings and to
form a basis for further research.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Adapting To Technologies that Work
Middle School
Middle schools emerged in 1960s school district reorganizations
as a bridge between elementary and high schools. The
organization of middle school is based on the special
characteristics of early adolescents and most are comprised of
grades 6 through 8 (Alexander & George, 1981). The middle school
movement has grown in the United States over the years: from
1101 middle schools in 1968 to 4329 in 1986 (Alexander &
McEwin, 1989).
Many middle schools are organized around interdisciplinary
teams of teachers with a group of students rotating among the
team's teachers during the day. Each team can use cooperative
planning and their joint comprehensive knowledge of the students
to plan for the varied instruction needed by the students. Teaming
can help encourage student exploration of skills and allow them to
experience integrated themes from different academic
perspectives (Capelutti, Stokes, Bergmann, & Eichhorn, 1991).
Image obtained from IMSI's Master Photos Collection, 1895
Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506, USA.
Another goal of many middle schools is participation by all in a
full-scale exploratory program. Mathematics and science teachers
can make a natural pairing in this atmosphere. A 1988 national
survey showed that all middle school students take mathematics
courses and 95% take science courses (Alexander & McEwin,
1989). Problem solving and critical thinking skills are important
objectives for both mathematics and science teachers. These
teachers bring different perspectives and methodologies to the
planning process. With the availability of technologies such as
CD-ROMs, hypermedia, CBL, and MBL, teachers have new
powerful tools for merging mathematics and science
problem-solving in the classroom.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Adapting To Technologies that Work
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Adapting to Technologies that Work
CD-ROMs and Hypermedia
"Science and mathematics
are some of the content
areas best suited to
discovery learning, and
thus excellent test beds
for the use of computers
and technology."
Image obtained from Key Photos For Windows.
CD-ROMs (Compact Disc Read Only Memory) were introduced as
a new form of data storage for microcomputers. In the mid-1990s,
CD-ROM drives became standard equipment on most new
computers. Between 1988 and 1995 the number of public schools
using CD-ROMs had increased 250% (Plotnick, 1996). During the
1997-98 school year, 97% of U.S. public schools reported using
CD-ROMs (Market Data Research (MDR), 1999.) With a data
capacity of 650 megabytes (MB) (the equivalent of approximately
450 diskettes), the popularity of CD-ROMs rose along with the
increased use of multimedia and hypermedia. Software with
elements of text, hyperlinks, graphics, photographs, sound,
animation, and video can be packaged together on a single
CD-ROM. The software generally allows nonsequential or
nonlinear access to the elements providing for flexibility and
interactivity (Levin & Matthews, 1997.)
CD-ROM software packages with multimedia elements inspired
educators to study their teaching and learning potential. These
elements are also present in many Web pages for education.
Multimedia and hypermedia software share characteristics with
incidental learning and discovery learning. There is unplanned
learning that can take place and opportunities can be provided for
learners to explore alternatives and study relationships (Heller,
1990). With its multimodal presentation, this type of software has
been found effective for accommodating the needs of different
learners in learning cognitive and procedural information
(Ayersman, 1996). Science and mathematics are some of the
content areas best suited to discovery learning and thus excellent
test beds for the use of computers and technology. Rieber has
worked extensively on the effects of animated representations on
incidental learning [Rieber, 1991). He concludes that even though
students extract incidental information from animated graphics
without risk to intentional learning, they are dangerously prone to
developing a scientific misconception.
Middle school students need to know at least the technology's
representational aspect. The ability to manipulate and control
different representational parameters allows students to explore
new possibilities and inquire within the science itself. With the
help of computers, a constructivist-oriented learning environment
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Adapting To Technologies that Work
can be created in the classroom.The computers give students
plenty of opportunities to test their ideas [Goldberg, 1995].
Computers are not just part of the curriculum, but the whole
curriculum is based on the use of computers. All classroom
activities are not done on the computers, the computers are used
when necessary. In Goldberg's project the students become more
aware of their own learning by writing journal reflections and
extensive learning commentaries. The computer also acts as a
source of ideas that can challenge the students without the image
of authority that teachers used to have in science classrooms. Now
the students have the responsibility to use the technology tools for
their own benefit, not as distracting elements.
Linear and nonlinear presentation techniques can both be utilized
within multimedia software. Each of these techniques has
advantages and disadvantages for middle school students. For
instance, a primary choice of entertainment for children is cartoon
animation. This could suggest that linear animation software or
video will maintain the attention of the children and therefore be
able to stimulate their interest in the sciences. Handal and his
group found that there were significant differences between the
students' ability to recall and comprehend complex subjects as
presented by linear multimedia as opposed to those presented
through printed text. Furthermore, linear animated material used
as a didactic tool was easier for students to follow and manipulate
in comparison to nonlinear software materials (Handal, 1999).
Hypermedia-assisted instruction has been found to include
numerous advantages: easy tracking and searching of references,
individual exploring of both academic and nonacademic material,
and keeping many threads of inquiry alive at once, allowing
discussion about findings. Less obvious are the disadvantages
which also exist: disorientation, cognitive overload, flagging
commitment, and unmotivated rambling (Heller, 1990).
Calculator-based Laboratory
TI-83 calculator with CBL unit and pH probe. Image
provided by author Lisa L. Grable.
Calculator-based laboratory (CBL) is a system which includes a
graphing calculator, an interface box, and probes. This system is
used to measure and store data of many kinds and display the data
as a time graph soon after the measurements are made. Graphing
calculators have become more common in mathematics
classrooms during the past decade while the CBL system is
becoming more common in science classrooms (Cassity, 1997;
Clayton, 1990). CBLs are low in cost compared to other electronic
data collection systems and are portable. The main producers of
CBL equipment in recent years are Texas Instruments, Casio, and
Vernier Software. The literature on the use of CBL consists mainly
of practitioner articles, explaining ideas for use of the system in
the science classroom (Brueningsen & Bower, 1995; Reno &
Speers, 1995). There is apparently a need for more research
studies on the educating of middle school mathematics and
science teachers in the use of CBLs.
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Microcomputer-based Laboratory
Microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) include the use of a
microcomputer with an interface box and probes to collect data.
Probes are designed to collect all sorts of experimental variables
including temperature, pH, distance, force, light intensity, and
dissolved oxygen, to name a few. This technology is available to
classroom teachers since the mid-1980s when Robert Tinker, Ron
Thornton and associates at TERC produced the "red box" interface
for the Apple IIe (Thornton, 1985; Tinker, 1985). The MBL system
can be used to collect a large number of data points over a period
of time, store it, and see the results graphically in real time. MBL
interface boxes, software and probes have been available from
Vernier Software and Pasco Scientific in recent years.
MBLs gained wide acceptance in college and high school science
classrooms after Heather Brasell's seminal study comparing
traditional paper-and-pencil graphing methods with the
instantaneous displays of the MBL. Students have a significant
increase in retention of graph understanding when they see the
graph instantaneously while the data is being collected (Brasell,
1987). MBLs have not been widely-used in middle school
classrooms in North Carolina for science or mathematics. More
research on the educating of middle school mathematics and
science teachers to use MBL in the classroom and the learning of
middle school students while using MBL would be helpful.
To Page 3 of 4
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Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2001
ISSN 1097-9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2001/science/science2.htm
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Adapting To Technologies that Work
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Adapting to Technologies that Work
Inservice Programs
Image provided by Meridian.
"Computer technology has
not had the impact
expected in the schools
because of inadequate
preparation of teachers
(Dupagne & Krendl, 1992;
Ingram, 1994). "
Technology has become an integral part of society today. As pressure is
exerted upon educational systems to implement instructional
technologies, teachers' abilities to accept change and adopt innovations
become key factors for success. The concept of literacy in science and
mathematics has expanded in recent years to include the use of
computers and other interactive technologies as necessary components
(American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 1989;
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 1998).
Computers are used in numerous job situations such as office work,
newspaper layout, and research. Business and industry leaders would
like students to receive some technology training while they are in
school, before entering the workplace. This is a source of pressure on
teachers (Ingram, 1994). Finding successful methods for educating
teachers to use new technologies and working with them to adopt new
pedagogical approaches is a widespread concern, judging from the
number of articles in the literature. Inservice education is seen to be one
possible method for teaching teachers to use technology themselves and
introduce it into classroom teaching.
There are three approaches to integrating new technology into the
classroom. Teachers can work as individuals, teaching themselves to use
the new technology or getting help on their own. The decision to use a
technology can come from above, with a school district providing
equipment and some type of staff development education. Staff
development on the new technology can be offered by an outside agency
and teachers can volunteer to participate. Staff development for
inservice teachers has been available for many years and has been
studied since the 1960s. Many of these studies target teachers' gain in
content knowledge or measure affective impact during the course of the
professional development by collecting data at the beginning of the
institute, in the form of tests or surveys, and collecting data again at the
end of the institute (Dupagne & Krendl, 1992; Fenstermacher &
Berliner, 1985; Lock & Dunkerton, 1989). The findings from these
studies have not revealed much about teachers' adaptation and
integration of workshop instruction into their own classrooms after the
workshop experience.
Recently, more studies have been designed to follow the teachers during
the school year after the institute (Barrow & Sawanakunanont, 1994;
MacArthur et al., 1995; Shroyer & Borchers , 1996). The impact on the
teachers have been reported without definitive knowledge of the
teachers' performance prior to the institute. Using a constructivist
framework, evaluators would recognize that teachers do not begin the
institutes as "blank slates," rather they begin with a history of classroom
practice and beliefs that become part of the institute (
Arßmbula-Greenfield & Feldman, 1997; Brooks & Brooks, 1999).
Recent research studies indicate a set of factors that have an effect on
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the success of introducing change into the schools. Using technology as
an integral part of teaching science and mathematics is such a change.
Computer technology has not had the impact expected in the schools
because of inadequate preparation of teachers (Dupagne & Krendl,
1992; Ingram, 1994). More technology inservice education can help
meet this need. Teachers lack of technology preparation is highlighted
in the research literature. Ingram found 92% of recent education
graduates would most have liked training in the use of computer
technology to be added to their teacher preparation program. Half the
teachers surveyed by Buchsbaum (1992) had not been through a
technology training course. These teachers wanted training in how to
use hardware, classroom management, and distance learning. In
addition, teachers are isolated, making it difficult to share changes with
other teachers. A U.S. Department of Education report (1986) found
that up to 45% of teachers have no contact with each other during the
school day.
Bosch (1988) states that the interaction of innovation, institution, and
individuals are the mix that set the stage for technological change in the
schools. Inservice education presents the innovation, in this case
technology, to the individuals, in this case the participating teachers.
The institution in which the teacher works, the school and the school
district, must somehow be brought into the inservice picture. Ingram
(1994) reports that teachers change their behavior in the classroom
when staff development programs convince them that the changes they
make will be rewarded by their institution and that the changes will
make their jobs easier and more satisfying.
The effect of computers in schools depends on the success teachers have
with integrating educational goals and the curriculum (MacArthur &
Malouf, 1991; Winkler, Shavelson, Stasz, & Robyn, 1985). As Bosch
(1988) states, "Too often, training is seen as a change agent merely by
providing needed knowledge and skills. For innovation to succeed and
change to occur, training efforts must become more comprehensive in
scope and content" (p. 331). For example, teachers need both inservice
education and continuing support for mastery of computers. It's a
gradual process that usually takes several years (Bosch, 1988; Sheingold
& Hadley, 1990).
Some unexpected results came out of recent inservice programs studied.
Ten out of 24 teachers in Lock and Dunkerton's study (1989) who did
not use biotechnology-related theory before the treatment made use of
it in their classes after the workshop. However, eight of the teachers
who attended still did not use biotechnology in their teaching after the
staff development.
This may be explained by MacArthur et al.'s (1995) findings that an
unexpected obstacle to success in implementing technology was that the
teachers became competent with computers but were overwhelmed by a
fear of their students' misbehavior. The teachers trying to introduce
technology in their classrooms expressed "doubts about handling the
potent mix of novel atmosphere, student excitement, and their own
relative inexperience with computers" (MacArthur et al., 1995, p. 55).
Every school in Buchsbaum's (1992) Washington, DC study had 30 - 40
computers, but because of school-day scheduling only 1/3 of the
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Adapting To Technologies that Work
teachers in any school were able to use these computers. The training
center estimated that 1/4 of teachers in the school district used
computers regularly. Apparently training is not enough: access to
computers and actual practice with students in a technology
environment are very important.
Conclusion
It is historically a difficult task to integrate new technology into
instruction in the classroom. A variety of reasons for teachers resistance
to implementing new technologies have been explored. Most research
has been done in the area of resistance to integrating computers into
classrooms (Dupagne & Krendl, 1992.) The conditions for resisting
change can be transferred to new technologies for learning, such as
CD-ROM, hypermedia, CBL, and MBL. How teachers may eventually
make use of the potential of the assets of the technology and how
student learning is affected by the technology remain great concerns for
schools and society.
Image obtained from IMSI's Master Photos Collection, 1895
Francisco Blvd. East, San Rafael, CA 94901-5506, USA.
Research can help inform practice in the use of computer-related
technologies for middle school mathematics and science. Middle
schools structured around theories of early adolescent development
provide a natural environment for the teaming of mathematics and
science teaching with technology as a means of interdisciplinary
collaboration. Research has shown that technology can meet the
differing needs of varied learning types and can lead to increased
knowledge retention. Further studies are needed to determine processes
of learning while interacting with the Web and the effects for students of
using CBLs for middle school math and science learning. The literature
indicates that professional development for teachers can lead to
successful technology integration in the classroom if issues of
administrative support, classroom management, and access to
computers are addressed. Further studies are needed that examine the
process of technology adoption specifically by mathematics and science
teachers in middle schools. In addition, studies are needed to
investigate effective models for teacher workshops that incorporate
math and science integration, inquiry learning, and technology for data
collection and analysis.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Adapting to Technologies that Work
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Adapting to Technologies that Work
About the Authors:
Lisa Leonor Grable
Lisa Leonor Grable is the director of the Center for Learning
Technologies at NC State University. She is a science educator
whose research emphasizes visual instructional technologies and
the technology adoption of middle school teachers. She can be
reached at [email protected].
Address:
Dr. Lisa L. Grable
Center for Learning Technologies
College of Education and Psychology
NC State University
Campus Box 7801
Raleigh, NC 27695-7801
Carlos Curto
Carlos Curto is a Master's student in the Department of
Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education at NC State
University. He is a member of the SERVIT Group (Science
Education Research in Visual Instructional Technologies). He can
be reached at [email protected].
For a link to our bios: http://www.ncsu.edu/servit/
Links to Resources
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American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1989).
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Alexander, W. M., & George, P. S. (1981). The Exemplary Middle
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The Elementary School Journal
Society for Information Technology and
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Science Junction- Teacher Section
Alexander, W. M., & McEwin, C. K. (1989). Schools in the middle:
Status and progress. Columbus, OH: National Middle School
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Arßmbula-Greenfield, T., & Feldman, A. (1997). Improving
science teaching for all students. School Science and
Mathematics, 97,7, 377-386.
Ayersman, D. J. (1996). Reviewing the research on
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Science Junction- Using the CBL 2
Teachers Teaching Technology
Constructing Physics Understanding
Barrow, L. H., & Sawanakunanont, Y. (1994). Teaching strategies
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Brasell, H. (1987). The effect of real-time laboratory graphing on
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Brueningsen, C., & Bower, W. (1995). Using the graphing
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Buchsbaum, H. (1992). Portrait of a staff development program.
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Capelluti, J., Stokes, D., Bergmann, S., & Eichhorn, D. (1991).
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Cassity, C. L. (1997). Learning with technology: Research on
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Clayton, G. A. (1990). Successful mathematics teaching for
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Dupagne, M., & Krendl, K. A. (1992). Teachers' attitudes toward
computers: A review of the literature. Journal of Research on
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Fenstermacher, G. D., & Berliner, D. C. (1985.) Determining the
value of staff development. The Elementary School Journal, 85, 3,
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George, P.S., Stevenson, C., Thomason, J., & Beane, J. (1992). The
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teaching/learning environment that builds on a new view of the
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Handal, G. A., Leiner, M. A., Gonzalez, C., & Rogel, E. (1999).
Linear multimedia benefits to enhance students' ability to
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20). 1989 Curriculum and evaluation standards for school
mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. Retrieved February 20, 2000
from the World Wide Web: http://standards.nctm.org/
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Integrating computers into classroom practice. New York: Center
for Technology in Education, Bank Street College of Education.
Shroyer, M. G., & Borchers, C. A. (1996). Factors that support
school change to enhance the use of microcomputers in rural
schools. School Science and Mathematics, 96, 8, 419-431.
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development: An interview with Susan Loucks-Horsley. Journal
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Thornton, R. K. (1985). Tools for scientific thinking:
Microcomputer-based laboratories for the naive science learner.
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Tinker, R. F. (1985). How to turn your computer into a science
lab. Classroom Computer Learning, 5, 6, 26-29.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: An Italian School Project
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An Italian School Project "Funzioni Obiettivo"
Gian Carlo Visani
Scuola Media Statale Alfredo Oriani
Casola Valsenio
Italy
Translated from Italian to English by Marsha Alibrandi
with assistance from Alta Vista's translation website
http://babelfish.altavista.digital.com/translate.dyn
Continuation
[Part II] of
"International
Application of
the Web in an
Italian School
Reform Case."
Un progetto per la scuola
italiana
Ora io sono coinvolto in un progetto
molto interessante e significativo,
attuato dal Ministero della Pubblica
Istruzione, per organizzare meglio la
scuola italiana e per aggiornare gli
insegnanti: la formazione di
insegnanti "Funzioni obiettivo", che
hanno il compito di coordinare le
attivita' della propria scuola.
Le funzioni assegnate sono le
seguenti:
"The name of the
project is
"Funzioni
Obiettivo". The
Funzioni
Obiettivo
teachers are
those who are in
charge of
particular offices
in their school:
coordinators for
teaching plan of
An Italian School Project
Currently I am involved in a very
interesting and meaningful project,
sponsored by the Ministry of
Education. The project's goals are to
improve and organize Italian
schools and to modernize teaching
methods. Functional objectives of
the project are for teachers to
coordinate the activities in their own
schools.
The responsibilities are the
following:
1) coordinare il progetto educativo
della scuola (il piano annuale delle
attivita' didattiche),
1) To coordinate the educational
plan of the school (the annual plan
of instructional activities),
2) essere di supporto all'attivit…
degli altri insegnanti, in particolare
per quanto riguarda l'uso del
computer e di Internet nella scuola,
2) to support the activity of other
teachers, particularly in use of the
computer and Internet in the school,
3) aiutare gli studenti a risolvere i
problemi scolastici,
3) to help the students to resolve
scholastic problems, and
4) coordinare la collaborazione e la
progettazione con gli Enti locali
(Comune, Provincia, Regione ed
altre istituzioni).
4) to coordinate collaboration and
planning with local agencies
(Community, Province, Regional
and other institutions).
Questo progetto, che coinvolge circa
This plan, that involves
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Meridian: Winter 2001: An Italian School Project
the school, new
technologies in
education, help
for students and
new teachers,
relations with
state and private
Institutions."
"The main goal
of this project is
to change
teachers'
approach to
teaching. They
have to become
professional and
specialized
educators,
therefore the
didactic activity
will become
precise and
directed towards
projects. A lot of
importance is
given to the
refresher courses
through
Internet, Chat,
e-mail and a Web
Forum for every
Italian province
(the web site for
the province of
58000 insegnanti in Italia, ha la sua
motivazione all'interno della scelta
di dare una maggiore autonomia alle
scuole per quanto riguarda le scelte
educative e didattiche, le discipline e
le attivita' che la scuola propone. Ad
esempio la mia scuola certifica ora
nuove attivita' che prima non erano
inserite nel piano dell'offerta
formativa: informatica (computer) e
progetti in Internet, latino, teatro.
approximately 58000 teachers in
Italy, motivates greater autonomy to
the schools over educational and
instructional choices, the disciplines
and activities that the school
proposes. For example, my school
certifies new activities that were
before not included in previous
offerings: computer science
(computer) and in Internet, Latin,
and Theatre.
Per aggiornare e preparare gli
insegnanti incaricati di Funzioni
obiettivo e' stato predisposto un
corso d'aggiornamento in presenza e
un aggiornamento via Internet. Per
aiutare gli insegnanti ad utilizzare il
computer e le risorse di Internet e'
stato scelto un Tutor di rete per ogni
provincia d' Italia. Io sono il Tutor di
rete per la provincia di Ravenna e
devo seguire circa 270 insegnanti
per aiutarli nell'utilizzo del
computer e delle risorse educative e
didattiche del sito predisposto per
l'aggiornamento: che puo' essere
visitato come ospite anche da chi
non partecipa al progetto.
In order to modernize and to
prepare instruction, those charged
with fulfilling the Functional
Objectives take a preparatory
refresher course in integrating and
modernization via the Internet. In
order to help teachers to use the
computer and Internet resources, a
network Tutor has been chosen for
every province of Italy. I am the
Network Tutor for the province of
Ravenna. I support approximately
270 teachers to assist them in the
use of computers and of educational
and didactic resources. A web site
has been established where each
tutor can be a host to project
participants and any interested
visitors.
http://www.bdp.it/funzioniobiettivo
http://www.bdp.it/funzioniobiettivo
Il sito e' suddiviso in tre aree:
The Web site is subdivided in three
areas:
1) l'aula di studio in cui si possono
trovare scritti di vari studiosi sui
temi riguardanti l'attivita' delle
"Funzioni Obiettivo"; i file devono
essere scaricati sui dischi rigidi
locali e gli insegnanti devono
studiare gli scritti;
1) the "Studio" in which participants
can find studies and reports on the
"Functional Objectives" topics; these
files must be downloaded onto local
hard disks and teachers must study
and become familiar with them;
2) il "Gold" dove si possono inserire
esperienze educative e didattiche e
studiare quelle degli altri insegnanti;
2) the "Gold" area where those
teaching others can share
educational and instructional
experiences and issues with other
teachers;
3) il "Web Forum" di ogni provincia
dove gli insegnanti si possono
incontrare tramite brevi messaggi,
utilizzare la chat per scambiarsi
3) the "Web Forum" for each
province where teachers can meet
through short messages, to use the
chat to exchange opinions and
experiences.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: An Italian School Project
Ravenna.)
A Web Tutor was
chosen to
coordinate this
activity."
Refresher course
for teachers
http://space.tin.it/scuola/
gianvisa/
Contact the
Author
Comenius Project
(http://www.en.eun.org/
news/comenius-en.html)
MidLink Magazine
(http://www.cs.ucf.edu/
~MidLink/)
opinioni ed esperienze.
I Tutor di rete di ogni provincia
possono discutere tra loro e tenersi
in contatto per approfondire le
proprie esperienze e per aiutarsi in
caso di bisogno nell'area nazionale
in cui hanno la possibilita' di
accedere anche i coordinatori
nazionali.
The Network Tutors of each
province can discuss between
themselves and stay in contact in
order to deepen their own
experiences and for assistance and
access to national coordinators.
L'incarico che ho ricevuto richiede
molto impegno e responsabilita',
perche'‚ devo tenere i contatti con
tutti gli insegnanti, aiutarli ad
utilizzare il sito, risolvere i problemi
in caso di necessita' tramite il Web
Forum e messaggi e-mail con tutte
le scuole della provincia, dalla
scuola materna alle scuole superiori,
programmare argomenti di
discussione tramite chat e
videoconferenze, organizzare
incontri.
My assignment as Network Tutor
includes responsibility for
maintaining contacts with all of the
teachers, assisting them in using the
website, solving problems with Web
Forum and email messages for all of
the schools of the province, from the
maternal school to the advanced
schools, to planning discussions
through chat and videoconferences,
and to organize meetings.
E' una esperienza molto significativa
perche'‚ per la prima volta
insegnanti di ogni scuola d'Italia
possono colloquiare tra loro,
scambiandosi idee e programmando
attivita', tramite Internet, l'E-mail
ed utilizzare un sito comune. Essa
inoltre Š una possibilita' unica per
migliorare l'offerta formativa della
scuola italiana.
This has been a significant
experience because for the first time
teachers from every school in Italy
can talk with one another, exchange
ideas, coordinate and plan activities
through Internet, email and a
common website. It is a unique
opportunity to improve the
curriculum offered across Italian
schools.
Un'ultima considerazione: mi e'
stato dato questo incarico per le
esperienze e le conoscenze che ho
acquisito sul computer e Internet.
Esse sono dovute anche al dialogo
ininterrotto che ho con Caroline
McCullen , con Beckey Reed e con
altri membri MEGA e della North
Caroline University che ho visitato
due anni fa. La collaborazione con
MidLink Magazine tramite progetti
comuni e con il MEGA tramite chat
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One final thought: I have been given
this assignment due to experiences,
acquaintances, and the knowledge I
have acquired through the computer
and Internet use. These are due also
to the ongoing dialogue that I have
with Caroline McCullen, Beckey
Reed and other members of MEGA
and of North Carolina State
University whom I visited two years
ago. The collaboration with MidLink
Magazine through common projects
Meridian: Winter 2001: An Italian School Project
e videoconferenze ha migliorato
enormemente la mia competenza
sull'attivita' educativa e didattica
che si attua tramite il computer e
Internet.
Gian Carlo Visani (MEGA member
and Teacher Editor in MidLink
Magazine)
Scuola Media Statale di Casola
Valsenio e Riolo Terme Tutor di rete
per la provincia di Ravenna
and with MEGA through chat and
videoconferences has enormously
improved my competence on
educational and instructional
computer and Internet use.
Gian Carlo Visani (MEGA member
and Teacher Editor of MidLink
Magazine)
State Medium School of Casola
Valsenio and Riolo Terme Network
Tutor for the province of Ravenna
To page 2 of 2
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Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2001
ISSN 1097—9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2001/italy2/index.html
contact Meridian
All rights reserved by the author.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: An Italian School Project
| Table of Contents | About Meridian | Resources | Archive |
An Italian School Project
About the Author
Gian Carlo Visani
Gian Carlo Visani graduated from the Catholic University
of Milan, in 1973. He taught in the same university for 5
years. He worked as member of the editorial staff in the field
of philosophy and psychology at "La Scuola", Publisher,
Brescia. He was a consultant for the problems of young
people at a family advisory bureau. He has written articles
for several magazines for the school and the family:
"Madre", "Dialoghi in famiglia", "Scuola Italiana Moderna".
He specializes in teaching through the computer and in
multimedia.
Gian Carlo is the Web Tutor for the province of Ravenna for
teachers' refresher courses. He also teaches in a middle
school, and is a MidLink Magazine teacher editor and a
MEGA member.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Time Management in the Computer Room
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Slow Down and Learn, Hurry Up and
Understand: Time-Management in
the Computer Room
Arnold Pulda
Image provided by Meridian.
"Good teachers use the
clock efficiently;
less-effective teachers
seem to be used and even
abused by the clock,
surprised when the bell
rings, calling out the
homework assignment to
the backs of students as
they hurry down the
hallway to their next
class."
Doherty Memorial High School & Middle School
Worcester, Massachusetts
All teachers know that the management of time in the classroom
is a skill that must be mastered. Good teachers use the clock
efficiently; less-effective teachers seem to be used and even
abused by the clock, surprised when the bell rings, calling out the
homework assignment to the backs of students as they hurry
down the hallway to their next class. Proper management of time
is equally important when the teacher brings her students to the
computer room, of course. In my experience I have found that
some of the traditional time-management rules that I apply in the
classroom work just as well in the computer room, while others
must be adjusted to suit the specific needs of the environment. In
this article I will discuss some of those special situations and offer
some suggestions on how to deal with them.
I teach in a public high school and middle school, but through
various associations and networks I have quite a bit of contact
with colleagues who teach at the college level. I have read quite a
bit about what's come to be called the "digital divide" over the last
few years, and I agree that all teachers at all levels should be
sensitive to the issues relating to that digital divide - inequitable
and uneven student access to technology in schools. But the more
I talk with my friends who teach in college, the more I am
beginning to believe that there is another significant "digital
divide," and that is between use of and application of the
tools of technology in college vs. the way that students and
teachers in public high schools and middle schools use and apply
them.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Time Management in the Computer Room
When I go to conferences, meetings or workshops dealing with
technology and education - sometimes I attend, sometimes I
present and mentor - where the attendees comprise a mixed
group of college and pre-college teachers, it often seems that there
are two different languages being spoken, two entirely different
subjects being addressed. Educators at the college level are often
presenting about and discussing pedagogy, web site content,
inquiry assignments, and other such subjects. Many of which are
somewhat oxymoronic - such as Scarce Abundance, Active
Passivity, and the like. Recently I was at such a meeting where the
majority of attendees were college teachers, and the agenda was
something like that. Two or three of us there were high school or
middle school teachers though, and we found each other. We
ended up in an excited discussion of: mouse balls. Yes, that's no
typo: mouse balls. We were simply comparing notes on what we
do when the students steal the mouse balls. We also exchanged
ideas on maintenance of hardware, Acceptable Use Policies,
software that blocks inappropriate sites on the Internet, and other
similar subjects of the nuts-and-bolts variety. College teachers
don't seem to have the need or desire to address such issues.
Whether they don't need to - that is, that college students just
don't steal mouse balls or try to access inappropriate web sites -or whether they just don't want to, I'm not sure. But what we
high-school teachers ended up talking about, mostly, after we got
through with mouse balls, was time.
● How to manage time with students in the computer lab?
● How to schedule the extent of a lesson plan?
● How to create a lesson or project while taking into account
the attention span of teenage students?
These are some of the items I'd like to deal with, keeping in mind
that my preferences, practices, and procedures are those of one
teacher in one computer room in one school. The circumstances
for other teachers elsewhere may vary widely from mine; what
works for me may fall flat under a different schedule, with other
students, with different resources.
Time concerns all of us, everywhere, always - but I firmly believe
that teachers in public schools are ruled by the clock to a greater
extent than teachers elsewhere or even people working in the
private sector. Recently a friend of mine, an accountant, asked me
how much time I have for lunch, and I answered "Twenty-two
minutes." He laughed a little bit and inquired as to how I could be
so precise in this measurement. A teacher knows the answer,
though: it's not "About a half-hour," or anything like that: it's
simply 22 minutes, no more (no need to say, "And no less"). So it
is when someone asks me when my workday ends: after I get past
the temptation to say "Never," I reply, "One forty-three."
Precision. The bell.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Time Management in the Computer Room
"...I find that, after my
nice speech about the
virtues of close reading
and deliberate analysis, I
sometimes have to follow
up with another one of the
opposite variety: please
hurry up a little bit,
students, ...we won't be
able to return to the
computer lab ...it's booked
solid for a week."
There is no relief from this precision in the computer room, on the
Internet. There should be, it seems, for the reasons that make the
Internet such a wonderful resource for teaching and learning: the
sheer abundance of information, and the exciting prospect of
looking for and finding quality web sites that lead to other
worthwhile sites. The world's biggest library, all just 18 inches in
front of the students' noses. Certainly the clock should be off the
wall when we're using such a resource. But it isn't. The bell still
rings, and it's going to ring even if the student has just found that
perfect site, the document that just begs for close reading and
analysis, that gorgeous jpeg image of Seward's cancelled check
written in payment for Alaska, or Einstein's letter to Roosevelt, or
Jackie Robinson's note to Branch Rickey.
My own experience with the Internet, and everything that I have
read and heard and valued about using it for education, has
taught me that the Internet is a slow medium. The content
requires focused attention; the best material there needs careful
analysis, deliberate reading and looking; links to related material
should be followed freely, and links from that web site should be
followed yet further, with no or little heed to the passage of time.
My friends who teach in college tell me that their students can
and do conduct online research just that way, so the teachers
themselves encourage - even require - their students to research
deep and wide. If they don't finish during class time, then they can
return to their wired dorms and/or their wired library to continue
their work. I encourage my students likewise, but within limits because the bell is going to ring, and the student may not have a
computer at home, or may not be able to access one of the
half-dozen computers in the media center, or he may not have a
free period during the day to even get to one of those computers
in school. So time immediately intervenes in the execution of the
lesson. And I find that, after my nice speech about the virtues of
close reading and deliberate analysis, I sometimes have to follow
up with another one of the opposite variety: please hurry up a
little bit, students, because we won't be able to return to the
computer lab to continue this lesson, it's booked solid for a week.
Whatever happened to the slow medium?
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Time Management in the Computer Room
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Time Management in the Computer Room
So the teacher must, first of all, plan. She must make a reasonable
estimate of the time required for this lesson or that project, and
make sure to reserve the computer room for those periods and
those days. The planning extends further: The teacher's estimate
of the time required for the lesson had better be close, or one of
two problems will arise:
Image provided by Meridian.
"Thirty to forty minutes
maximum at the computer
seems to be a rough guide
for productive work. After
that the teacher, so newly
proud of now being the
"guide by the side" rather
than the "sage on the
stage," becomes now,
simply the Babysitter:
imploring students not to
stray to their favorite
sites for entertainment,
gaming, music, or other
assorted off-task
amusement."
1.Students might not have enough time to
finish. This might happen even if all peripheral
problems do not appear, such as missing mouse balls,
balky software, or hardware on the blink. The teacher
must provide for a Plan B when students find,
legitimately, that they can't complete the assignment
as written. This Plan B might include further research
using more conventional media, or it might mean
truncating the lesson as elegantly as possible and
salvaging what you have.
2. Students might have too much time. Did I say
"might"? I should have said, "will." This simply always
happens. There are students who, despite the standard
speech about slow learning, get themselves into a
hurry-up speed right away and move through even the
most complex questions as if they will be rewarded for
being the first to finish. The teacher will often find that
the work presented is slipshod and incomplete, and
return the student(s) to the lesson to dig deeper and
farther. Then there are students who will simply
apprehend the information more easily, work through
the documents quickly but thoroughly, and otherwise
work faster and more efficiently than others, and still
produce work of high quality. In this case the teacher
had better have a Plan B, also: send the student on
further, perhaps with that dreaded incentive of "extra
credit," for more research on a related topic. If the
lesson is on the Emancipation Proclamation, then get
back in there and show how the EP became the
Thirteenth Amendment, or how it changed, and who
was involved, and how long it took, and so on. The
teacher shouldn't be grasping at straws here or
ad-libbing but should be prepared with what are often
called "Extended Activities" that often come at the end
of pre-packaged lesson plans. That's why they're there.
Another strategy that can be used here is to bunch
your lesson plans. I have been reading a lot about John
Brown recently, and I wrote a lesson plan on his life.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Time Management in the Computer Room
Then I wrote a second, more complex unit, and then a
third one, even more challenging. I used different web
sites for each, while still listing the others as
peripheral, secondary resources for the students. I
tried to mix up the media, too, basing one unit on a
web site that was mainly text and another on a graphic
source. This little "bunch" of sources and lesson plans
served me well this past semester. I found that the
units could be used individually or as a group, that the
time planned for the computer lab could be adjusted
flexibly, and that I could keep all students challenged
and continuing to pursue good research and produce
quality work while moving up the ladder from one unit
to the next.
My approach to the management of time in the computer room
has changed over the years. My school is on a block schedule in
which many of the periods are 63 minutes long. Years ago I
thought that roughly an hour in the computer room, on-task,
researching and reporting, was an interval of time well-suited for
this kind of work. I soon changed my mind, as I have found that
the attention-span of teenage students will not allow that kind of
time in front of the computer. I am not well-versed in educational
psychology, but my experience and observations tell me that
students, no matter how well motivated, educated, stimulated, and
challenged, will not sit still for an hour and focus on difficult
material. In contrast, I find, somewhat to my dismay, that the rule
of thumb might be the opposite: the shorter, the better. This has
been confirmed by other teachers who are experienced in using
the Internet with their classes frequently, who have had good
success. Thirty to forty minutes maximum at the computer seems
to be a rough guide for productive work. After that the teacher, so
newly proud of now being the "guide by the side" rather than the
"sage on the stage," becomes now, simply the Babysitter:
imploring students not to stray to their favorite sites for
entertainment, gaming, music, or other assorted off-task
amusement. This posture of nagging, threatening, and
punishment is to be avoided at all costs. I would much rather plan
and execute a short, successful, online unit, perhaps leaving the
class a little bit curious and asking to continue on, than have to be
the teacher-grouch, trying to squeeze every last bit of meaning out
of every last document. The teacher is still in control, and she can
always return another time to a subject that wasn't quite
completely covered. So, if I have a short lesson plan such as a
webquest, intended for coverage in one class period, I will spend
the first 10-15 minutes with the computers off setting the context
and discussing our research objectives, the next 30-40 minutes
online, and the last 10-15 minutes of class discussing what we
learned. If this sounds a lot like the old teacher prescription of
"Tell 'em what you're gonna tell 'em, tell 'em, and tell 'em what you
told 'em," well, perhaps it is, but it works well for me.
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Time Management in the Computer Room
Time weighs heavily on teachers and students in the public school,
and that seems to be true in the computer lab as well as in our
more conventional classes. Many of the pitfalls that teachers at the
college level seem to be able to avoid nonetheless affect us
regularly. All the more need, then, for careful forethought and
scheduling. With good planning, anticipation of potential pitfalls,
and lesson plans that are pedagogically sound and at the same
time written with the clock in mind, teachers can make time their
ally.
To Page 3 of 3
| Download .pdf file of this entire article (Acrobat Reader needed for viewing) |
Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC
Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2001
ISSN 1097-9778
URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2001/time/time2.html
contact Meridian
All rights reserved by the author.
| Table of Contents | Review Board | Resources | Archive |
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Meridian: Winter 2001: Time Management in the Computer Room
| Table of Contents | About Meridian | Resources | Archive |
Time Management in the Computer Room
About the Author:
Arnold Pulda
Links and Resources
Arnold Pulda teaches Social Studies at Doherty Memorial High School
and Middle School. He received his Ph.D. in U.S. History from the
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, in 1977. He has been using
the Internet in his classroom since 1993. He has led many workshops
and made many presentations on how to use the Internet in education.
He is a Fellow of the Library of Congress and will be acting as a
Facilitator for the Library's Institute for Educators this coming summer.
His website is www.geocities.com/doctorgus. He can be reached at
[email protected] and would welcome comments on this article
from other teachers.
Links and Resources
Online Interview with Chip Wood
You don't have to read Piaget's seminal work The Child's Conception of
Time in order to begin to grasp the issues of attention span, the school
The Responsive Classroom (Journal)
bell-schedule, and on-task time in the computer room. What teacher,
Article by Chip Wood "Time and Reform" after all, has time for such in-depth pedagogy? Chip Wood's book, Time
to Teach, Time to Learn: Changing the Pace of School, is a good
Education World
introduction to the subject of how teachers do and should manage time
in the classroom. Some of his ideas are presented in an online inteview
Advice from Harry Wong (Education
at http://www.education-world.com/a_issues/issues058.shtml. An
World)
article of Wood's titled "Time and Reform," is at
Advice on Block Scheduling (Education http://www.responsiveclassroom.org/feature_5.htm . The educational
World)
journal "The Responsive Classroom"
(http://www.responsiveclassroom.org/) is helpful for concrete,
hands-on discussions of in-classroom issues and problems, including
time, pace, and scheduling. Education World has many articles on
classroom management, scheduling, the efficient use of time in school,
and many themes related to getting started on the Internet for teachers:
http://www.education-world.com/technology/tec_teacher.shtml .
Harry Wong gives good advice on classroom management; see his
interview in Education World,
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr161.shtml . On block
scheduling, see
http://www.education-world.com/a_issues/issues013.shtml.
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