@
?cb?rr A r t h u r i a u l ' r n s r 1376
AEPROVAL
Name:
Robert A r t h u r P a u l k n e r
Deqree: Master of S c i e n c k ( K i n a s i o l o q y )
ritle of T h k s i s :
P h y s i q u e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of C a n a d i a n
Fiqure Skaters
E x a m i n i n g Committee:
C h a i r man:
N,M.G,
Bhaktkan
S,R. Brown
E x t e r n a l Examiner
Professor
University o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a
Cate Approved:
-A-..-u * !,or :
Y
','
"
--
(signature)
Robert A. Faul kner
(name )
September 16, 1976
iii
s i z . ad j u s t t d skinfolii tctals o f pr3totjy- a n d s u b g r o u p
mnn5;
r;roporf,io~~al;
:y ~s;es;mer?t 'u y a s t r d t a y e i n where
v3lu-zs war0 i n t s r p r ~ t - 3 C ;i n t 2 r n z of: a u n i s - + x r . > f ? r z n c r inqd~l,
f c r conpirisoc OL. prototyFes d n d s u h j r o u p ;
w i t h protor-yp?s;
an ?sti;nat/?of dq-' of i g ~ > n ; f ~{ ~f t h? -~r n ~ i + ~ ) ' n ? ~ - ? i i on analysis
> f r -:caLL
Gzta,
I w o u l d l i k e t o thank the Fa'hite Rock a n d N o r t h S h o r e
1
f i g u r e s k a t i n g clubs f o r t h e i r i n t e r s s t a n d p a r t c i p a t i o n i n
t h i s study,
Dr, S , Brown f o r h i s p a r t i n d a t a c a l f e c t i o n ,
Klaus Both f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e i n computer a n a l y s e s and
s p z c i a l thanks to Dr,
#ere i n v a l u a b l e ,
sendy,
W, R o s s whose e n t h u s i a s ~and g u i d a n c a
I r o u l d e s p e c i a l l y l i k e t o t h a n k my w i f ~ ,
for h e r a s s i s t a n c e ,
Fa t i e n c e a n d u n d e r s t a r t d i n g ,
vii
iii
viii
V,
oiscussicn
1) ProC,oC,yp?s
2) Comparison of s u b q r o u p s t o proto-y p+.s
YI, Summary and Conciusions
LIST OF TABLES
Page
I,
Hems a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f s e l e c t e d
a n t h r o p o m e t r i c v a r i a b l e s for Canadian
f i g u r e s k a t e r s (male g r o u ~ s )
If,
Means a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of s e l e c t e d
anthropometric v a r i a b l e s f o r Canadian
f i g u r e s k a t e r s (ffmale groups)
111,
Summary o f H a n n - h h i t n e y 8*U1i t e s t r e s u l t s f o r
e l i t e ferrtale ( F l f a n d m f e s u b g r o u p s {Hz, a 3
M4f c o m p a r e d t o e l i t e male prototype {HI)
51
fV,
Summary o f f l a n n - & h i t r e y *jUq3 t e s t r e s u l t s f o r
f e m a l e s u b g r o u p s (F2, E3, P 4 ) c o m p a r e d t o
e l i t e f e m a l e p r o t c t y p e ( F 1)
52
V.
Means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of s o m a t o t y p e s
a n d s o m a t o t y p e d i s p e r s i o n i n d e x e d (SDf) of
Caaadian f i g u r e skaters
54
VI,
Summary of * I * i n d e x v a l u e s k e t w e e n s e l e c t e d
groups of Canadian f i g u r e s k a t e r s
55
Vff,
Heans and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f
index
(sum of 1 1 s k i n f o l d s t i w s 170, I 8 d i v i d e d b y
h e i g h t ) v a l u e s for ~ a n a d i a nf i g u r e s k a t e r s
67
44
VIII, R e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i c a s cf
68
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y z-scores of s e l e c t e d
v a r i a b l e s f o r C a n a d i a n f i g u r e s k a t e r s finale g r o u p s )
IX, H e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of g r a p o r t i c n a l i t y
z-scores of s e l e c t e d uaxiables f o r Canadian
f i g u r e s k a t e r s (f~ m a gl r ~
oups)
X,
Summary o f a g e o f m e n a r c h e y u e s t i c n a i r e r e s u l t s
for Canadian female f i g u r e s k a t e r s
71
79
Figure
Page
H e a t h - C a r t e r s o m a t o c h a r t with s u p e r i m p o s e d
xy q r i d t o r p l o t t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s o a a t o t y p e s ,
I = f i r s t c o m p o n e n t ; f l = s e c o n d c o i a p o n e n t ; IXf=
1.
31
t h i r d component,
2,
1 l l u s t r a l ; i o n o f a31Hi n d e x ,
3,
C a l c u l a t i o n o f t*113
i n d e x f o r t h r e e cases where
S C I l i s r a d i u s o f l a g € a n d 50x2 is r a d i u s of
smaller circle (Hcss 1976).
35
Formula f o r c a l c u l a t i c n of p r c p c r t i o n a l i t y
40
4,
(Ross,
1976).
34
Z-SCOT~SI
Scmatocharts:
5 , C a n a d i a n male f i g u r e s k a t e r s 41974, s e n i o r j u n i o r m e n ' s s i n g l e s ] n=12.
6.
C a n a d i a n f e m a l e f i g u f e s k a t e r s I1974,
j u n i o r l a d i e s * s i n g l e s ) n=18,
senior-
56
57
7, C a n a d i a n male f i g u r e s k a t e r s l 1 9 7 4 , n o v i c e
m e n ' s s i n g l e s ) n=7,
58
8- C a n a d i a n f e m a l e f i g u r e s k a t e r s
59
ladies'
(3974, n o v i c e
s i n g l e s ) n=9,
9,
C a n a d i a n male f i g u r e s k a t e r s j 1 9 7 5 ,
s i n g l e s ) n=7,
10.
C a n a d i a n male f i g u r e s k a t e r s ( 1 9 7 5 ,
p a i r s ) n=4,
11. C a n a d i a n female f i g u r e s k a t e r s (1975
o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s c v e r 1 2 y e a r s ) n=21,
62
12, C a n a d i a n female f i g u r e s k a t e r s ( 1 9 7 5
o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2 y e a r s ) n=12,
63
16. E l i t e male a t h l e t e s , 1 9 5 8 H e x i c o O l y m p i c s
82
(de G a r a r y , L e v i n e , C a r t e r 1 4 7 4 ) , C z e c h o s l o v a k i a n hockey a n d s o c c e r p l a y e r s ( C h o v a n o v a ,
Zrubak l972), p r c f e s o i c n a l hockey p l a y e r s ,
Quebec Nordigue ( L a r i v i e r e 1975), Canadian
f i g u r e s k a t e r s ( B c s s , Brcwn, P a u l k n e r f ,
C a n a d i a n a l p i n e s k i e r s ( R o s s , Goodman, F a u l k n e r ) ,
17,
Elite f e a a l e a t h l e t e s . 7 968 R e x i c o O l y a p i c s
83
(dz Garay, L e v i n e , C a r t e r 1974), C a n a d i a n
f i g u r e s k a t e r s ( R c s s , Brchn, F a u l k n e r ) ,
C a n a d i a n a l p i n e skiers { R o s s , Goodman, F a u l k n e r ) ,
13.
P r o p o r t i o n a l i t y z - s c o r e s f o r 18 s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l s s ( e l i t e male a n d f e m a l e g r o u p s ) s h o w i n g
d e v i a t i o n s from phantom v a l u e s ( 0 ) -
74
14.
P r o p o r t i o n a l i t y z - s c o r e s f o r 18 s e l e c t e d v a r i a t l e s (male g r o u ~ s ) s h c w i c g d e v i a t i o n s frorn
phantom v a l u e s ( 0 ) -
75
15,
P r o p o r t i o n a l i t y z - s c o r e s f o r 18 s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l t e s i f e m a l e g r o u p s ) s h e w i n g d e v i a t i o n s from
p h a n t o m v a l u e s (0)*
77
T h e s t u d y of human m c r g h o l o g y h a s b e e n a p a r v a s i v e
i n t q r e s t o f m a n k i n d from t h e time g a r ~ e n t swere f a s h i o n d d
f o r his l o i n s o r t h e human i m a g e was s c r a t c h e d i n s t o n e o r
moulded i n c l a y f o r p o s t e r i t y ,
~ F O C ~i S
n
Great
civilizat-
i o n a r e m a r k e d by w o r k s of a r t w h i c h h a d r e p r e s a n t a t i o n o f
t h e human p h y s i q u e a s a c e n t r a l t h e m e ,
The t r a d i t i o n f o r
a e s t h e t i c a n t h r o p o m ~ t r ye x t e n d s b a c k i n t o a n t i q u i t y ,
The
E n c y c l o p e d i a o f W o r l d Art ( 1 9 5 9 1 , p r o v i d e s a r a p i d r e v i p w ~f
a t t e m p t s t o d e v e l o p c a n o n s c r s y s t e m s o f r e p r e s e n t i n g human
proportions,
I n t h e r e n a i s s a n c e , r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e devefopmznt
o f m o d e l s p e r h a p s was c u r t a i l e d b y t h e d a w n i n g s c i e n t i f i c
revolution,
T h e v o o d c u t s of a n a t o m i c a l d r a w i n g b a s e d o n
d i s s e c t i o n a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s by V e s a l i u s (see S a u n d e r s et
a1,1973)
a n d t h e @ a n y a n a t o ~ i c a lt e x t s a n d a t l a s e s p r o d u c e d
e v e r since h a v e l a r g e 1y r e p l a c e d the a r t i s t i c c a n o n s ,
A p a r t from t h e p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s of a n t h r o p o m e t r y i n
+he n a k i n g of g a r m n t s a n d d e s i g n cf m a c h i n e s , t h e u s e o f
t h e t e c h n i q u e s i n a s c i e n t i f i c c o n t e x t d i d n o t r e a l l y become
established u n t i l t h e 19th century.
came f r o m A ,
The g r e a t e s t i m p e t u s
Q u e t e l e t , a n a s t r o n o m e r - m a t h e m a t i c i a n who f i r s t
a p p r e c i a t e d that t h e G a u s s i a n o r n o r m a l p r o b a b i l i t y c u r v e
{which d e f i n e d r a n d o a errors o f measurement) c o u l d h e
a p p l i e d t o human d a t a ,
I n fact,
h e was s o i n f l u e n t i a l t h a t
h i s n o r m a t i v e d a t a o n c h i i d ~ e na n d y o u t h were u s e d
c l i n i c a l l y f o r o v e r s e v e n t y y e a r s i n E u r o p e , a n d modern
a u t h o r s c a s t i g a t e him f o r h i s i n f l u e n c e ,
l a t e r a l l e g e d l y s t i f f l e s modern i n q u i r y ,
which 130 y e a r s
From t h e time o f
Quetefet, anthropometry h a s been a basic d i s c i p l i n e i n
anthsopological research,
T h e e a r l y h i s t o r y of t h i s
a p p l i c a t i o n i s c h r o n i c l e d i n s o u r c e s c i t e d by H r d l i c t a
(1952),
O t h e r n o t e v o r t h y c c n t r i b u t i o n s were made b y
T h o m p s o n f 1 9 1 7 ) , V i o l a (1935) , and S h e l d o n ( 1 9 4 0 ) who
a p p l i e d a n t h r o p o m e t r y t o p r c b l e ~ si n human g r o w t h , a n d
behavior.
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n cf a n t h r o p o m e t r y t o s p o r t and p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t y h a s l o n g been a minor t h e a e i n p h y s i c a l
anthropology,
Some o f t h i s w o r k h a s l a s t i n g v a l u e ,
Q u e t e l e t f s s t r e n g t h norms,
f o r e x a a p l e , are still c i t e d f o r
i n f o r m a t i o n a l a s well a s h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s [ A s t r a n d 1 9 7 0 ) .
K i n a n t h r o p o m e t r y , a n e o f o g i s i r i l i n k i n g "movementa
to
w a n t h r o p o m e t r g f i , h a s e v o l v e d f r o @t r a d i t i o n a l a n t h r o p o m e t r y
a s a n a r e a o f s t u d y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a e a s u r e ~ s n tof human
size, shape, p r o p o r t i o n , c c m ~ o s i t i o n ,maturation and g r o s s
f u n c t i o n as related t o prcblems i n growth, e x e r c i s e ,
perf ormance, a n d n u t r i t i o n ,
3
I n a p p l y i n g k i n a n t h r o p c n e t r y t o s p c r t , d e s c r i p t i o n of
s u b j e c t s is a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s i n c e a l l s p o r t s h a v e b o t h
s t r u c t u r a l a n d f u n c t i o n a Z c c n s t r a i n t s kc h i g h e r a c h i e v e m e n t .
T h e f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y i s en f i g u r e s k a t e r s who h a d
a t t a i n e d a h i g h d e g r e e cf c r a p e t e n c e i n t e c h n i c a l a s s e l l a s
a r t i s t i c a s p e c t s of t h e s p o r t ,
I n o r d e r t o h a v e t h i s p r s p e c t i v e of f i g u r e s k a t i n q
t a l e n t , t h i s s t u d y was l i ~ i t e dt o a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of a a l e
and female n a t i o n a l l y r a t e d Canadian j u n i o r and s e n i o r
f i g u r e skaters, nationally r a t e d novices, and o t h e r
o u t s t a n d i n g B r i t i s h C o l n m k i a c o a s t s k a t e r s who h a d a t l e a s t
been f i n a l i s t s i n C a n a d i a n A a a t e u r F i g u r e S k a t i n g
Association sanctioned competition,
Prior t o t h i s study,
f i g u r e s k a t i n g was o n e o f t h e few s p o r t s w h e r e t h e r e was a
c o n s p i c i o u s gap i n t h e growing l i t e r a t u r e i n s p o r t s
a n thropometry,
This i n i t s e l f i n v i t e d study,
Bofeover,
there were a n u m b e r of a s p e c t s of t h e s p o r t s h i c h a r e
a t t r a c t i v e t o human b i o l o g i s t $ :
The s p o r t i n v o l v e s b o t h
sexgs; it h a s biomechanical r e s t r a i n t s and provides a system
f o r rat i n q performance and s e l e c t i o n of o u t s t a n d i n g
i n d i v i d u a l s ; t h e s p o r t r e q u i r e s p e r s i s t e n t t r a i n i n g and
i n v o l v e s v e r y y o u n g c h i l d r e n who may s u b m i t t o a s much a s 15
t o 2 5 h o u r s p e r week of t r a i n i n g o v e r a p e r i o d o f y e a r s .
P r o n a p r a c t i c a l s t a n d p c i n t , there is t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t
t h e a n a l gsis of t h e structural c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e l i t e
s k a t e r s may h e l p i n t h e s e l ~ c t i v ep r o c e s s e n a b l i n g
participants, pafonts and professionals t o adopt r e a l i s t i c
a s p i r a t i o n s for success,
T h e p u r p o s e of the s t u d y w a s t o d e v e l o p male a n d female
? * p r o t o t y p i c a l u physique d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e b e s t or n e l i t e o
C a n a d i a n f i g u r e s k a t e r s b a s e d o n t h e mean v a l u e s o f s e n i o r
a n d j u n i o r r a n k e d s u b j e c t s ; t o c o m p a r f t h e m a l e a n d female
p r o t o t y p e s ; t o c o m p a r e t h e ~ r o t o t y p e sw i t h m e a n s o f o t h e r
a t h l e t i c s a m p l 5 s ; a n d t o c o m p a r e m e a n s of y o u n g e r , l e s s
a d v a n c e d s k a t e r s a s well a s s ale p a i r s s k a t e r s t o t h e
r e s p e c t i v e sex p r o t o t y p e b y t h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s e s :
1) d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s o f s e l e c t e d a n t h r o p o m e t r i c
v a r i a b l e s ( ~ e a n sa n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s ) ;
2) a n t h r o p o m e t r i c d e r i v a t i o n o f s o m a t o t y p e a n d d i s p l a y
on s o m a t o c h a r t s w i t h d e s c r i g t i o n s of s c a t t e r by s o m a t o t y p e
dispersion indices,
a n d a c c m p a r i s o n of s a m p l e s b y an *'Ig*
index;
3 ) c o m p a r i ~ o no f e l i t e m a l e a n d female s o m a t o p l o t s w i t h
other a t h l e t i c groups;
4)
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y a n a l y s i s b y m e a n s of a phantom
stratagem;
5) a n t h r o p o m e t f i c e s t i m a t i o n of body c o m p o s i t i o n ( b y
p e r c e n t f a t ) o f t h e e l i t e p ~ c t o t y p e s , a n d by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h
o t h e r a t h l e t i c g r o u p s , a n d b y a J 3 f a t J *index f o r c o m p a r i s o n s
between groups;
A s u b s i d i a r y c o n c e r n was t h e m a t u r a t i o n sf t h e female
s k a t e r s w h i c h was s t u d i e d by a r e c a l l ~ r o c e d t r r et o d e t e r m i n e
t h e a g e of m e n a r c h e ,
If physique is a n impostant f a c t o r i n performance i n
f i g u r e s k a t i n g , it w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o f i n d t h e male a n 3
female p r o t o t y p e s t o h a v e s i a i l a r p h y s i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s i t s
w i t h i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of n c r a a l s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , a n d t n
be s i m i l a r t o a t h l e t e s i n o t h e r s p o r t s r e q u i r i n g similar
b o d y s k i l l s a n d movements.
I t would a l s o b e e x p e c t e d t o
f i n d t h e younger, l e s s advanced, b u t o u t s t a n d i n g skaters i n
c o r i i p a r i s o n t o t h e i r peers, t o h a v e s i ~ i l a rp h y s i q u e
c h a r a c t e r i s i t i c s a s t h e r e s ~ e c t i v es e x p r o t o t y p e g r o u p
w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f n o r m a l age and m a t u r a t i o n a l
differences,
T h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s t u d y were t o add t o t h e g e n e r a l
k n o w l e d g e of a t h l e t e s ,
subsequently aiding i n training
t e c h n i q u e s f o r a t h l e t e s a n d c o a c h e s , a n d i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of
potential elite skaters,
Hcreover, t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t h e
d a t a i t s e l f will a l l o w @ore detailed investigation into t h z
q r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h l y a c t i v e c h i l d r e n ,
Except
for l i m i t e d comparison with s k i n f o l d t h i c k n e s s norns,
the
p r e s e n t s t u d y d i d n o t i n v c l v e c o m p a r i s o n s cf s k a t e r s w i t h
non a t h l e t e s ,
Unfortunately, comprehensive cross-sectional
d a t a of t h i s t y p e o n l a r g e s a m p l e s o f C a n a d i a n c h i l d r e n a n d
a d u l t s is n o t p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e ,
However,
assembled, t h e comprehensive proforma,
whenever it is
thorough analyses,
a n d e x p l i c i t d e s c r i p t i o n s of t e c h n i q u e s u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y
w i l l f a c i l i t a t e such c o ~ ~ a r i s o n s ,
It i s r e a l i z e d t h a t a n y s t u d y o f a single g r o u p of
h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d a n d s u p e r b l y t r a i n e d y o u n g a t h l e t e s will
n o t i n i t s e l f e x p l a i n c h i l d growth phenoaena,
Unfortunately,
research,
t h e r e a r e few b r e a k t h r o u g h s i n t h i s a r e a o f
Rather,
u n d e r s t a n d i n g comes f r o m t h e a d v a n c e o f
knowledge o n a b r o a d f r o n t ,
Careful anthropometric
a s s e s s m e n t and a n a l y s e s o f young s k a t e r s p r o v i d e s b a s i c
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d h e l p s d e f i n e o n e s e g ~ e n to f t h e human
p o p u l a t i o n , w h i c h by g e n e t i c endowment, t r a i n i n g , a n d
o p p o r t u n i t y i s a b l e t o p e r f o r m s k i l l e d m o v e m e n t s o n ice.
S k a t i n g is b o t h a n a t h l e t i c e n d e a v o u r a n d a n a r t i s t i c
e x p r s s s i o n , a n d b e c a u s e it i n v c l v e s c h i l d r e n i t c a n n o t b e
dissociated from c o n s i d e r a t i e n s of g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t .
If, R E V I E G i O F LITERATURE
Competitive s p o r t , p a r t i c u l a r y a t t h e championship
l e v e l h a s b e e n shown t o h a v e s p e c i f i c p h y s i q u e
characteristics,
T h i s h a s i n t r i g u e d s c i e n t i s t s e v e r sines
K o h l r a u s h (1929) f i r s t d e s c r i b e d t h e p h y s i q u e s o f O l y m p i c
athletes,
However,
v e r y little i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s k i n d i s
a v a i l a b l e on w i n t e r s p o r t a c t i v i t i e s , s u c h a s f i g u r e
s k a t i n g , w h i c h is q u i c k l y a d v a n c i n g i n r e c o g n i t i o n w i t h i n
T h e s p e c i f i c i t y of p h y s i q u e
t h e spectrum of sport,
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c e r t a i n s p o r t s h a s been s p e c u l a t e d t o
have advantages i n performing r e q u i r e d s o t o r t a s k s and
maneuvers,
Therefore,
many of the s k i l l s a n d t e c h n i q u e s
r e q u i r e d i n y a r i o u s a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s may be s i m i l a r t o
thosa required i n figure skating.
A p e r s p e c t i v e makes i t
p o s s i b l e t o coapare f i g u f e skaters with o t h e r a t h l e t e s and
t o s p e c u l a t e o n t h e p o s s i b l f a d v a n t a g e s of a n y o b s e r v e d
dif f e r e n c e s i n p h y s i q u e ,
SIZE
As r e v i e w e d b y H a l i n a
(l975), age, height,
weight and
s e x h a v e been t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d t o c l a s s i f y c h i l d r e n and
y o u t h i n various kinds o f p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y ,
C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n o v e r a f f body s i z e a n d R o t o r
p e r f o r m a n c e o n a v a r i e t y of t a s k s a r e g e n e r a l l y l o w t o
moderate f o r c h i l d r e n 5 t c 12 y e a r s o f age ( E a l i n a ,
l9?5),
C l a r k e (1971f f o u n d a t e n d e n c y t o n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n i n
s c h o o l aged c h i l d r e n between body w e i g h t and p r f o r r e a n c e
items w h e r e t h e b o d y was p r c j e c t e d
julup,
dashes).
E s p e n s c h a d e 13963)
{e-q. s t a n d i n g b r o a d
, Pialina
Ilgfi8)
, and
Rar i c k a n d O y s t e r ( 1 9 6 4 ) a l ~ of o u n d t h i s t e n d e n c y *
E s p e n s c h a d e ( 1 9401 f o u n d h i g h p e r f o r r t + i n g g i r l s on motor
t a s k tests t o h a v e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t l e g s a n d n a r r o w h i p s
w i t h a medium p h y s i q u e ,
compared with i n f e r i o r ~erformers
who h a d r e l a t i v e l y l o n g l e g s a n d v i d e h i p s w i t h g e n e r a l l y a
lateral build.
L e Veau e t a 1 ( 1 9 7 4 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e o v ~ r a l l
s m a l l n e s s o f body s i z e of A ~ e r i c a ng y a n a s t s was a
biomechanical advantage,
i n that shorter,
l i g h t e r people are
b e t t e r a b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e i r b o d y @ass.
S t u d i e s by K o h l r a u s h ( 1 9 2 9 ) , C o r r e n t i a n d Z a u f i ( 1 9 6 r i ) ,
Tanner ( l 9 6 4 ) , H i r a t a ( l 9 6 6 ) , C u r e t o n j IQljl) , and d e Garay
et a f
(1974) h a v e a l l found size a n d s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s
among O l y m p i c a t h l e t e s i n d i f f e r e n t e v e n t s ,
f e m a l e a t h l e t e s , Novak
h e a v i e r t h a n gymnasts.
f n adolescent
( 1 9 7 2 ) f o u n d r u n n e r s to b e t a l l e r arid
SHAPE
I t is only w i t h i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h a t s c i e n t i s t s h a v e
bepn a b l e t o m a s t e r p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e t h r o u g h c o m p u t e r
technology.
A s e l e c t e d assembly of
t h e world l i t e r a t u r e on
s c m a t o t y p e by D e u t s c h a n d Rcss ( 1 9 7 6 ) r e v e a l s o v e r 570 items
f r o m o v e r 315 d i f f e r e n t a r e a v a i l a b l e ,
Only a s e l e c t i v e
r e v i e w o f t h e s e w i l l be p r e s e n t e d ,
C u r e t o n ( 1 9 5 1 ) gas o n e o f the f i r s t t o d e m o n s t r a t e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o m a t o t y p e d i s t r i b u t i o n aBong d i f f e r e n t
a t h l e t i c events.
C o r r e n t i and Z a u l i (1964) f o u n d t h a t
w i t h i n c e r t a i n e v e n t s a t t h e 1 9 6 0 O l y m p i c games b o d y s h a p e
o r form o f c o l n p e t i t o r s was s i r a i l a r ,
Tanner (1964) f o u n d
s o m a t o t y p e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f O l y m p i c a t h l e t e s was d i f f e r e n t
f r o m t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h a t t h e r e were m a r k e d
d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o m a t o t y p e d i s t r i b u t i o n s among c o m p e t i t o r s i n
different events,
D e G a r a y e t af
(7974) i n s c m a t o t y p i n q
e l e v e n male a n d s i x f e a a l e a t h l e t i c g r o u p s f r o m p a r t i c i p a n t s
i n t h e 1968 Mexico O l y a ~ i cGaaes c o n c l u d e d :
t h e r e were
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s c m a t o t y p e s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s among
e v e n t s i n s o m e s p o r t s , b u t there were few o r n o d i f f e r e n c e s
among e v e n t s i n o t h e r s p o r t s ; t h e r e were s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o m a t o t y p e s cf p a r t i c i p a n t s i n d i f f e r e n t
s p o r t s , b u t some s p o r t p a r t i c i p a n t s were s i m i l a r i n
s o m a t o t y p e ; p e r f o r a e r s w i t h similar s c m a t o t y p e s e x c e l l e d a t
s p e c i f i c e v e n t s r e g a r d l e s s cf r a c e .
Carter
(4966,l!I7O, l 9 7 l ) , C a r t e r e t a 1 1'197 1) a n d
/
S t e p n i c k a (3972), i n s t u d y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of somatotype
t o p h y s i c a l perforrrtance i n a t h l e t i c events f c u n d athletes t o
b e more m e s o a o r p h i c a n d l e s s e n d o m o r p h i c t h a n the n o r m a l
population.
For males t h e a v e r a g e m e s o m o r p h i c r a t i n g was
a p p r o x i ~ a t e f y5.5
w i t h a r a n g e of a p p t o x i m a t e l y 4 t o 7.5,
C h o v a n o v a (1970) r e p o r t e d a mean s o m a t o t y p e r a t i n g o f
2-6-5,7-7-9 f o r h o c k e y p l a y e r s i n d i c a t i n g t h e d o m i n a n c e of
t h e mesomorphic component,
The f a c t t h a t a t h l e t e s s u c h a s g y m n a s t s , wrestlers a n d
w e i g h t l i f t e r s had low e n d o a c r p h y r a t i n g s a c c o r d i n g t o Cart3r
(7373) s u g g e s t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e a i n t a i n i n g b o t h s t r e n g t h
a n d l o g body w e i g h t i n s r w s p o r t s ,
A l t h o u g h l e s s i s known a b o u t f e m a l e t b a n male
s o m a t o t y p e s , r e s u ' l t s r e p o r t e d b y C a r t e r (1373) s u g g e s t e d
s i a i l a r t r e n d s t o males but q u a n t i t a t i v e differences.
Sample
mean s o m a t o t y p e s were g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e
e c t o n i o r p h i c a x i s w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t f o r e a c h f e ~ a l eg r o u p
the r a t i n g o n e n d o m o r p h y a n d mesomorphy were r e l a t i v e 1 y
c l o s e , w h i l e the v a l u e s f o r e c t o m r p h y may h a v e b e e n low o r
high.
W e s t l a k e (1967) i n r e p o r t i n q d a t a on 6 1 f e m a l e t r a c k
a n d f i e l d a t h l e t e s f o u n d t h r o w e r s nere more endorttorphic a n d
mesomorphic and less e c t o m o r p h i c t h a n s p r i n t e r s and jugpers,
a n d s u g g e s t e d l o w mrtsomcrphy d i d n o t a p p e a r t o b e a h a n d i c a p
f o r g r o u p s o t h e r t h a n t h r c v e r s , p r o v i d e d i t was a c c o m p a n i e d
by a h i g h e c t o m o r p h y r a t i n g ,
n a l e y (1974)
, Jchnson
O t h e r s t u d i e s b y Carter a n d
( l 9 6 9 ) , L e v i s (1970) and S u t o r i o u s
( 1 9 6 9 ) f o u n d a t h l e t e s had r d a t i v e f y h i g h nresomorphy a n d l o w
e n d o ~ o r p h yr a t i n g s ,
Even w i t h t h i s common t e n d e n c y ,
the
s c t u a t o t y p e s t e n d e d t o be s p a t o r e v e n t s p e c i f i c ,
C l a r k e e t af
( 1 9 6 1 ) i n s t u d y i n g d a t a f r o m the Piedford
Growth S t u d y f o u n d a t h l e t e s showed a g r e a t e r a e s o m o r p h y
r a t i n g a n d a P o w r e n d o m o r p b y r a t i n g t h a n d i d non a t h l e t e s .
R o s s a n d Day 1(1972) i n a s t u d y o f c o m p e t i t i v e young s k i i c ; r s
( a g e d 6-14
y e a r s ) f o u n d when a g e was p a r t i a f l e d o u t success
was n o t r e l a t e d t o s i z e , b u t was r e l a t e d t o a n
~ c t o ~ a e s o m o r p hrya t i n g ,
Ofscn ( 1 9 6 0 ) , P e t e r s o n [ l 9 5 9 ) , a n d
S h e l l e y (1959) , a l l r e p o r t e d o u t s t a n d i n g j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l
a t h l e t e s a n d r e g u l a r p l a y e r s t o be m e s o m o r p h i c d o m i n a n t w i t h
a s e c o n d a r y dominance i n ~ c t c m o r p h y ,
C l a r k e , et a l ( 1 9 6 1 ) a n d C l a r k e and Borss (1958)
r e p o r t e d t h a t m e s o m o r ~ h i c b o y s were q e n e r a f l y s t r o n g e r , a n d
low s t r e n g t h b o y s had h i g h e r
level^ of e c t o m o r p h y ,
E s p e n s c h a d e a n d E c k e r t (1967) f o u n d s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m i n g boys
o n motor t a s k s t o b e s l i g h t l y h i g h e r i n mesomorphy a n d
c o n s i d e r a b l y lower i n e n d c m c r p h y i n c o m p a r i s o n t o p o o r e r
performers.
T h e s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m i n g g i r l s were s l i g h t 1y
h i g h e r i n mesomorphy, a n d s l i g h t l y l o v e r i n endomorphy.
C l a r k e (1971) S o u n d a n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
~ n d o m o r p h y a n d p e r f o r m a n c e cf a v a r i e t y of a o t o r t a s k s ,
e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e where t h e body % a s p r o j e c t e d ,
Garrity
11966) r s p o r t e d b e t t e r p e r f c r m a n c e l e v e l s i n a v a x i e t y o f
motor tests f o r mesomorphic-ectomorphic
c o l l e g e women,
P a r i z k o v a 11960) s h o r e d t h a t p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g o f b o y s
was a c c o ~ p a a i e dby d e c r e a s e d f a t and i n c r e a s e d l e a n b o d y
mass, a n d C a r t e r a n d P h i l l i p s ( 1 9 6 9 ) , a n d Carter a n d Rahe
(1975) r e p o r t e d s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n s o m a - t o t y p e whsn young
a n d o l d men u n d e r w e n t p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g ,
I n s u m m a r i z i n g the e v i d e n c e of s o m a t o t y p e a n d
a t h l e t i c s , C a r t e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) made t h e f o f l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s :
B o t h g r o w t h a n d t r a i n i n g a f f e c t s c ~ a t o t y p e ; soae s c a a t o t y p e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s of a t h l e t e s become n a r r o w e r w i t h h i g h e r l e v e l s
of c o a p e t i t i o n ; s u c c e s s i n d i f f e r e n t s p o r t s f a v o r s c e r t a i n
s o m a t o t y p e s ; female s o m a t o t y p e s s h o w s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s t o
m a l e s a l t h o u g h n o t t o t h e same d e g r e e o f i n d i v i d u a l
c o m p o n e n t s ; p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s which p l a c e a n e a p h a s i s o n
s p e e d , power, s t r e n g t h o r e n d u r a n c e t e n d t o l i a i t s u c c e s s f u l
p a r t i c i p a t i o n t o t h e s o m a t o t y p e s t h a t a r e best s u i t e d , o r
.
best d e v e l o p e d t o f u l f i l l t t e p h y s i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e
a c t i v i t y ; t h e i n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t a t h l e t e s are b o t h b o r n
a n d made; there i s p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c h a n g e ,
but genetics
p r e s c r i b e s t h e limits.
According t o Parizkova (1973a), t h e i n t a r r a c t i o n
b e t w e e n body c o ~ p o s i t i o na n d e n e r g y t u r n o v e r is among o t h e r
things,
c l o s e l y r e l a t e d tc t h e f u n c t i o n a l c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e
organism,
I n s i g h t i n t o the requirements for s u c c e s s f u l
p e r f o r m a n c e i n v a r i o u s a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t e s t h e n c a n be g a i n e d
by a s s e s s i n g body compositi.cn i n a t h l e t e s ,
Welham a n d B e h n k e ( 1 9 4 2 ) u s i n g d e n s i t o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s
f o u n d t h a t '11 o f t h e 1 7 p r o f e s s i o n a l f o o t b a l l p l a y e r s
s t u d i e d h a 3 low l e v e l s o f body fat.
B i l ~ o r ea n d R a s k i l l
(7972) u s i n g t h e d e n s i t c m e t r i c forntula o f S i r i (1956), f o u a d
4 4 p r o f e s s i o n a l f o o t b a l l p l a y e r s t o h a v e a aean r a n g e of
7-7s f a t ( d e f e n s i v e b a c k s ) t o 18.7% ( d e f e n s i v e l i n e m e n ) ,
B e h n k e 41968) s u g g e s t e d h e a v i e r ,
f a t t e r i n d i v i d u a l s have
g r e a t e r b u o y a n c y i n t h e water a n d t h u s swimming Bay b e
facilitated,
Data o n v a r i o c s c o l l e g i a t e a t h l e t e s u s i n g t h e
a n t h r o p o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e af Behnke (1963,
r e p o r t e d by Behnke a n d Roycf
(1966).
1953) wkre
The l o n g d i s t a n c e
r u n n a r s were f o u n d t o b e s m a l l ,
v e r y l e a n with s m a l l arm
g i r t h s compared w i t h c h e s t and l e g g i r t h s .
f a t Mas r e p o r t e d f o r b a s k e t t a l l p l a y e r s ,
A v a l u e of
14,2%
Malhotra e t a1
f 1 9 7 Q ) u s i n g t h e d e n s i t c m e t r i c method d e s c r i b e d b y B r o z e k
(1963) f o u n d I n d i a n f i e l d h c c k e y p l a y e r s t o h a v e p e r c e n t f d t
values r a n g i n g f o r m 8.2% ( t a c k s ) t o 10,918
(gcalkeepers) ,
F o r s y t h e a n d S i n n i n g 1 1 9 7 3 ) a l s o u s i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e of
Brozek
( 1 9 6 3 ) r e p o r t e d a mean o f 12.2% f a t f o r : a g r o u p of
ale c o l l e g e a g e d a t h l e t e s ,
w i t h a r a n g e o f 8% f o r l o n g
d i s t a n c e r u n n e r s t o 14.6% f c r t e n n i s p l a y e r s ,
Novak
(1966)
f o u n d t r a i n e d a d o l e s c e n t boys t o h a v e a h i g h e r l e a n body
mass t h a n u n t r a i n e d ,
S f o a n et a 1 ( 1 9 7 3 1 , using t h e
p r o c e d u r e of Brozek e t a l f 1 9 6 3 ) , i n c o m p a r i n g a c t i v e [ a g e
20-4)
t o i n a c t i v e { a g e 20.7)
young men f o u n d p e r c e n t v a l u e s
o f 1 4 , 9 % a n d 1 5 - 7 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y a n d a l s o r e p o r t e d l e a n body
ueight c o r r e l a t e d higher than any o t h e r anthropometric
v a r i a b l e s w i t h oxygen uptake,
H a i s m a n (1970) u t i l i z i n g t h z
f o r m u l a of S i r i { 1 9 5 1 ) r e p o r t e d p e r c e n t f a t v a l u e s f o r non
a t h l e t i c male s a m p l e s .
He f o u n d S o u t h A f r i c a n s t u d e n t s
b a s e d o n d a t a of S l o a n ( 1 9 6 7 ) t o h a v e 10.3% f a t ; young
B r i t i s h s o f d i e r s from d a t a c f H a c B i l l a n e t a l ( 1 9 6 5 ) a n d
D u r n i n a n d Bahaman
(1967) t c haye 10,7X
a n d 13- 5% f a t
r e s p e c t i v e 1y ; A m e r i c a n s o l d i e r s ( 1 7-25 y e a r s ) f r o m d a t a o f
R r y z w i c k i a n d C h i n n ( 1 9 6 7 ) t o h a v e 17.4% f a t ; a n d h n e r i c a n
s t u d e n t s b a s e d on d a t a o f H i l m o r e a n d B e h n k e 11968) to h a v e
15.3% f a t ,
Brown a n d Wilmore (197C) u s i n g the anthropometric
p r o c e d u r e o f Bshnke
(l963),
r e p o r t e d f e m a l e f i e l d event
c o m p e t i t o r s t o h a v e g r e a t e r l e a n body mass a n d c o n s i d e r a b l y
h i g h s r p e r c e n t body f a t c e ~ ~ a r et d
o f e a a l e t r a c k athletes,
Brown and Wilmore ( 1 9 7 1 ) u s i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e of B e h n k e
{l963), found a l l n i n e female long d i s t a n c e runners s t u d i e d
t o h a y e u n a e r 181 f a t a n d four o f the n i n e h a d u n d e r 1 0 % a s
c o m p a r e d t o n o r m a l female c c m p o s i t i o n of 25% f a t r e p o r t e d b y
Wilmore a n d Behnke (1 970).
S p r y n a r o v a a n d P a r i z k o v a (1969)
u s i n g the naethod d e s c r i b e d ty P a r i z k a v a g1961) f o u n d g i r l
g y m a s t s a n d s w i m m e r s t o h a v e lower p e r c e n t f a t t h a n n o r m a l
g i r l s ( b a s e d on c r i t e r i a c f n o r m a l i t y of Cheri ( 1 9 5 3 ) 26.1%
f a t , a n d Young e t a1 ( 1 9 6 1 ) 28.7% f a t ) ,
Novalr ( 1 9 7 3 ) u s i n g
t h e a e t h o d of R a t f i b u r n a n d F a c e (19f151,
reported adolescent
f e m a l e a t h l e t e s (gymnasts,
14,6X,
suintmers, and r u n n e r s ) t o h a v e
17%, a n d 1&,8% b c d y f a t r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
n a l i n a (1968)
r e p o r t e d c o r r e l a t i o n s between s k i n f o l d
t h i c k n e s s a n d p e r f o r m a n e e t c b e c o n s i s t e n t l y low t o m o d e r a t e
during middle childhood,
C l a r k e ( 1 9 7 1) f o u n d l o v
c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s k i n f o l d t h i c k n e s s e s and p e r f o r m a n c e i n
s t a n d i n g b r o a d j u ~ p , a n d 50 y a r d d a s h .
P a r i z k n v a ( 1 9 7 3 a ) c o n c l u d e d t fiat i n c r e a s e d f a r
d e p o s i t i o n had a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t o n t h e e c o m m y o f work a n d
Vamberova e t a 1 [ 1 9 7 1 ) , a n d P a r i z k o v a a n d S p r y s a n o v a (1970)
f o u n d e n e r g y c o s t of t h e same work l o a d was h i g h i e r i n obese
boys,
Exercise, according t o Parizkova
(1973a) h a s a p r o f o u n d
effect o n b o d y c o m p o s i t i o n during g r o w t h a s i n all p e r i o d s
o f life; a p h y s i c a l l y a c t i v e l i f e is associated with g r e a t e r
l e a n b o d y m a s s a n d lesser f a t i n b o t h b o p s a n d g i r l s .
PROPORTIONALITY
Body proportions o f O f ympic a t h l e t e s a s d e s c r i b e d by
t r a d i t i o n a l a n t h r o p o l o q i c a l i n d i c e s have remained r e ~ a r k e d l y
c o n s t a n t o v e r t h e l a s t 30 y f a r s a c c o r d i n g t o A s t r a n d a n d
Rodahll 11970'1,
a 1 (1974)
U s i n g t h e s e t r a d i t i o n a l i n d i c i e s L e Veau e t
r e p o r t e d A m e r i c a n g y m n a s t s t o h a v e n a r r o w h i p s and
broad s h o u l d e r s , s h o r t limbs, s m a l l t h i g h g i r t h s , and narrow
e p i c o n d y l a r femur a n d huinercs w i d t h s ,
Ransman (1970) u s i n g
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n d i c i e s f o u n d g i r l s t o have r e l a t i v e l y
b r o a d e r h i p s a n d b o y s t o d e v e l o p b r o a d e r s h o u l d e r s , and
a f t e r 11 y e a r s o f a g e g i r l s h a d r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t e r legs t h a n
boys,
P a r i z k o v a ( 1 9 7 3 a ) a f no u s i n g i n d i c i e s c o n c l u d e d t h a t
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y a n d e x e r c i s e d u r i n g adolescence was
r e l a t e d t o p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y of t h e s k e l e t o n , a n d a c t i v e b o y s
h a d r e l a t i v e l y n a r r o w e r p e l v i s e s t h a n non a c t i v e boys,
U s i n q a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y s t r a t a g e m d e v e l o p e d by Ross a n d
W i l s o n { 1 9 7 Y ) , E i b e n e t al 11976) c o m p a r e d mean v a l u e s of
e l i t e f e m a l e t r a c k a n d f i e l d a t h l e t e s i n 9 e v e n t s from d a t a
o n t h e 1966 E u r o p e a n women t r a c k a n d f i e l d c h a m ~ i o n s h i p s
h e l d i n Budapest,
The r e s u l t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t p r o p o r t i o n
a l i t y p a t t e r n s were s p e c i f i c t o d i f f e r e n t s p o r t s a n d t h e s e
may i n p a r t b e a s s o c i a t e d with b i o m e c h a n i c a l f a c t o r s w h i c h
may be r e l a t e d t o p e r f c r m a n c e d e m a n d s ,
Ross et a l ( 3 9 7 5 ) u s i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e o f Ross a n d
Wilson (1974) i n v i e w i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c h a n g e s i n b o y s 7
t o 15 y e a r s of a g e , found m ~ s c u l a rg i r t h s i n c r e a s e d w i t h
age, b o n e y g i r t h s d e c r e a s e d , vidths d e c r e a s e d t h e n i n c r e a s e d
and s k i n f o l d s had a s l i g h t increase,
then decreased,
In
g e n e r a l , t h e r e a p p e a r e d tc t e a n i n c r e a s i n g d o m i n a n c e of
m e t a b o f i c a l l y a c t i v e t i s s u e ( m u s c l e ) over r e l a t i v e l y l e s s
a c t i v e t i s s u e ( b o n e ) w i t h i n c r e a s i n g age,
Vajda
(1974) a l s o u s i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e o f Ross a n d
Wifsan ( 1 9 7 4 1 f o u n d t h e s e c u l a r t r e n d i n p r o p o r t i o n a l w e i g h t ,
d a t a o n B e l g i a n c h i l d r e n s i n c e t h e f i r s t ever c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l s t u d i e s by Q u e t e l e t was i n f a c t g r e a t e r i n s t a t u r e
t h a n weight,
Carter
41976) u s i n g t h e s t r a t a g e m o f Ross a n d Wilson
(1974) f o u n d p r o p o r t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n b l a c k a n d
w h i t e a t h l e t e s i n t h e Sam€ e v e n t s ,
He a l s o c o n c l u d e d t h e
most m a r k e d p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f O l y m p i c
r u n n e r s a n d j u m p e r s was t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n a l l y n a r r o w p e l v i s
a n d l o n q arms,
E a r l y o r l a t e m a t u r a t i c n Bay b e i n f e r r e d f r o @ p s a k
h e i g h t v e l o c i t y , s k e l e t a l ace o r by a g e o f menarche,
A
s e l e c t i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y a s s e ~ b l e db y c o m p u t e r r e t r i e v a l
s y s t e m s by B e u t s c h a n d Ross (1976) c i t e 253 p a p e r s f r o m 157
d i f f z r e n t s o u r c e s o n age of m e n a r c h e a l o n e !
T h e onset o f m e n a r c h e i n g i r l s h a s b e e n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h
body b u i l d .
S k e r f j et a f ( 1 9 5 3 ) a n d K r a l j - C e s c e k
(1955)
o b s e r v e d t h e e a r l i e s t a g e o f menarche i n b r o a d body b u i l d
type girls.
E a r l i e r m a t u r a t i o n was f o u n d b y McMeil a n d
L i v s o n (1963) t o b e n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e c t o m o f p h i c body
types,
Young e t a1 11963) f c u n d m o r e l i n e a r g i r l s t o b e
l a t e r m a t u r e r s , a n d t h e r e s e r e g r e a t e r t h i c k n e s s e s of f a t i n
early maturers,
E a l i n a (1975) s t a t e d t h a t e a r l y m a t u r i n g
b o y s a n d g i r l s were g e n e r a l l y h e a v i e r a n d t a l l e r a t each a g e
l e v e l t h a n t h e i r more s l o w l y n a t u r i n q p e e r s .
Borms et a1
I19731 f o u n d early m a t u r i n g B e l g i a n b o y s to be more
endomorphic t h a n l a t e maturfrs.
Longitudinal investigations
by S h u t t l e w o r t h (1937, 1939) i n d i c a t e d t h a t b e f o r e p u b e r t y
e a r l y r e a t u r e r s were g e n e r a l l y t a l l e r a n d b e a v i e r , b u t n o t
taller after puberty,
Harkness (1971) r e p o r t e d e a r l y
m a t u r i n g g i r l s to be t a l l e r a n d h e a v i e r t h a n l a t e m a t u r e s s .
Greater r e l a t i v e f a t n e s s i n c h i l d r e n h a s a l s o b e e n
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a r l i e r m a t u r a t i o n a s n o t e d by R a r i c k
( l 9 7 3 ) , 3 a l i n a a n d J o h n s t o n ( l 9 7 5 ) , T a n n e r f 1 9 6 2 ) , Wunroe e t
a l ( 1 9 6 9 1 , N o r t f i n g et a 1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) .
De W y f n ('1965), a n d
A c h e s o n and D u p e r t u i s 1 1 9 6 7 ) -
D u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e , ~ a t u r i t yr e l a t i o n s h i p s t o s t r e n g t h
and p e r f o r m a n c e are p o s i t i v e f o r b o y s , b u t t h e p a t t e r n i s
u n c l e a r f o r g i r l s [Clarke,
however,
1971)-
E s p e n s c h a d e (l9YO),
f o u n d better p e r f o r m i n g g i r l s i n motor t e s t s t o be
late maturers.
T h e a d v e n t cf male a d o l e s c e a c e b r i n g s a b o u t
marked improvements a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y c o n s i d e r a b l e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e n g t h a n d ~ e r f o r m a n c eof b o y s of
c o n t r a s t i n g m a t u r i t y l e v e l s , while t h e a d v e n t i n f e a a l e s
b r i n g s a b o u t o n l y s l i g h t i n c r e a s e s i n s t r e n g t h , b u t no
m a r k e d i n c r e a s e s i n p e r f o r m a n c e { H a l i n a , 1975)
Tn v i e w i n g a t h l e t i c s a r r ~ l e s ,R a r i c k ( 1 9 7 3 ) r e p o r t e d the
a g e of m e n a s c h e of young g i r l s a b o u t t h e s a m e a s non
athletes,
E r d e l y i ( 1 962) a l s o f o u n d t h i s t e n d e n c y *
a t af. ( 1 9 7 3 ) .
houever,
reported non-athletic
an e a r l i e r a g e of @ e n a r c h e 112.23),
a t h l e t i c s a m p l e 113.38)
competitors,
Halina
samples t o have
a s c o ~ p a r e dt o a n
c o n s i s t i n g of t r a c k and f i e l d
B u g y i a n d Kausz ( 1 9 7 0 ) r e p o r t e d r a d i o l o g i c a l
e v i d e n c e o f e a r l y s k e l e t a l ~ a t u r a t i o nr e l a t i v e t o
chronological age noras i n e i g h t g i r l s designated as t h e
b e s t y o u n g H u n g a r i a n swimmers.
Similarly, Astrand a t a l
(7963) r e p o r t e d a mean l n e n a r c h i a l a g e of 7 2 - 8 8 f o r 3 0
Swedish swimmers, w h i c h was e a r l i e r t h a n S u e d i s h norms.
'
IIf,
E Z T H O L S A N D PROCEDURES
SUBJECTS
T h e s u b j e c t s f o r t h e p s e s e n t s t u d y were C a n a d i a n mala
and female f i g u r e s k a t e r s ,
Senior- j u n i o r and novice s k a t e r s
were s e l e c t e d b y t h e C a n a d i a n A m a t e u r Figure S k a t i n g
A s s o c i a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a n a t i o n a l " s i n g l e seminar*#
h f l d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a from A u g u s t 2 5 t o
S e p t e m b e r 6 , 197Q-
The s e l r c t i o n o f s k a t e r s was b a s e d o n
competitive points accumulated i n previous sectional,
divisional,
a n d C a n a d i a n c h a m p i o n s h i p s with s k a t e r s
receiving nine points for a f i r s t place finish, eight for a
s e c o n d , a n d s o on,
The s k a t e r s ' future p o t e n t i a l i n t h e
a m a t e u r r a n k s was a l s o c o n s i d e r e d i n the s e l e c t i o n ,
Wile
the s a m p l e did n o t i n c l u d e all t h e p o t e n t i a l n a t i o n a l a n d
w o r l d c l a s s s k a t e r s i n C a n a d a , i t was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e
best s k a t e r s , a n d d i d i n f a c t i n c l u d e almost a11 o f the b e s t
i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e r f o r m e r s a t t h e tixie,
Therefore,
they
wer2
c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e 18elites*of a l l C a n a d i a n f i g u r i ? skaters,
Young s k a t e r s c l a s s i f i e d a s o u t s t a n d i n g were c h o s e n f r o =
B r i t i s h Coluabia c o a s t f i g u r e skating clubs.
The s k a t e r s
s e l e c t e d had b e e n f i n a l i s t s i n a C a n a d i a n A m a t e u r F i g u r e
Skating Association sanctioned competition,
The d e s c r i p t i o n
o f t h e s e s k a t e r s a s ~ o u t s t a n d i n qi ~n d~ i c a t e d t h e m t o h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e best u n r a n k e d s k a t e r s a v a i l a b l a from
B r i t i s h Columbia c o a s t a l c l u b s ,
Whiff t h e o u t s t a n d i n g yonng
s k a t e r s were l i m i t e d t o t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a c o a s t a l a r e a ,
i t s h o u l d be a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c a l i b r e skaters r e g u f a r l y @ B e r g &frcm t h i s r e g i o n ,
C o m p e t i t i v e f i g u r e s k a t i n g i n v o l v e s b o t h s e x e s and a
wide a g e range with both p r & and p o s t pubescent competitors,
noreover, t h e r u l e s of ccntpetition prcvide f o r n a t u r a l
c a t e g o r i e s based on test g u a l i f i c a t i o n s a n d c o m p e t i t i v e
performance records,
A l l t k e a b o v e c r i t e r i a were u s e d t o
e s t a b l i s h t h e f o l l o w i n g l o g i c a l subgroups, whera a n a l y s e s
c o u l d be related t o c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e i n c o m p e t i t i v e s k a t i n g ,
Bales:
M I ; s e n i o r a n d junior Een, c o m p r i s e d of s e n i o r s k a t e r s
who h a d p a s s e d t h e i r e i g t h f i g u r e t e s t , a n d juniors g h o h a d
p a s s e d t h e i r s e v e n t h test,
# 2 ; n o v i c e men, c o m p r i s e d of s k a t e r s who h a d p a s s e d
e i t h e r t h e i r f i f t h of s i x t h f i g u r e t e s t , a n d who h a d
p r e v i o u s l y n o t won a n o v i c e c h a m p i o n s h i p -
M3;
o u t s t a n d i n g male p a i r s s k a t e r s ,
H4; o u t s t a n d i n g male s i n g l e s s k a t e r s who met t h e
qua1 i f i c a t i o n s s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y ,
females:
PI; s e n i o r and junior
l a d i e s , comprissd of t h o s s
s k a t e r s w i t h t h e same q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a s a1,
P 2 ; n o v i c e ladies, ccmpised of those s k a t e r s who h a d
the same q u a l i f i c a t i o n s as B2,
F 3 ; o u t s t a n d i n g y o u n g s i n g l e s k a t e r s o v e r 12 y e a r s o f
a g e , who met t h e q u a l i f i c a t i c n s s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y ,
P 4 ; o u t s t a n d i n g y o u n g s i n g l e s k a t e r s u n d e r 1 2 y e a r s of
age, who B e t t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y ,
MEASUBEHENT T E C H N I Q U E
T h e a n t h r o p o m e t r i c f a n d a i a r k s and t e c h n i q u e s were thoss
r e c o m m e n d e d by t h e L e o n a n d T h e a K o e r n e r F o u n d a t i o n
K i n a n t h r o p o m e t r i c S t u d y G r o u p r e p o r t e d b y B o s s et a1 (1976)
( s e e App 7 )
.
Comprehensive laeasurments {see A p p 23 were
o b t a i n e d by e x p e r i e n c e d i n v e s t i g a t o r s o n s u b j e c t s w i t h
minimal c l o t h i n g {i,e, underwear o r b a t h i n g s u i t s ) ,
In
a d d i t i o n , a g e o f m e n a r c h e q u e s t i o n a i r e s were a d ~ i n i s t e r e dt o
a l l female s u b j e c t s (App 3) ,
A M a r t i n d e s i g n s l i d i n g a n t h r o p o m e t e r m a n u f a c t u ~ e db y
G P H a n d d i s t r i b u t e d by S i k e r H e g n e r ( Z u r i c h ) was u s e d t o
i a e a s u r e a l l h e i g h t s a n d lengths ( e x c e p t s t a t u r e a g a i n s t t h e
w a l l ) , a s well a s b i a c r o m i a l , b i d e l t o i d
transverse ~ e s o s t e r n a l e ,bitrochanteric,
,biiliocristaf,
and a n k l e breadths.
C a r t e r d e s i g n b o n e caf i p e r a a n u f a c t u r e d b y H i t u t o y o [Tokyo)
a s a d a p t e d i n S F U s h o p s by E r a n k Wick a n d a s s o c i a t e s w a s
u s e d f o r all o t h e r l i m b b o n e b r e a d t h s ,
S t a t u r e a g a i n s t t h e w a l l was m e a s u r e d with a
s t a d i o ~ e t e ra c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t and p r o c e d u r e
d e s c r i k e d b y Ross [1975),
Head l e n g t h ,
head C r ~ a d t h ,bizygomatic breadth,
b i q o n i a l b r e a d t h , a n d c h e s t d e p t h were m e a s u r e d w i t h a GPH
large spreading caliper,
All o t h e r face m e a s u r e m e n t s were
t a k e n w i t h a GPH small s l i d i n g c a l i p e r ,
A l l g i r t h s were measured
w i t h a - 5 cm, wids l i n e n
anthropometric c l o t h tape.
H a r p e n d e n d e s i g n s k i n f cld c a l i p e r s m a n u f a c t u r e d b y
N o l t a i n itd, were u s e d t c m s a s u r e s k i n f o l d s ,
# e i g h t was
t a k e n w i t h a s i m p l e s p r i n g t y p e scale,
BETHOD OF AWBLPSES
I n o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e p r o b l e m o f
p r e s e n t i n g a v a s t a m o u n t of d a t a ,
and comparing s u b groups,
t h i r t y t w o o f t h e n i n e t y o r i g i n a l v a r i a b l ~ sw e r e ' c h o s e n t o
be p r e s e n t e d o n t h e fo1lowir;g b a s i s :
exclusion:
1) a r b i t r a r y
H e a d a n d f a c e m e a s u r e m e n t s were e x c l u d e d , a s
w a l l . a s t h e l e f t s i d e of b i l a t e r a l m e a s u r e s ; 2) f a c t o r
analysis:
T h e r e m a i n i n g v a r i a b l e s were d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r
areas c o n s i s t i n g o f l e n g t h s { i n c l u d i n g weight)
b r e a d t h s , a n d girths,
, skinfolds,
Each o f t h e f o u r ar2as o f v a r i a b l e s
d s s i g n a t e d were then s u b j e c t t o a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s p r o g r a m t o
d e t e r m i n e w h i c h v a r i a b l e s were b e s t i n d i c a t o r s of t h e
d e s P g n a t e d areas,
( f a c t o r , SPSS).
T h e p r o c e d u r e was
p e r f o r m e d o n t h e male s u b j e c t s , female s u b j e c t s and o n b o t h
male a n d female c o m b i n e d ,
Essentially,
the a n a l y s i s
r e v e a l e d similar p a t t e r n s for t h e t h r e e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .
I
T h e r e f o r e , t h e coriibindsd g r c u p a n a l y s i s was used f o r t h e
I
!
s e l e c t i v e process,
The v a r i a b l e s were s e l e c t e d f r o n a
r o t a t e d f a c t o r a n a l y s i s g r a ~ h , The v a r i a b l e s f a c t o r e d o u t
were; h e i g h t , w e i g h t , c h e s t , u p p e r arm ( f l e x e d ) , t h i g h , a n d
c a l f g i r t h s , foot l e n g t h , Eehnke a n k l e , e p i c o n d y l a r femur,
epiccndyfar h u ~ e r u s , bitrcchanteric
inesoslernale widths, f r o n t thigh,
,biiliocristaf
and
medial calf suhscapular
( l e f t v e r t i c a l ) and a b d o m i n a l s k i n f o l d s ,
3)
In addition to
t h e a b o v e s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s it was d e c i d e d t o i n c l u d e t h e
f o l l o w i n g v a r i a b l e s for t h e r e a s o n s i n d i c a t e d :
a) t h e
remaining v a r i a b l e s needed t o c a l c u l a t e t h e Heath-Carter
somatotype which i n c l u d e d t r i c e p and s u b s c a p u l a r ( r i g h t
diagonal) skinfolds;
b) a l l r e m a i n i n g s k i n f o l d v a l u e s mer?
i n c l u d e d i n o r d e r t o a s s e s s a " f a t n index, and to a s s e s s
percent f a t v a l u e s b y Y u h a s z ~ r o c e d u r ef o r t h e e l i t e g r o u p s
which i n c l u d e d c h e s t [ m a l e s ) , b i c e p s , i l i a c c r e s t s u p r a i l i a c
and r e a r thigh;
c) d i r e c t and d e r i v e d s e g m e n t a l l e n g t h s
were i n c f u d e d f o r p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y a n a l y s i s , i n c l u d i n g
s i t t i n g height,
t r n n k l e n g t h [ s u p r a s t e r n a l t o s ymphysion)
,
arnt l e n g t h [ a c r o n t i a l e t o s t y l i o n ) , u p p e r arm l e n g t h
{acrorttiale t o r a d i a l e )
, forfarm
length (radiale to stylion)
t r o c h a n t e r i c height, t i b i a 1 height, and t h i g h l e n g t h
{trochanteric to t i b i a l e ) ,
Thus, a t o t a l o f t h i r t y o n e
a n t h r o p o r n e t r i c v a r i a b l e s p l u s a g e were c h o s e n f cr a n a l y s e s .
R c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n cf tke a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s f o l l o w s ,
,
119671 h a s come i n t o p r c m i n e n c e ,
particularly i n studies
having t o d o with growtb, exercise,
performance and
nutrition.
O n l i k e t h e m o r e g e n o t y ~ i r a lS h e l d o n i a n s y s t e m , w h e r e a
s c m a t o t y p e is c o n c e i v e d a s a t r a j e c t o r y a l o n g which a
p h y s i q u e is d e s t i n e d t o t r a v e l u n d e r n o r m a l n u t r i t i o n , i n
t h e absence of disease,
t h e Heath-Carter
s o m a t o t y p e is
c o n c s i v e d as a p h e n o t y p i c a l o r p r e s e n t m o r p h o l o g i c a l
c o n f o r m a t i o n which reflects c h a n g i n g p h y s i c a l s t a t u s w i t h
a q e i n g , t r a i n i n g disease o r n u t r i t i o n .
C a r t e r (3972) d e f i n e d s o m a t o t y p e a s "a d e s c r i p t i o n of
p r e s e n t m o r p h o l o g i c a l cornformation.
t h r e e numerical rating,
ft i s e x p r e s s e d i n a
c c n s i s t i n g of t h r e e s e q u e n t i a l
n u m e r a l s , a l u a y s r e c o r d e d i n t h e same o r d e r ,
Each n u m e r a l
r e p r e s e n t s e v a l u a t i o n o f c n e of t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y c o m p o n e n t s
o f of p h y s i q u e w h i c h d e s c r i t e i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s i n hu~naa
morphology and c o m p o s i t i o a ,
F i r s t component (endomcrphy):
f a t n e s s i n i n d i v i d u a l physiques;
leaness,
T h i s refers t o r e l a t i v e
it a l s o refers t o r e l a t i v e
T h a t is, f i r s t c o m g o n e n t r a t i n g s are e v a l u a t i o n s
o f d e g r e e s of f a t n e s s w h i c h l i e o n a c o n t i n u u m f r o m t h e
l o w e s t r e c o r d e d v a l u e s t o the h i g h e s t r e c o r d e d v a l u e s ,
S e c o n d com
nusculo-skelatal
omorphy) :
This r e f e r s t o r e l a t i
d e v e l o ~ m e n tp € r unit h e i g h t ,
Second
c o m p o n e n t r a t i n g s a r e e v a l u a t i o n s of m u s c u l o - s k e l a t a l
d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h l i e o n a c o n t i n n u m from l o w e s t t o h i g h e s t
degrees recorded,
T h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t c a n b e t h o u g h t of a s
l e a n b o d y mass r e l a t i v e t o f e i g h t ,
T h i r d component (ectomorphy):
T h i s refefs t o r e l a t i v e
l i n e a r i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l p h y ~ i q u e s , T h i r d c o m p o n e n t ratings
are b a s e d l a r g e l y , b u t n o t e n t i r e l y o n h e i g h t d i v i d e d by t h e
T h i s r a t i o is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d
cube r o o t o f weight r a t i o s ,
t o t h i r d component r a t i n g ,
20
t h a t a t t h e low e n d s of t h e i r
d i s t r i b u t i o n s both connote r e l a t i v e s h o r t n e s s o f t h e s e v e r a l
body segments, and t h e high ends c o n n o t e r e l a t i v e l i n e a r i t y
of t h e body s e g m e n t s , "
T h e p r o c ~ d u r e sfor o k t a i n i n g each o f t h e c o ~ p o n e n t s
h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t e d b y C a r t f r (l972), H e b b e l i n c k e t a f
( l 9 7 3 ) , H e b b e l i n c k a n d Ross (197Q), a n d Ross e t a l ( 1 9 7 Y a ) .
T h e b a s i c p r o c e d u r e s a s o u t l i n e d b r i e f l y b y Ross e t a1
(1974) are a s f o l l o w s :
T h e f i r s t component,
endomosphy, is
d e t e r m i n e d f r o @ t h e s u m s of t h r e e s k i n f o l d measures o b t a i n e d
at triceps,
s u b s c a p u l a r a n d s u p r a i l i a c sites,
T h i s sum i s
e n t e r e d i n t o a t a b l e for i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f endomorphy,
s e c o n d component,
The
mesomorphy, i s d e r i v e d from d e v i a t i o n s of
e l b o w a n d k n e e w i d t h s a n d f a t c o r r e c t e d a r m a n d c a l f girths
from d e s i g n a t e d v a l u e s for height.
ectomorphy,
T h e t h i r d componsnt,
is o b t a i n e d f r c a~ h e i g h t - w e i g h t
ratio
f r e c i p s o c a f of t h e p o n d e r a l . i n d e x ) w h e r e t h e h e i g h t i s
d i v i d e d b y t h e c u b e r o o t cf w e i g h t ,
T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n may b e
f a c i l i t a t e d by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e s u h j e c t s l h e i g h t v a l u e i n
c e n t i m e t e r s b y t a b u l a r v a f u ~ fs o r w e i g h t {Carter, 1 9 7 2 , R o s s
st aP 1 9 7 4 ) a n d e n t e r i n g t h f o b t a i n e d r a t i o i n t c a n o t h e r
t a b l e t o y i e l d a n ectomorphy r a t i n g ,
The r e s u l t i n q soma t o t y ~ e swere p l o t t e d o n a s o m a t o c h a r t
o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d b y S h e l d o n (7940), a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y
modified by C a r t e r [ 1 9 Z ! ) ,
whc s u p e r i m p o s e d a n ( x , y) g r i d i n
o r d e r t o p o s i t i o n i n d i v i d u a l somatotypes ( f i g I ) ,
The?
s o m a t o t y p e s of s u b j e c t ' s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y were l o c a t e d
on t h e Heath-Carter
s o ~ a t c c h a r tu s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g
formulae:
where x and y a r e c o o r d i n a t e s f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l
s o m a t o t y p a r e p r e s e n t e d a s I-11-111, d e s i g n a t i n g endomorphy,
mesomorphy a n d e c t o m o r p h y r e s p e c t i v e l y .
c o o r u i n a t a s on t h y s o n i a t o c h a r t i s r e f e r r e d t o a s i t s
somatoplot.
This s i m b l e p l c t t i n g of somatotype2 on t h e
scmatochart yave
J.
v i s u a l i n ~ r e s s i o r lo f d i s t a x s s betw-aeri
s o m a t o p l o t s a n d r a l a t i v c d i s p e r s i ~ no f t y y ; s s .
The d i s t a x a
b i t u e c ~ !any s c l , x a t o p i o t s b a s q u a n t l f i a d o y c ? i a p l o y i n y a
s o r r r a t u t y p z d i s p e r s i o n d i s t a c c i a n d t h e s p r e a d dround t h s
o b t a i n a d maan s o ~ r f t o y p st o r
ally
q i v e n q r o u p d i s t r i b u t i o n w.ts
d f s c r i h e d by a s o m a t o t y ~ ; t a i z p ~ r s i o ni n d e x .
Th;sz
c a l c u l a t i o n s were a c c o r d l r i y t o ,?ass a n d Wilson ( 1 9 7 3 ) a n d
Ross et a 1 ( 1 9 7 4 a ) a s f o l l o k s :
W h e r ? S D D is C-hc u i s t d c c e b e t w e e n twro s o m a 5 o p l o t s which
n a v e the c o o r d i n a t e s x
)
3 i s a c o n s t a n t which convcrts x
a n d y v a l u e s t o t h e saltis d i s t a n c e u n i t s .
T h e s ~ m a t o t y p ed i s p t r s i c n i n u e x ( S D I ) o r ni+an S D D o f
t h e s o m a t o p l o t s w*r.i o b t a i r l c d b y the f o l l o w i n g fortiiula:
A l l the a b o v e s o m a t o t y g e a n a l y s i s were d o n e by t h e S U f i A
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a r n ( a p p 4 ) a s s e m b l e d b y R,
B u d e t t z , Simon
f r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y Gomputef C e n t e r f r o @ c o n t r i b u t e d p r o g s a m s
d e s i g n e d by B - D ,
W i l s o n , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Iowa, D r .
C a r t e r , and S,P-
J-E-L,
and Dr,
D,A,
Bailey and
Aubry, San D i e g o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
Weese,
C,
U n i v e r s i t y of
Saskatchevan,
By a p p l y i n g t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t s of SDD a n d SDI a n "IM
i n d e x a s p r o p a s e d b y Boss ( 1 9 7 6 ) was emplcyed t o c a l c u l a t e
t h e d e g r e e cf c o ~ m o n a l i t yb e t w e e n g r o u p s ,
EssentiaPly t h i s
r a t i o is d e r i v e d f r o m t h e i c t e r s e c t i o n o f c i r c l e s w i t h a
r a d i u s (SDII, S D I Z ) a r o u n d g i v e n mean s o m a t o g l o t s (sl,s 2 )
-
T h i s "1" i n d e x q u a n t i f i e d t h e area o f t h e o v e r l a p p i n g
s o m a t o t y p e circles t o t h e
SUB
of t h e a r e a o f t h e c i r c l e
m i n u s t h e o v e r l a p p i n g a r e a c c o r d i n g t o the p a r t i c u l a r cases
a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e s 2 and 3,
overlapping, therefore f=O,
F o r c a s e 1, t h e r e is no
F o r c a s e 2 , w h e r e t h e r e is
i n t e r s e c t i o n and t h e s m a l l e r c i r c l e i s n o t c o l p p l e t e l y w i t h i n
t h e l a r g z r , t h e "1" i n d e x is c a l c u l a t e d by t h e f o r m u l a
shown,
F o r t h e t h i r d c a s e , w h e r e t h e smaller c i r c l e i s
e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c i r c l e , o r t h e same s i z e , t h e "is$
i n d e x is s i m p l y a r a t i o o f t h e sraaller area t o t h e l a r g e r .
Two somatotype circles formed from centers g1 and
Fig. 3.
S 2 with radius SDIlV SDIZ i l l u s t r a t e d for case when there are
overlapping circles and the smaller i s n o t wholly contained
i n the larger. (case 2 , Fig. 2.1
The a b o v e '*Ii*index p r c c e d u r e s were c a l c u l a t e d b y a
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m ( a p p 5 ) d e s i g n e d b y K, R o t h , a n e x c h a n g e
PhD s t u d e n t a t SF73 f r o m t h e T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y o f
D a r m s t a d t , West Germany.
BODY COMPOSITION A N A L Y S I S
F o r a n a l y t i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e human b o d y c a n b e
a r b i t r a r i l y broken u p i n t o s p e c i f i c body components s u c h a s
t o t a l body water, b l o o d volume, r e d c e l l m a s s , c e l l u l a r
water, e x t r a c e l l u l a r w a t e r , a n d l e a n body o r " f a t f r e e H
mass,
T h e r e a r e @any a ~ t h o d sf o r a s s e s s i n g t h i s l e a n b o d y
mass or p e r c e n t f a t ,
radiography,
Garn
11961) i s a p r o p o n e n t o f
Behnke and Wilmore (1974) h a v e ilrtplemented a
p r i n c i p l e f o r ~ t t u l a t e db y B a t i e g k a ( 1 9 2 1 ) t h a t t h e w e i g h t of
body f a t c o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d a s a p r o d u c t of s u r f a c e a r e a
and s k i n f o l d thickness.
R a t h b u r n a n d Pace ( 1 9 4 5 ) , B r o z e k
tit
a l f 3 9 6 3 ) , a n d S i r i (1956) a l l a p p l i e d t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of
body d e n s i t y f o r estimating p e r c e n t f a t ,
Behnke ( 1 9 6 3 ) a s
s u b s e q u e n t l y d i s c u s s e d by B f h n k e a n d & i l @ o r e 41974) o n t h e
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a c o n s t a n t ~ r o p o r t i o nof l e a n t i s s u e i s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g i v e n s k e l e t a l size a p p l i e d a n t h r o p o a e t r i c
m e a s u r e m e n t t o estimate l e a n b o d y w e i g h t a n d percent f a t ,
One o f t h e s h o r t c o m i nqs of t h e a b o v e p r e d i c t i v e
f o r n t u l a e a s s u g g e s t e d b y Haisman (19701, and F o r s y t h e and
S i n n i n g (1973) is t h a t t h e y a r e u s u a l l y o n l y v a l i d f o r t h e
s a ~ p l eu s e d i n t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n .
Therefore,
w i t h a g r o u p of
subjects ranging i n age f r c ~
8 t o 25 y e a r s , i t was t h o u g h t
p r u d e n t t o a v o i d h a v i n g t o make a l l t h e a s s u m p t i o n s
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e u s e of f a t p r e d i c t i o n f o r m n f a e a n d
s u b s t i t u t e for * f a t n e s s n t h e s i m p l e sua o f e l e v e n s k i n f o l d s
f o r each s u b j e c t ,
In o r d e r t o make s c a e c c m p a r i s o n of
relative s i z e of t h e s e t o t a l s i n s m a l l and l a r g e s u b j e c t s ,
a l l v a l u e s were h e i g h t corrected b y s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c
e x t r a p o l a t i o n u s i n g t h e r a t i o 170. I 8 d i v i d e d by o b t a i n e d
h e i g h t as a m u l t i p l i e r ,
However, i n o r d e r t o c r m p a r e t h e e l i t e p r o t o t y p e s w i t h
o t h e r a t h l e t i c samples,
t h e ~ r o c e d u r ed e s c r i b e d b y Y u h a s z
( 1 9 4 6 ) was u s e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e p e r c e n t f a t ,
Yuhaszfs
m e t h o d i n v o l v e d summing 6 skinf o l d v a l u e s ; c h e s t ,
t h i g h f cr women)
, abdominal,
(rear
f r o n t thigh, t r i c e p s ,
subscapular, and s u p r a i l i a c ; and a p p l y i n g t h e s e obtained
v a l u e s t o s e x s p e c i f i c t a b l e s ( a p p 6).
The raethod a s s u n e s
t h a t s k i n f o l d s a r e r e l a t e d t o t o t a l b o d y f a t , a n d the 6
s k i n f o l d s i t e s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t o t a l fat i n t h e b o a y .
PROPORTIDNALITY ANALYSTS
A n t h r o p o m e t r i c i n d i c e s h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n u s e d by
s c i e n t i s t s t o estimate b o d y p r o p o r t i o n s ,
r a t i o of o n e w e a s u r e m e n t t o a n o t h e r ,
An i n d e x i s t h e
T h e number of i n d i c e s
w h i c h Bay b e d i v i s e a a r e a l m o s t c o u n t l e s s a n d a c c o r d i n g t o
3 o n t a g u e {1960), i t i s p o s s i b l e , b y u s i n g i n d i c e s t o c o n v e y
some i d e a o f body p r o p o r t i o n ,
However, a c c o r d i n g t o T a n n s r
(l951f, i n d i c e s p o s e b o t h c c n c e p t u a l a n d s t a t i s t i c a l
p r o b l e m s , i n t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n of the two d i m e n s i o n s which
b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s i n d e p e n d e n t of thz
I
s c a l e s cf m e a s u r e m e n t o f e i t h e r d i m e n s i o n ,
e
R a r i c k ( 1 973)
, and
H a l i n a and
C a r t e r (1975), h a v e a l s o s t r e s s e d t h e s e
l i m i t a t i o n s of t r a d i t i o n a l i n d i c e s .
Therefore, a stratagem
u s i n g a common r e f e r e n t v a s u s e d i n a s s e s s i n g
proportionality characteristics i n t h e present study-
Ross a n d W i l s o n (1374) d e v e l o p e d a PHANTOM s t r a t a g e m
f o r p r o p o r t i o n a l growth assessment,
T h e y b u i l t t h e i r model
i n much t h e s a a e way a s P o l y k f i t u s ( 5 t h c e n t u r y B - C , )
assembled h i s Doryphorus or "spear bearer",
from s e l e c t e d
b o d y p a r t s h e c o n c e i v e d of a s r e p r e s e n t i n g i d e a l b o d y f o r m ,
E s s e n t i a l l y t h i s u n i s e x PHB&TOM was d e r i v e d f r o m l a r g e
s a m p l e s of male a n d f e m a l e l a t a f r o m a c o l l a t i o n of
a n t h r o p o m e t s y a s s e m b l e d b y G a r r e t t a n d Kennedy (1971)
,
r e f e r e n c e male a n d f e m a l e d a t a b y Rehnke a n d Hilmors (7974),
Wilmore a n d B e h n k e ( l 9 6 9 ) , and f e m a l e d a t a b y C l a u s e r e t a l
(1972)girth,
Ross a n d W i l s o n s p f c i f y o v e r o n e h u n d r e d l e n g t h ,
b r e a d t h , and s k i n f c l d v a l u e s which are s i z e a d j u s t s d
a v e r a g e s a p p r o p r i a t e for a u n i s e x m o d e l w i t h a h e i g h t of
170,18 cm,,
a w e i g h t of 6 4 - 5 3 k g , ,
{arbitrary values),
(fig,
4)
a n d 18,78% body f a t
T h e s c a l i n g factor f o r t h e f o r m u l a
f ~ t rh e PHAEjTOP4 a n a l y s i s was b a s e d o n a s s u m p t i o n s
o f g e o m e t r i c a l s i m i l a z i t y as d i s c u s s e d b y Asmussen a n d
Heebol N e i l s o n jl955),
E i g h t e e n s e l e c t e d v a r i a k l e s were a n a l y z e d b y t h i s
p r o c e d u r e i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g z-scores
t r e a t e d by d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s , a n d p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
p r o f i f es,
\
MATURATION
(ACE OF HEMARCHE)
ANALYSIS
-
T h e age o f m e n a r c h e o r the o n s e t of t h e f i r s t m e n s t r u a l
flow s t a n d s a s t h e p r i m a r y i n d i c a t o r o f t h e o n s e t of s e x u a l
m a t u r i t y i n females ( J o h n s t o n ,
1974) , I d e a l 1 y, r e p o r t i n g
t h e a g e of m e n a r c h e s h o u l d t e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a
l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y where t h e e v e n t is r e p o r t e d i ~ m e d i a t e l y ,
However, r e a s o n a b l y r e l i a b l e a s s e s s m e n t s c a n b e made u s i n g a
s t a t u s quo method,
This ~ e t h o di n v o l v e s u s i n g a p r o b i t
2
- SCORES
WHERE:
Z IS A PROPORTfONALtTY VALUE OR Z-SCORE
1 IS ANY
VARIABLE
S IS THE PHANTOM STANDARD DEVIATION FOR
THE GIVEN VARIABLE
H IS THE SUBJECT'S HEIGHT
170.18 IS THE PHANTOM HEIGHT CONSTANT
D = IS A DIMENSIONAL EXPONENT BASED ON
GEOMETRICAL CONSIDE RATIONS:
D = 1 FOR ALL HEIGHTS, LENGTHS, BREADTHS,
GIRTHS, AND SKINFOLD THICKNESSES
D = 2 FOR ALL AREAS AND STATIC STRENGTH MEASURES
0 = 3 FOR ALL WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES OF TOTAL BOOY
OR ANY BODY PART
P IS THE PHANTOM VALUE FOR THE VARIABLE
ROSS AND WILSON, 11974
-
.Fig. 4. Formula for calculation of proportionality Z scores
a n a l y s i s r e c o m ~ e n d a d i n t h e IBP h a n d b o o k e d i t e d by W e i n e r
a n d L a u r i e ( 1 9 6 9 ) a n d mcre r e c a n t l y d i s c u s s e d b y B r u n t l a n d
a n d M a l l s ( 7 9 7 3 ) . T a n n e r 17573) a n d B a r d e r e t a f
(1974)
-
Due t o o b v i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e a b o v e p r o c e d u r e s ,
a
r e t r o s p e c t i v e t e c h n i q u e was u s e d t o a s s e s s a g e o f m e n a r c h e
i n t h e present study,
T h e f e t r o s p e c t i v e method r e q u i r e s
s u b j e c t s t o r e c a l l a c t u a l d a t e s of m e n a r c h e ,
Such
r e t r o s p e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e s h a v e a n i n h e r e n t s o u r c e of error
i n s o f a r a s r e c a l l is p r o n e t o i n a c c u r a c y
[Gibson (1957),
O e t t l e and H i g g i n s o n (1961), Harper and C o l l i n s (1972) 3
.
H a r d e r e t a 1 (1974) f o u n d e a r l y n t a t u r e r s Bay h a v e l e s s
a c c u r a c y o f r e c a l l t h a n l a t e m a t u r a r s w h e r e t h e e v e n t is
nore recent.
Damon et al f l 9 6 9 ) , h o w e v e r ,
f o u n d no
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f s r e n c e s b e t ween t h e age of mena rche r e c a l l e d
and observed,
A n o t h e r s o u r c e o f b i a s , w h i c h may u n d e r
2stimate t h e t r u e mean a y e cf m e n a r c h e i s e n c o u n t e r e d when
some o f t h e s u b j e c t s q u e s t i c n e d h a v e n o t e x p e r i e n c e d
menarche,
and a r e t h e r e f o r e e i t h e r e x c l u d e d from t h e sample,
or t h e i r p r e s e n t c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e i s a s s i g n o d t o i n d i c a t a
t h e y a r e d e l a y e d a t l e a s t tc t h a t e x t e n t ,
F e m a l e subjects i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y were a d m i n i s t e r e d
a questiohlnaire (app 3 ) -
R e s p o n d e n t s were a s k e d t o s t a t e
t h e i r d a t e of b i r t h , a n d t h e month t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d t h e i r
f i r s t m e n s t r u a l flow.
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e s p o n d a n t s ui;r;.
asked t o e s t i m a t e t h e a c c u r a c y o f their r e s p o n s e .
The a q s
of m e n a r c h e was c a l c u l a t e d a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e
decimal fraction of t h e fifteenth d a y of the m o n t h and y e a r
i n d i c a t e d f o r m e n a r c h e a n d subject's d a t e of b i r t h ,
Group
r e s u l t s were t r e a t e d b y d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s and r e p o r t e d
for coaparisons,
Blf of t h e d a t a c o l l ~ c t e dfor t h i s s t u d y a r e a v a i l a b l e
f o r subsequent analyses,
Therefore,
c n c cf t h e p u r p o s e s o f
t h e s t u d y was a c h i e v e d by the mere a s s e i i i b l y of a d a t a b a n k
on f i g u r e s k a t e r s ,
Data s e l e c t e d f o r treatment f r o g t h i s
s o u r c e is p r e s e n t e d i n this c h a p t e r ,
H e a n s and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of the raw d a t a a r e
d i s p l a y e d i n T a b l e s I a n d 11,
A s i n d i c a t e d by h e i g h t a n d
weight, the male p a i r s {H3) were t h e g r e a t e s t i n size a t
1 6 9 . 3 cm, a n d 62.1
kg,,
f o l l o w e d by the e l i t e rrtales (re11 a t
1 6 4 - 4 cm. a n d 56.5
kg,,
t h e n o v i c e men (M2) a t 757-4 cm, arid
50.3
kg,,
a n d t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g singles (MY) a t 3 5 8 - 4
cm. a n d 44.3
kg.
The elite f e m a l e s f F 1 ) were the l a r g e s t of t h e female
g r o u p s a t 155.8
cm, a n d 48.6
kg,,
f o l l o w e d b y t h e young
cm.
o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s o v e r 1 2 y e a r s ( F 3 ) a t 354.1
4 5 - 5 kg,,
t h e n o v i c e l a d i s s (3'2)
a t 1 5 3 - 5 cm,
and 42-1 kg,,
a n d t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s und.er 12 y e a r s
136.7
cm,
a n d 31.2
kg,
and
(P4) a t
T a b l a 1: Means a n d s t a n d a r d deviations o f selected
a n t h r o p o ~ e t r i cv a r i a b l e s f o r C a n a d i a n figure
s k a t e r s ( m a 1e g r o u p s )
e p i c fern w d
b e h n k e wd
(ankle)
thigh g
chest g
u p p e r arm g
I f f exed)
t r i c e p s sf
subscap r d sf
chest sf
suprailiac sf
a b d o m i n a l sf
i l i a c crest s f
7.5
1.6
f r o n t t h i g h sf
r e a r t h i g h sf
9-4
1,7
72-6
4-1
med c a l f sf
7-1
1-8
p e r c e n t fat
7-5
.4
height
s i t t i n g hk
foot lth
trunk lth
arm Ith
u p p e r arm
It h
t r o c h ht:
t h i g h lth
b i t r o c h wd
mesost, w d
e p i c hurtl wd
T a b l e 11: Beans a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of s e l e c t e d
a n t h r o p o ~ e t r i c v a r i a b l e s for C a n a d i a n f i g u r e
s k a t e r s ( f elgale g r o u p s )
age
height
156,8
5.2
sitting ht
83.3
3.2
f o o t 1P.h
23-2
-6
trunk I t h
46.5
3.2
u p p e r arm f t h
30.1
2-1
lower arm Ith
22.3
1.7
trach h t
81-5
3-2
t h i g h fth
41-0
2-4
e p i c hum wd
6.00
-28
b e h n k e wd
(ankle)
6-7
-2
thigh g
52-5
3.8
chest girth
81.0
5-0
upper arn g
If1exed)
24-6
I, Y
t r i c e p s sf
10-4
295
subscap rd sf
7-9
1-7
s u b s c a p I v sf
8-2
1.9
s u p r a i l i a c sf
7.5
2-3
abdominal s f
10.2
4-3
i l i a c crest sf 10-Y
6-3
f r o n t t h i g h sf 18.1
5.6
rear t h i g h sf
med c a l f sf
22-8
8-0
18-3
5-6
21.0
6-11
10-8
3-8
13-5
4-53
10-3
3-2
T h e elite male group ( h l )
groups a t 18-2 years,
IT, 1 y e a r s ,
were t h e o l d e s t of t h e maie
f e l l o w e d by t h e m a l e p a i r s ( H 3 )
a t
tha n o v i c e n e n {M2) a t 15.1 y e a r s , a n d t h e
o u t s t a n d i n g y o u n g s i n g l e s I E 4 ) a t 7 4 . 3 years,
The e l i t e
f e m a l e s ( E l ) were t h e o l d e s t of the f s r o a l e g r o u p s a t 1 5 - 7
years,
f o l f c w ~ dby t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l z s o v e r 1 2
y e a r s (E3) a t 14.0
years,
t k e novice females ff2) a t 13-2
y e a r s a n d t h e younq o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2 a t 10-7
years,
T h e r a s u l t s of t h e P l a n n - 5 h i t n e y
iiU't
test with
s i g n i f i c a n c e s e t a t t h e 5 % l e v e l of p r o b a b i l i t y
i n Tables 1 x 1 a n d fV,
a r e shown
T h e f l i t e males (HI) in c o m p a r i s o n t o
t h e e l i t e females ( F l f uere s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g o r i n h e i g h t ,
weight,
f o o t length, calf girth,
ankle, i a e s o s t e r n a l ,
e p i c o n d y f a r h u m e r u s a n d femcr w i d t h s , c h e s t a n d u p p e r arm
girths,
T h e e l i t e females,
however,
uere s i g n i f i c a n t l y
g r e a t e r i n s k i n f o l d v a l u e s a t the a b d c m i n a l ,
f r o n t thigh and
medial c a l f s i t e s ,
T h e e l i t e males {MI) were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r t h a n trte
n o v i c e men (H2) ornfy i n e p i c o n d y l a r h u m e r u s w i d t h ,
T h e male
p a i r s (M3f were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r i n a f k l e n i d t h a s
c o m p a r e d t o t h e e l i t e m a l e s (MI),
T h e e l i t e males [ H I )
were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r i n w e i g h t a s well a s t h i g h , c a l f , c h e a t
a n d u p p e z arm g i r t h s , s u b s c a p u l a r s k i n f o f d ,
mescsternal
,
T a b l e 1x1:
S u B m a r y of Z a n n - W h i t n e y U test results for
e l i t e felrnale ( P I ) a n d i l a f e s u b g r o u p s (M2, t43, H4)
compared to e l i t e male q s o u p ( M l ) ;
( l e g e n d ; s=subgrcup s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller, 1=
subgroup s i g r i f i c a n t i y l a r g e r )
weight
height
f o o t lth
thigh g
calf g
subscap i v sf
i
L
abdominal s f
r
front t h i g h s f
2
m e d c a l f sf
mesost ud
epic h u m rsd
chest g
upper arg g
Iflexed)
Summary o f Mann-Whitney U-test r e s u l t s f o r
female s u b g r o u p s [F2, F 3 , F4), c o m p a r e d t o e l i t e
feiilale p r o t o t y p e ( P I ) ,
(legend; s=subgroup s i g n i f i c a n t l y
smaller, l = s u b g r o u ~s i g n i f i c a n l t y l a r g ? r )
T a b l e IV:
weight
height
f o o t ftk
thigh q
calf
(J
s u b s c a p Iv sf
abdominal s f
f r u n t thigh sf
med calf sf
a n k l e wd
b i i l i o c r wd
mesost u d
e p i c hum wd
e p i c fern ud
chest g
u p p e r arm g
(flexed)
e p i c o n d y l a r hurrterus a n d e g i c o n d y l a r f e m u r v i d t h s a s c o i n p a r e d
t o t h e o u t s t a n d i n g y o u n g male s i n g l e s (f343,
As shown i n T a b l e I V tte e l i t e females ( F l f were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r In w e i g h t , t h i g h a n d c h e s t g i r t h s ,
s u b s c a p u l a r s k i n f o l d and b i i l i o c r i s t a l a n d m e s o s t e r n a l
w i d t h s a s compared t o t h e n c v i c e l a d i e s [ F Z f .
The elite
g r o u p (F1) were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r i n o n l y m e s o s t e r n a l
w i d t h , b u t rere s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l e r i n a n k l e w i d t h a s
c o m p a r e d t o t h e y o u n g c u t s t a n d i n g singles o v e r 1 2 y e a r s
(F3)-
T h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n s s i n g l e s u n d e r 12 p e a r s
fF4)
showed t h e g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e s from t h e e l i t e group b e i n g
s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l e r i n a 1 1 v a r i a b l e s except medial c a l f
s k i n f o l d , and a n k l e width,
The s o m a t o t y p e s a n d s c m a t o t y g e d i s p e r s i . c n
indices for
a l l g r o u p s a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e V,
T h e male g r o u p s s mean s c m a t o t y p e s were s i ~ i l a r , I n
terms of e n d o m o r p h y , t h e male
r a t i n g (1,8),
airs
if-3) s h o u e d t h e g r e a t e s t
f o l l o w e d b y t t e e l i t e {HI) a n d n o v i c e ( H Z )
g r o u p s a t 1 - 7 and t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s (H4) a t 1.0,
In terms of m e s o m o r p h y t h e male p a i r s ( H 3 ) s h o w e d t h e
Means a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of scmatotypes a n d
s o n a t o t y p e d i s p e r s i c n i n d e x e s {Sltf) o f C a n a d i a n
f i g u r e skaters
T a b l e V:
endomorphy
mesomorphy
ectomorphy
SDI
DSD
i9l (n=12)
1-7
-3
5.0
-9
2-9
-7
2. I
1.49
H 2 (n=7)
1.7
-3
5-0
-8
2,7
-9
2-43
1.18
3 3 {n=4)
3-8
-3
5-6
-9
2-8
-6
1-69
1-67
9 4 (n=7)
1.5
,5
4,2
1-0
1-0
3-12
1-25
Fl(n=18)
2-6
-7
3-8
-6
3-0
-9
2.34
1-85
F2 (n=9)
2-1
-4
3-7
-7
3.9
-7
2-09
1.08
f3(n=21f
2,5
-7
4.A
-5
3.2
-9
2-59
1.35
F4(n=12)*
2-5
-7
4-2
-6
3-3
2.53
1,65
3
7.0
* h e i g h t c o r r e c t i o n i n endomarphy
g r e a t e s t v a l u e a t 5-6,
[M2) g r o u p s a t 5.0,
a t 4-2.
a n d t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g singles (34)
T h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s (M4)
e c t o m o r p h i c r a t i n g i3.6)
2,9,
f c f l o u e d by t h e elite ($411 a n d n o v i c e
the pairs
had t h e h i g h e s t
f o l l o w e d by t h e e l i t e g r o u p ( E l ) a t
(H3) a t 2.8
and t h e n o v i c e (M2) a t 2-7,
T h e female g r o u p s a l r c d i s p l a y e d s i m i l a r s c m a t o t y p e
ratings.
In terms of e o d c i i i c r p h y , t h e e l i t e g r o u p {FA) h a d
the highest v a l u e a t 2- 6 E c l l o v e d b y t h e o u t s t a n d i n g y o u n g
g r o u p s ( F 3 a n d F4)
a t 2-5,
and t h e n o v i c e (F2) a t 2 - 1
fn
terms o f mesomorphy t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2
y e a r s {FY) were t h e h i g h e s t a t 4.2,
f o l l o w e d by t h e y o u n g
o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s over 1 2 y e a r s t F 3 ) a t 4-1,
( F l j a t 3 - 8 a n d t h e ao'trice (F2) at 3-7,
were t h e
iaosl
ectomorphic a t 3.9,
o u t s t a n d i n g under 12 y e a r s
t h e elite
Tihe n o v i c e fF2)
f o l l o w e d b y t h e young
(F4) a t 3 . 3 ,
t h e young
o u t s t a n d i n g o v e r 1 2 y e a r s (F3) a t 3-2, a n d t h e e l i t e g r o u p
(F1) a t 3 - 0 ,
T h e s o m a t o c h a r t s f o r a l l g r o u p s a r e shown as F i g u r e s 5
t o 12,
For a l l groups, t h e majority of t h e s k a t e r s tended
t o c l u s t e r i n t h e n o r t h ~ a s t e r ne c t o m e s o r m o r p h i c r e g i o n o f
t h e somatochart,
T h e male p a i r s ( M 3 )
were the l e a s t
M ESOMORPHY
M ESOMORPHY
MI ESOMORPHY
Fig, 9.
CANADIAN MALE FIGURE SKATERS
(1975 outstanding singles) n =7
MESOMORPHY
Fig. 10. CANADIAN MALE FIGURE SKATERS
(I 975 pairs) n = 4
ORPHY
Fin. 11. CANADIAN FEMALE FtGURE SKATERS
(1875 outstanding singles over 12 years) n =21
RAESOI
s c a t t e r s d a s shown i n T a b l e V,
h a v i n q a n SDI of 1 - 6 9 ,
f o l l o w e d b y t h e n o v i c e l a d i e s ( 3 2 ) of 2 - 0 9 , n o v i c e men 132)
o f 2 - 4 3 , young o u t s t a n d i n g f e m a l e s u n d e r 12 y e a r s (F4) o f
2-53,
y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g f e m a l e s o v e r 1 2 years (f3) of 2-59,
t h e ~ o s st c a t t e r s d ,
and l a s t l y ,
s i n g l e s {MY)
y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g male
o f 3.12-
T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e "Iqfi n d e x v a l u e s for c o m p a r i s o n s of
the elit2 groups, and subyrcups t o t h e respective g r o t o t y p t s
a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n Table VI,
showed t h e l e a s t
T h e e l i t e g r o u p s (HI v s F 1 )
over fa^ cf a l l
g r o u p s cf 3-42,
O f t h e male
g r o u p s t h e n o v i c e men (u2) had t h e g r e a t e s t o v e r l a p w i t h t h e
male p r o t o t y p e ( H I )
male p a i r s of 32.Y.8,
o f 21,01.
w i t h a v a l u e of 5 4 - 9 8 ,
followed by t h e
a n d t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s fa4)
The y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s o v e r 1 2 y e a f s (F31
s h o w e d t h e g r e a t e s t o v e r l a p a r i t h t h e rfemale p r o t o t y p e IF71
of t h e f e m a l e g r o u p s with a v a l u e of 57-65,
followed by thz
y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u c d e r 1 2 years ( f 4 ) o f 2 1 , 0 1 ,
t h e n o v i c e l a d i e s (F2) cf 2C,SO,
(Note: o n g o i n g s t u d i e s
show s i g n i f i c a n t v a l u e s by H o l e t i n T - t e s t
less t h a n 3 0 ) .
aIiu
t o be roughly I
T a b l e VI:
Summary of * I s i c d e x v a l u e s between s e l e c t e d
g r o u p s of ~ a n a d i a nf i g u r e skaters
Pi1 v s F l
3-51
H I v s ir12
64-98
iGt3 vs 193
32-40
F 3 vs f 2
Groups
I si n d e x
20.60
F 1 vs F 3
57.65
F1 v s F4
Groups
*f*indax
46-07
511 YS MY
21-01
A s s h o w n i n T a b l e s I a r , d 11 t h e e l i t e p r o t o t y p e g r o u p s
I
i
h a d p e r c s n t Eat v a l u e s o f 7.5% ( M I ) a n d 13,DX
T h e means a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e l*fa-tw i n d e x
f o r a l l g r o u p s are shown i n T a b l e P I X ,
h i g h a s t a t 123.1,
3
E
o v e r 1 2 y e a r s ( F 3 ) a t 111.9,
$
I
The f e m a l e y r o u p s had
l a r g e r v a l u e s o v e r a l l vith t h e ef i t e (F 1) h a v i n g the
E
1
(PI).
f o l l o w e d t y t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s
t h e novice /F2)
a t 105.5,
and
t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l f s u c d e r 1 2 p e a r s ( F 4 ) a t 98.2,
i
b
kE
I
i
g
i
i
:
+
T h e n o v i c e men (f42) h a d t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e s o f t h e rnals
g r o u p s with a n i n d e x of 8 6 - 5 ,
f o l l o w e d by t h e young
t h e e l i t e {Pi?)
~ u t s c t a n d i n gs i n g l e s ( H 4 f o f 8 5 - 7 ,
of 81-6,
a n d l a s t 1 y t h e p a i r s (B3) o f 7 3 - 6 ,
The means a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y z - s c o r e s f o r t h e male y r o u p s a r 3 shown i n
T a b l e VlfI.
A l l male g r o u p s were p r o p o r t i o n a l l y l i g h t e r i n
weight c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e PHAMTCH,
s i n g l e s b e i n g l i g h t e s t (-1,10),
with t h e y o u n j o u t s t a n d i n g
A l l y r o u p s showed a
p r o p o r t i o n a l l y s h o r t t i b i a 1 h e i g h t r a n g i n g f r a a -1.67
m a l e p a i f s (PI31 t o - - 8 5 i n t h e e l i t e g r o u p ( B l ) ,
in the
The @ale
Table Y f f :
Means a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i c n s of ' f a t i n d e x '
{sum of 7 1 skinfolds times 370.18 d i v i d e d b y h e i g h t )
values f o r C a n a d i a n f i g u r e s k a t e r s
G fc u p
Values
Beans a n d standard d e v i a t i o n s of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
zscores of s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s f o r C a n a d i a n
f i g u r e s k a t e r s (male g r o u p s )
Table VfII:
s i t t i n g ht
-,25
rr7
trunk fth
-,0 3
arm f t h
-
68
-,3 5
-72
u p p e r arm
fth
-.3 1
0
79
lower arm
lth
-,21
thigh f t b
1-34
053
f o o t lth
-7%
.11
-79
chest g
-65
7-02
thigh g
-.4 4
-63
calf g
-09
-83
arm g
- 02
1.05
e p i c hum wd
1-80
-95
e p i c fern wd
-86
1.23
p a i r s ( 3 3 ) had a p r o p o r t i c n a l l y l o n g t r u n k ( + I . 07) c o m p a r e d
with t h e o t h e r groups,
A l l male g r o u p s h a d p r o p o r t i o n a l l y
l o n g t h i g h l e n g t h s r a n g i n g f r o m + I , 5 4 i n the y o u n g
o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s [HQr)
t o + I - 3 4 i n -the e l i t e I M 1 )
811
g r o u p s a l s o had p r o p o r t i o n a l l y n a r r o w b i t r o c h a n t e r i c widths
r a n g i n g f r o n t -1.87
i n t h e ycung o u t s t a n a i n j s i n g l e s (34) t o
-,76 i n t h e p a i r s ( ~ 3 ) . P r o p o r t i o n a l l y w i d e e p i c o n d y l a r
h u m e r u s w i d t h s { r a n g i n g f r c m 91.90
+1.46
i n t h e p a i r s (H3f
to
i n t h e y o u n g o u t s t a ~ d i n gs i r t g l s s (H4)) a n d e p i c o n d y l a r
f e m u r w i d t h s ( r a n g i n g frcm +1,Y2
i n t h e n o v i c e (82) to
+-44
i n t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i c g l e s (E4) ) were a1s o e v i d e n t .
Means a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
z-scores
for t h e f e m a l e g r o u p s a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e ZX.
The
female g r o u p s were a l l ~ r c p c r t i o n a l l yl i g h t e r t h a n t h e
PHANTOfl r a n g i n g f r o m -075 ir: t h e n o v i c e
e l i t e (fl f ,
i n thz
A l l f emale g r c u ~ shad p r o p o r t i o n a l l y s h o r t
t i b i a 1 h e i g h t s r a n g i n g f rcm - 1 - 3 0
s i n g l e s o v e r 1 2 years ( F 3 ) t o -,88
iF2).
i F 2 ) to -,29
i n t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g
i n t h e novica l a d i e s
A 1 1 g r o u p s a l s o s h o w e d p r o p o r t i o n a l l y s h o r t arm a n d
trunk lengths,
The t h i g h l e n g t h s i n a l l f e m a l e g r o u p s ,
as
i n t h e male g r o u p s , were p r c p o r t i o n a l l y l o n g , r a n g i n g f r o m
+ 1 , 6 1 i n t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s o v e r 12 y e a r s f F 3 ) t o
+ I , 24 i n t h e e l i t e
dnd b i t r o c h a n t e r i c
(PI),
f r o p o r t i o n a l l y narrow mesosternal
w i d t h s were a l s o f o u n d i n a l l g r o u p s ,
Table IX: MIzans a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
zscores o f s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l 2 s f o r C a n a d i a n
figure skaters (female groups)
r a n g i n g from -2-00
i n t h e ycung o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s under 1 2
y e a r s (F4) t o -.a7
i n t h e e l i t e ( P I ) , and -1.97
i n t h e young
o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2 y e a r s (FU) t o - , 6 2
i n t h e elite
{FI) , r e s p e c t i v e l y
T h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y p r c f i l e s of t h e e l i t e male a n d
f e m a l e g r o u p s a r e shown i n P i g u r e 13,
The p r o f i l e s Here
'
s i m i l a r w i t h t h e m a l e s b e i n g s l i g h t l y l a r g e r i n most g i r t h s
( e x c e p t thigh) and s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r i n e p i c o n d y l a r
widths,
T h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y p r o f i l e s of t h e male s u b g r o u p s
c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e e l i t e g r o u p (HI) p r o f i l e a r e shown i n
f i g u r e 14,
T h e n o v i c e men
If121 s h o w e d s i m i l a r
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s t h e e l i t e group,
l a r g e s t c l e v i a t i o n s b e i n g i n arm l e n g t h ( + , 3 8 ) ,
l e n g t h (+.43), foot length
with t h e
u p p e r arm
(-,SO), c h e s t g i r t h (-,491,
r o e s o s t e r n a l w i d t h 1-. 59) a n d e p i c o n d y l a r f e m u r w i d t h (+- 5 6 )
The male p a i r s (H3)
.
a l s o showed s i m i l a r p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t h e e l i t e g r o u p (MI) i n most-, v a r i a b l e s ,
t h e y sere p r o p c r t i c n a l i y s h o r t e r i n t r o c h a n t e r i c
Howevsr,
height
1-. 4 8 ) , t i b i a 1 h e i g h t 1--82)
the trunk
, substantially
longer i n
f + I , l D ) , g r e a t e r arnt g i r t h $ + 1 , 1 4 ) , a n d n a r r o w e r
i n t h e mesosternale width 1--40)-
MALES
FEMALES
Ann Ien$th
Upper arm
mm
Foot ten@
Thigh girth
Calf girth
'
A m girth
Fig. 13.
Prcqmtionality 2 r;corc# for 18
(stit0 mais and fanas groups)
showing Wtzj~11)
f i ~ m
-tom
variables.
vcrlw(0).
-------
Weight
Tibia! height
/
Sitting height
\
\
Trunk
Arm length
Upper arm
length
F w t length
Chest girth
Thigh girth
Arm girth
t
-1
0
Deviations (Z
Fig. 14. Proportionality 2 scores fur 18 selected variables
(male groups) showing deviations from efite
mate group values (0)
T h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s (84) d i f f e r e d t h e most
f r o m t h e e l i t e g r o u p (?I11 b e i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l l y e n a a l l e r i n
weight
(-,
85).
s h o r t e r i n t r o c h z n t e r i c h e i g h t (-, 41) ,
s i t t i n g h e i g h t (-, 81)
l e n g t h 1,-47)
(-1,37),
.
t r u n k l e n g t h (-, 541, l o n g e r i n arm
a n d l o w e r arm l e n g t h { + 1 , 0 4 ) ,
thigh ( - - 7 0 ) .
calf
, a n d arm (-1-13]
-60), bitrochanteric
I--74)
a n d n a r r o v e r i n m e s o s t e r n a l (-1
and epicondyfar femur (--42)
s m a l l e r i n chest
girths,
(-a
83)
widths.
T h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y p r c f i l e s of t h e f a m a l e s u b g r o u p s
c o m p a r e d t o t h e e l i t e female g r c u p (FA) a r e shovn i n F i g u r e
15,
T i i s n o v i c e l a d i e s (32) s h o w e d a s i m i l a r p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
p r o f i l e t o t h e elite (PI) being s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r i n weight
(-.
46)
,longer
i n s i t t i n g h e i g h t (+,59)
t h i g h g i r t h s (--87
and -1.09
smaller i n c h e s t a n d
sespectively)
, and
p r o p o r t i o n a l f y n a r r o w e r i n ~ e s c s t e r n a la n d b i t r o c h a n t e r i c
w i d t h s (-. 96 a n d
-.7 2
respectively),
T h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s o v e r 12 years ( 2 3 ) a l s o
shoved similar p r o p o r t i c n a l i t y p a t t e r n s t o t h e e l i t e ( F A ) ,
d e v i a t i n g i n s i t t i n g h e i g h t (-. 5 5 )
f o o t l e n g t h (9.47)
, mesosternal,
e p i c o n d y l a r f e m u r w i d t h s (--74,
, trunk
l e n g t h (+. 4 7 )
,
b i t r o c h a n t e r i c and
-,54
and +,48 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .
t
.
Proportionality Z scores for 18 selected variables
(fiemale groups) &owing deviations from elite firmala group vduar (0)
T h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2 y e a r s (Fa)
s h o w e d t h e g r e a t e s t d e v i a t i c n s from t h e e l i t e g r o u p ( F I ) ,
-
being proportionally s h o r t e r i n s i t t i n g height
i n t r u n k a n d f o o t l e n g t h {+,46
a n d *1.34
l
lonyzr
respectively),
s m a l l e r i n c h e s t a n d t h i g h g i r t h s [-, 97 aad -,80
r e s p e c t i v z l y ) , narrower i n ~ e s o s t e r n a l ea n d b i t r o c h a n t s r i c
w i d t h s (-1-13
a n d -1.35
r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , a n d wider i n
e p i c o n d y f a r h u m e r u s a n d f e m u r w i d t h s (+,57
a n d +1,13
respectively),
T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a g e cf m e n a r c h e q u e s i i o n a i r e a r e
s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e X,
T h e e l i t e g r o u p (F1) of t h o s e who
h a d e x p e r i e n c e d m e n a r c h e h a d a mean a g e of 14-0 w i t h 80%
b e i n g c e r t a i n o r f a i r l y c e r t a i n o f t h e date,
O n l y two a•’
t h e n i n e n o v i c e l a d i e s tF2j had e x p e r i e n c e d menarche,
mean o f t h e two r e p o r t i n g ,
however,
The
uas 1 3 - 5 w i t h o n l y one
o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s b e i n g c e r t a i n of t h e date,
T h e 8 of t h e
2 1 g i r l s i n t h e o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s o v e r 32 y e a r s (F3f who
had e x p e r i e n n c e d a e n a r c h e ,
h a d a mean a g e of 13.0 w i t h 7 4 %
b e i n g c e r t a i n o r f a i r l y c e r t a i n o f the date,
No g i r l s i n
t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2 y e a r s [F4) h a d
2xperienced @enarche,
T h e a c t u a l a g e o f m e n a r c h e o f the t h r e e g r o u p s r e p o r t -
i n g u o u f d h a v e b e e n s o m e w h a t l a t e r t h a n i n d i c a t e d if t h e ons e t c o u l d b e p r o j e c t e d f o r t h e s u b j e c t s who had n o t s t a r t e d -
Table X: Summary of age cf m e n a r c h e q u e s t i o n a i r e f o r
female g r o u p s ,
n y25
gccrtain or
fairly certain
m;an
sd
V, D I S C U S S I O N
Prototypes
Tha male and female s k a t e r p r o t o t y p s s tM1 a n d FI), h a 3
s p e c l f i c p h y s i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s being r z l a t i v e l y small,
l e a n and muscular.
In c o m p a r i s o n t o d a t a o n 1968 R e x i c o
Olympic a t h l e t e s a s r e p o r t e d b y d ~ tG a r a p et a 1 (1974), t h e
ale a n d female s k a t e r p r o t o t y p e s were r e l a t i v e l y s i m i l a r i n
s i z e t o + h e male a n d female g y m n a s t s r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
among t h e smallest a l y m p l c a t h f e t e s .
who were
This a p p a r e n t
s e l e c t i v i t y o f body s i z e i n a s p e c i f i c a t h l e t i c s a m p l e i s i n
agreement w i t h tfte f i n d i n g s of R o h l r a u s h (1929),
Cureton
{I95l), c o r r e n t i a n d Z a u l i fI96&), T a n n e r ( 1 9 6 t i ) , H i r a t a
f l 9 6 S ) a n d de G a f a y et a 1 (1974)-
The o v e r a l l general s a a l l n e s s i n body s i z e e v i d e n t in
t h e e l i t e g r o u p s may be a d v a n t a g e o u s i n f i g u r e s k a t i n g w h e r e
t h e p e r f o r m a n c e requires p r o j e c t i n g ones body i n e x e c u t i n g
some of t h e r e q u i r e d s k i l l s ,
T h i s a d v a n t a g e i n some r n o t o r
s k i l l s h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n d i s c u s s e d by Clarke (1971),
E s p e n s c h a d e {I9533 , M a l i n a (1968) a n d R a r i c k a n d O y s t e r
(1964)-
T h i s a d v a n t a g e may be e x p l a i n e d h y d i m e n s i o n a l
a n a l y s i s a s d i s c u s s e d b y Wsmussen and Heebol N 2 i l s o n f 1955)
.
r
L
T h a t is, i f s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s a s the l i n e a r d i m e n s i o n t o
t h e power t w o a n d weight a s t h e l i n e a r d i m e n s i o n t o t h e
n
1
i
power 3,
1
dimension t o t h e power t w o - t h i r d s ,
i
s t a t u r e i n s k a t e r s a s d i s c u s s e d b y Le V e a u e t a l ( 1 9 7 4 ) in a
7
t h e n it f o l l o w s t h a t as w e i g h t i n c r e a s e s ,
strength
1
does n o t i n c r e a s e p r o p o r t i o n a l l y ,
but as t h e linear
t
?
t
h
<
1
1
i
s t u d y on qpmnasts,
Also, t h e smaller
may r e s u l t i n a s ~ a l l e rwoment of inertia
a b o u t a n a x i s i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e p l a n e t h r o n g h t h e c e n t e r of
A s a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e s ~ a l l e rp e r s o n B a y b e b e t t e r
mass.
a b l e t o perform s k i f f s which require s p i n n i n q m o v e m e n t s
while i n f r e e f l i g h t , w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y i n f i g u r e s k a t i n g .
The actomesomorphic scmatotype found i n t h s elite
s k a t e r s is
a s o ~ a t o t y p ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r e v a l e n t i n o 2 h 3 r
a t h l e t i c s a n p l e s where subjects h a d t o s u p p o r t o r p r o j e c t
their b o d y mass a s r e p o r t e d by T a n n e r ( 1 9 5 4 1 , C h o v a n o v a
(1970).
1974)
S t s p n i c k a [ l W 2 ) , Carter (1965,
, Wastlake
(1972).
( 1 967)
, Clarke
O l s o n (19661, P e t l r s o n
1970, 1971, 1 9 7 3 ,
et a l [ l 9 6 l ) ,
Ross a n d Day
(1959), a n d C l a r k e a n d Borms
w i t h t h o s e o f g r o u p s of 1 9 6 8 E e x i c o Cflygtpic a t h l e t e s i n
F i g u r e s 1 6 a n d 37,
The s k a t e r s '
s o m a t o p l o t s are on t h e
2 c t o m e s o m o r p h i c b o r d e r of t h e a r e a o c c u p i e d b y t h e O l y m p i c
Fig. 16.
I
Elite Mate ~thbt.r. 1869 Mexico ~ ~ y m p i c(de
r Garay, Lwine, tar 1874).
Czechoslovakian Hockey and Soccer Players (Chovanove, Zrubk 1972).
Profdonal Hockey Pkyem, Quebec Nwdique ILariviere 18751, CInrdien
Male Figure L a t m (Ross, Brown. feulknrrt, CM1.dilm Melr Alpine Skicn
(Raa, G d m m , F&tlkner).
groups,
F u r t h u r c o m p a r i s o n t o s o m a t o t y p e d a t a on Mexico
O l y m p i c a t h l e t e s r e p o r t e d b y de G a r a y e t a 1 (19741,
i n d i c a t e d t h e male p r o t o t y p e {HI) i n terms of endonaorphg
were t h e same a s t h e s p r i n t e r s , a n d s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e
l o n g d i s t a n c e and m a r a t h c n r u n n e r s ,
T h e fe r a a l e p r o t o t y p e
f F 1 ) endolrtorphy r a t i n g was s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n t h e female
g y m n a s t s @ f a t i n g o f 2.8,
female O l y m p i c a t h l e t e s ,
males { M l )
w h i c h was among t h e s m a l l e s t o f t h e
I n terms of mesomorphy,
v e r e s i m i l a r t o the s w i m m e r s ,
t h e elite
s p r i n t e r s and
c y c l i s t s , b u t s l i g h t l y smaller t h a n t h e q y i m a s t s who were
5.9,
T h e elite f e t a a l e s ? ( F 1 ) ~ e s o m o r p h y r a t i n g was s i m i l a r
t o d i v e r s , suimmers,
s p r i n t e r s and gymnasts,
In t e r n s o f
e c t o l n o r p h y t h e male p r o t o t y p v e r e s i m i l a r t o swimmers, a n d
less than long d i s t a n c e runners,
a n d b a s k e t b a l l p l a y e r s , who
were amonq t h e most l i n e a r of t h e O l y m p i c a t h l e t e s ,
The
f e m a l e p r o t o t y p e e c t o m o r p h y r a t i n g were i d e n t i c a l t o
s v i n l r t e r s who were among t h e most l i n e a r of t h e f e m a l e
Olympic a t h l e t e s .
T h e e c t o m e s o m o r p h with a c c o m p a n y i n g low e n d o m a r p h y as
p f e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d b y E s p e n s c h a d e a n d E c k e r t {A967),
C l a r k e ( 1 9 7 1 ) , a n d G a r r i t y f1966) may p e r f o r m b e t t e r a t
c s r t a i n a o t o r s k i 1 1s t h a n o t h e r s o m a t o t y p e s ,
T h i s is
p r o b a b l y e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n f i g u r e s k a t i n g w h e r e it is
i m p o r t a n t t o k e e p body w e i g h t a t a m i n i ~ u avhile a a i n t a i n g
strength t o execute t h e required s k i l l s ,
T h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o m a t o t y p e s of t h e
o l i t s g r o u p s p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s n o r m a l male a n d female
maturational patterns,
A s d i s c u s s e d b y Zuk f 1 9 5 8 ) ,
male
a d o l e s c e n c e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y i n c r e a s e d m e s m o r p h y ,
r e d u c e d sndomorphy,
and i n c r e a s e d e c t o m o r p h y , w h i l e f e m a l e
a d o l e s c e n c z i n v o l v e s p r i ~ a r yd e v e l o p m e n t o f e n d o m o r p h y , o n l y
s l i g h t i n c r e a s e s i n wescmor~hy, and a r e d u c t i o n i n
ectomorphy,
The g r e a t e r p e r c e n t f a t v a l u e s i n t h e e l i t e f e m a l e
q r a u p ( F l ) a s c o r a p a r e d w i t h t h e e l i t e males ( H I ) s e r e a s
3 x p e c t 2 d a s g o u n q women a f t e r p u b e r t y e x p e r i e n c e a n i n c r e a s e
i n body fat ( F r i s - H a n s e n
1971, T a n n e r 1961, S i n c l a i f 1973)
a n d o n t h * a v e r a g e h a v e 1 0 % more E a t t h a n males
{Pris-Hansen,
1971).
T h e p e r c e n t E a t v a l u e s o f t h e e l it?
groups ver+ comparable to values found i n o t h e r a t h l e t i c
samples,
The f e m l e s wefs s i m i l a r t o v a l u e s f o r g y m n a s t s
r e p o r t e d by Novak ( 1 9 7 3 1 , a n d S p r y r a n o v a a n d P a s i z k o v a
(1969). a n d much l e s s t h a n n o r m a l g i r l s t v a l u e s r e p o r t e d b y
C h e n [ 1 9 5 3 ) , Young e t a l { 1 9 6 1 ) , a n d H i l m o r e a n d B e h n k e
(1970).
T h e male v a l u e s were c o m p a r a b l e t o o t h e r a t h l e t i c
s a m p l e s r s p o r t e d by Behnke {19?4),
{ l 9 7 2 ) , H a l f t o t f a e t a l 11974)
, and
Wilmore a n d H a s k e l l
l o w e r t h a n r e p o r t i n g s of
F o r s y t h e a n d S i n n i n q ( 7 9 7 3 ) , a n d Novak ( 1 9 6 6 ) , a n d much
l o w e r t h a n n o n a t h l e t i c s a m ~ l e sr e p o r t e d by Sfoan ( 1 9 6 7 1 ,
K r z w i c k i a n d C h i n n (1967), E a c R i l f a n e t af. (l965), D u r n i n
a n d R a h a a a n (1967) a n d Wilrrtcre a n d B e h n k e (1968)
.
This low
p e r c e n t body Eat, a n d subsequent r e d u c t i o n i n w 2 i g h t may h?
b e n e f i c i a l i n executing s k i l l s r e q u i r i n g the p r o j e c t i o n o f
o n e s body a s discussed p r e v i o u s l y b y C l a r k e {197?),
E s p e n s c h a d e (19631
(1964)
, and
,
Pialina
17968)
, and
Rarick and Oyster
may r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r w o r k efficiency a s
r e p o r t e d b y P a r i z k o v a (1973) a n d S Z o a n et a 1 ( 1 9 7 3 ) .
T h e elite g r o u p s were, i n g e n e r a l , s i m i l a r i n
proportionality ckaracteris2ics,
light,
B o t h were p r o p c r t i o n a l l y
a s c o r a p a r e d w i t h t h e phantas, a g a i n a n i n d i c a t i o n o f
their overall litheness,
B o t h also h a d p r o p o r t i o n a l l y s h o r t
t i b i a s a n d p r o p o r t i o n a l l y l o n g t h i g h l e n g t h s , w h i c h , from a
b i o m e c h a n i c a f v i e w raay b e a d v a n t a g e o u s i n some s k a t i n g
ski11s s u c h a s j u m p i n g ,
The p r o p o r t i o n a l l y l a r g e r t h i g h
g i r t h i n t h e female p r o t o t y p e (F1) a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e male
p r o t o t y p e {MI) was p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e g r e a t e r E a t d e p o s i l t s
f o u n d i n t h e t h i g h l o c a t i o n s of t h e felaales (as e v i d e n c e d Ln
% h e Bann-i4hitne.g t e s t r e s u l t s f o r f r o n t t h i g h s k i n f o l d )
.
The r e l a t i v e l y narrow b i t r o c h a n t e r i c and atesosterna J
w i d t h s d i s p l a y e d in b o t h g r c u p s may b e a d v a n t a g e o u s i n
p e r f o r m i n g s o m e m o t o r s k i l l s a s r e p o r t e d by E s p e n s c h a d e
[IgYO) ,
C a r t e r ( 1 976) s p e c u l a t e s t h a t t h e n a r r o w p e l v i s
r e s u l t s i n l o v e r l i m b forces a p p l i e d i n t h e s a g i t t a l p l a n s
t o b e closer t o t h e l i n e o f g r a v i t y ,
vhich reduces t h e
a n g u l a r i n e r t i a i n the t r a n v e f s e p l a n e .
Therefore,
the
n a r r o w b i t r o c h a n t e r i c w i d t h may b e a b i o m e c h a n i c a l a d v a n t a g e
i n f i g u r ? s k a t i n g where t u r n s and jumps are c r i t i c a l
e l e m e n t s o f good p e r f o r m a n c e .
T h e g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n a l arm g i r t h a n d e p i c o n d y l a r
h u m e r u s k l i d t h i n t h e e l i t e males (HI) a s c o m p a r e d t o the
elidle f e ~ a l e s( P I ) i n d i c a t e s g r e a t e r muscuf o - s k e l e t a l
r o b u s t n e s s w h i c h i s a l s c e v i d e n c e d i n t h e h i g h e r meiomorphH
r a t i n g s f o r t h e e l i t e sale g r o u p s .
T h i s is probably s e x
s p e c i f i c , a s p o s t a d o l e s c e n t males h a v e i n c r e a s e d m u s c u l a r
dsve:opiasnt
t h a n f z a a 3 e s ( T a n n e r 1 9 6 7 , S i r c f a i r 1973)
.
A l t h o u g h t h e e l i t e m a l e g r o u p ( M I ) was s i g n i f i c a n t l y
l a r g e r t h a n t h e e l i t e f f m a f e g r o u p (FA)
i d h i t n e y fsu" t e s t r e s u l t s ,
a s shown i n t h e Hann
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n somatotype, a s
i n d i c a t e d b y t h e "1" i n d e x cf o n l y 3.51
o u t of a p o s s i b l e
700 f o r c o m p l e t e o v e r l a p p i n g of s a m p l e s , i n d i c a t e s a s e x u a l
dimrphism,
W h i l e there were some p r o p o r t i o n a l it y
differences,
reflecting t h e difference in sexual ~orphology,
t h e o v e r a l l p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y p r o f i l e s shows t h e s e d i f f e r e n c s s
t o b e s o m e w h a t l e s s t h a n o n e would e x p e c t from n o n - a t h l s t i c
s a m p l e s of men and women.
As d i s c u s s e d b y P l a l i n a and Rarick.
(1973)
t h e c h a n g e s i n p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y s e x
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s well a s body c o ~ p o s i t i o nc h a n g e s d u r i n g
a d o l e s c e n c e n o r m a l l y r e s u l t i n marked s e x u a l dimorphism i n
p h y s i q u e a t t h e c e s s a t i o n of g r o w t h .
C o m p a r i s o n of s u b g r o u p s t c p r o t o t y p e s
T h e male g r o u p s s h o w e d s i m i l a r p h y s i q u e
characteristics,
T h e n o v i c e men ( R 2 f
t o t h e e l i t e male p r o t o t y p e ( E l )
were a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l
i n osera21. size, d i f f e r i n g
s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n o n l y humerus width,
The s o a a t o t y p e s of the
t w o g r o u p s were a l s o a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l ,
with t h e elite group
b e i n g o n l y s l i g h t l y mare e c t o m o r p h i c ,
T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s were
a l s o e v i d e n t i n t h e "IM i n d e x ,
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y results,
sgfatJ3
index and
Th€ d i f f e r e n c e i n performance
b e t w e e n t h e two g r o u p s t h e n c a n n o t b e a s c r i b e d i n w h o l e o r
i n p a r t t o physique differences,
b u t p r o b a b l y due t o t h e
g r e a t e r a g e , e x p e r i e n c e , a n d p e r h a p s a r t i s t i c a b i l i t i e s of
the e l i t e g r o u p .
T h e male p a i r s [B3) h a d g r e a t e r h e i g h t ,
wsight,
mesomsrphy and p r o p o r t i o n a l g i r t h v a l u e s w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g
l o w V a t * ' i n d e x a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e e l i t e p r o t o t y p e (HI),
T h i s p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t s t h e i r n e e d t o m a i n t a i n a s l o w a body
weight as possible,
s o t h e i r free s k a t i n g is n o t h i n d e r e d ,
w h i l e still h a v i n g m u s c l e mass a n d s t r e n g t h t o e x e c u t e
d i f f i c u l t lifts,
T h e g r e a t e r h e i g h t o f t h e male p a i r s i s
a c c o u n t e d for i n t h e i r t r u n k l e n g t h ,
T h i s may b e a n
a d v a n t a g e i n p a i r s s k a t i n g s i n c e t h i s p a t t e r n i s coamon i n
w e i g h t l i f t e r s a s r e p o r t e d ky H e b b e l i n c k a n d Ross {1975),
b u t as t h e o t h e r atale g r o u p s d o n o t d i s p l a y t h i s r e l a t i v e l y
l o n g t r u n k , i t may b e a d i s a d v a n t a g e i n free s k a t i n g where
j u m p i n g a b i l i t y i s more r e l a t e d t o s h o r t t r u n k s a s r e p o r t e d
by I r e b b e l i n c k a n d R o s s [1975), a n d E i b e n et a 1 (1875)
.
T h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g male s i n g l e s (H4) a s shown i n th;.
Yann P h i t n e y **U" t e s t r e s u l t s d i f f e r e d t h e ~ o s ft r o m t h e
p r o t o t y p e i n g e n e r a l size,
T h i s uas a s e x p e c t e d , a s t h e
y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s were a u c h y o u n g e r ,
and psobably
had n o t e x p e r i e n c e d t h e i r f u l l a d o l e s c e n t g r o w t h s p u r t ,
and
subsequent apex s t r e n g t h spurt,
which c o a e s l a t e i n t h e
m a t u r i t y e v e n t s ( T a n n e r 196 1).
T h i s was a l s o e v i d e n t i n t h e
y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s lcwer m e s o ~ o r p h yr a t i n g , a n d a s
d i s c u s s e d p x e v i o u s l y by Zuk ( 1 9 5 8 ) , male a d o l e s c e n c e i s
a c c o m p a n i e d by ~ a j o rd e v e l o ~ m e n ti n a e s o ~ o r p h y , a r e d u c t i o n
i n endomorphy,
and a n i n c r e a s e i n ectomosphy,
The p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y a n a l y s i s a l s o r e v e a l e d some
differences,
w i t h t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s b e i n g
s m a l l e r i n m o s t v a r i a b l e s ( n o t a b l y g i r t h s a n d non l i m b
widths),
However,
a s d i s c u s s e d b y R o s s e t a l (19751, t h e
g i r t h s of t h e y o u n g s a m p l e w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e
p r o p o r t i o n a l l y as a d o l e s c e n c e advances.
The o t h e r
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y d e v i a t i o n s may a l s o b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e
y o u n g e r age of t h e o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s .
The l a r g e r
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y v a l u e s i n t h s e x t r e m i t y l e n g t h s may b e a
r e s u l t of t h e n o r m a l e v e n t s o f ~ a t u r i t y , a s i n t h e
a d o l e s c e n t g r o w t h s p u r t , t h e f e e t a n d h a n d s s p e e d up first,
f o l l o w e d by t h e forearm a n d c a l f , h i p s ,
shoulders,
c h e s t width,
t r u n k a n d d e p t h o f c h e s t ( S i n c l a i f : 1973) , T h e
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g
s i n g l e s (843 a n d t h e p r o t o t y p e may b e t o t a l l y r e l a t e d t o
~ a t u r i t pd i f f e r e n c e s .
The novice l a d i e s f F 2 ) o v e r a l l , s h o w e d s i m i l a r p h y s i q u e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s t h e e l i t e females (F1) , The m i n o r
d i f f s r e n c e s d i s p l a y e d may be d u e t o t h e d i f f e r e n t m a t u r a t i o n
l e v e l s o f t h e two g r o u p s [ a s i n d i c a t e d i n a g e of m e n a r c h e
results).
The g r e a t e r weight,
s k i n f o l d v a l u e s and
s u b s e q u e n t h i g h e r " f a t v s i n d ~ xa n d e n d o m o r p h y r a t i n g s ,
chest
and b i i l i o c r i s t a t a l w i d t h s cf t h e e l i t e group a r e a l l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p o s t p u b u s c e n c e a s d e s c r i b e d by S i n c f a i r
(1973) and T a n n e r (1961,
1962).
The grea-ter p r o p o r t i o n a l
g i r t h s o f t h e e l i t e g r o u p were p r o b a b l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h t
g r e a t e r f a t d e p o t s o n t h e e l i t e f e m a l es, a s t h e mesomorphy
r a t i n g s were s i m i l a r i n t h e two g r o u p s ,
The i i i a t u r i t y
t e n d e n c y t o q r e a t e r f a t l e v e l s a n d h e n c e e n d o ~ o r p h yr a t i n g
i n t h e e l i t e g r o u p may be d e t r i m e n t a l t o p e r f o r m a n c e a s
d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y by C l a r k e (1971).
1971) a n d W e s t l a k e
(1967).
C a r t e r (1966,
1970,
H o u e v e r , p e r h a p s dne t o t h e
e l i t e fezales9 e a r l i e r l e a r n i n g of the r e q u i r e d s k i l l s ,
g r e a t e r experience, and artistic expression,
this
d i s a d v a n t a g e is o f f s e t ,
T h e younq, o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s o v e r 42 y e a r s gP3) were,
o v e r a l l , most s i m i l a r i n p h y s i q u e t o t h e e l i t e p r o t o t y p e
{Fl],
b e i n g s l i g h t l y l a r g e r i n most v a r i a b l e s o f s i z e , i n
mesomorpby r a t i n g , a n d s l i g h t l y smaller i n "fatt* i n d e x ,
P r o p o r t i o n a l l y , t h e y d e v i a t f d b y a maximum of z= -75 o u t of
t h e 18 v a r i a b l e s .
T h i s o v e r a l l s i m i l a r i t y map be
a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e m a t u r i t y l e v e l of t h e y o u n g s i n g f e s o v z r
12 y e a r s ,
a s e i g h t o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h i s g r o u p had
e x p e r i e n c e d menarche,
a n d t h e mean c h r o n o f o g i c a l a g e was 14,
T h e s k a t e r s i n t h i s g r o u p {F3) a r e a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e i n
a d v a n c i n g f u r t h u r into t h e n o v i c e o r s e n i o r rankings,
junior
T h e y were of d e r t o t h c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , a n d
m a t u r a t i o n a l l y t h a n t h e n o v i c e l a d i e s , a n d a t t h e time d i d
n o t h a v e the n e c e s s a r y s k i l l s r e q u i r e d f o r n a t i o n a l n o v i c e
rating,
Because o f t h e i r g r e a t e r size, higher
ttfatt*
a n 4 endomorphy r a t i n g s , t h e s k a t i n g s k i f f s r e q u i r i n g
index
92
p r o j e c t i o n of t h e b o d y w o u l d be much more d i f f i c u l t t o l e a r n
and m a s t e r ( a s d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y ) f o r g i r l s a t t h i s
s t a g e , an6 a s d i s c u s s e d b y E s p e n s c h a d e ( 1 9 4 0 , 1960) g i r l s s
p e r f o r m a n c e reaches a p l a t e a u a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 4 y e a r s o f
age,
w i t h l i t t l e improvement, i f any, t h e r e a f t e r ,
As was e x p e c t e d ,
t h e ycung o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2
y e a r s {F4) s h o w e d t h e g r e a t e s t d e v i a t i o n s o f p h y s i q u e f r o m
t h e elite prototype
[ T I ) b e i n g smaller i n g e n e r a l s i z e ,
T h e s e s i z e d e v i a t i o n s were p r o b a b l y d u e t o w a t u r i t y
d i f f e r e n c e s , a s t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 12 wer?
a l l prepubescent,
s i ~ i l a rs o m a t o t y p e s
Rowever,
t h e two g r o u p s d i d d i s p l a y
a n d h a d a f a i r l y h i g h "Iw i n d e x .
The
p r e p u b e s c s n t c h a r a c t e r f s t i c s of t h e P 4 g r o u p were a l s o
a v i d e n c e d i n t h e * * f a t n i n d e x v a l u e s a s t h e y were t h e
s m a l l e s t o f t h e feniale groups,
T h e d e v i a t i o n s in ths
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y s c o r e s may a l s o be a t t r i b u t a b l e t o ~ a t u r i t y
d i f f o r e n c e s , a s t h e g r e a t e r proportions 1 f o o t l e n g t h , a n d
e p i c o n d y l a r w i d t h s o f t h e ycung o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2
uere p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e g r o w t h s e q u e n c e d i s c u s s e d
previously,
a s were t h e p r o ~ o r t i o n a l l psmaller a e s o s t e r n a l
and b i t r o c h a n t e r i c widths,
The o v e r a l l s m a l l n e s s i n t h i s
y o u n g g r o u p map b e a d e f i n i t e a d v a n t a g e i n f i g u r e
skating
where s k i l l s i n v o l v e p r o j e c t i n g t h e body, a n d
biomechanically, t h e propor t i o n a l l y narrow b i t r o c h a n t e r i c
w i d t h may b e a d v a n t a g e o u s i n l e a r n i n g a n d p e r f o r m i n g c e r t a i n
s k a t i n g skills,
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l l y wider k n e z
w i d t h s and l o n g e r f o o t l e n g t h s may b e n e f i t s t a b i l i t y ,
It
may be t h e s k a t e r s i n t h i s g r o u p h a v e much g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l
t h a l t t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s over 12 y e a r s ( F 3 ) ,
By
m a s t e r i n g s k a t i n g s k i l l s b e f o r e t h e y e x p e r i e n c e t h e o n s e t of
s e c o n d a r y sex c h a r c t e r i s t i c p h y s i q u e c h a n g e s a c c o m p a n y i n g
puberty,
t h e younger s k a t e r s may b e a b l e t o overcome t h e
r e s u l t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e d i s a d v a n t a g e s which a r e n o r m a l g r o w t h
phenomena,
T h e o v e r a l l t e n d e n c y t o l a t e m a t u r a t i o n as shown i n t h e
a g e o f m e n a r c h e r s s u l t s , may b e a d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g 2 i n
f i q u r ~s k a t i n g ,
s i n c e t h e y v o u l d h a v e B o r e time f o r l e a r n i n g
s k i l l s w i t h o u t t h e h i n d r a n c e of e x c e s s f a t % e i g h t
l a c c o m p a n y i n g p u b e r t y ) and h a v e t h e b e n e f i t of g r e a t e r
proportional lateraiity,
C o m p r e h e n s i v e a n t h s o p c ~ c e t r i cm e a s u r e m e n t s were made on
n i n e t y Canadian f i g u r e s k a t e r s ,
T h e s u b j e c t s were d i v i d e d
i n t o e i g h t g r o u p s based on g e r f o r m a n c e , a g e a n d s e x ,
The
" e l i t e n s e n i o r a n d j u n i cr r a n k e d s k a t e r s were c o n s i d 2 r e d
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e b e s t s k a t e r s i n Canada a n d hence,
t h e i r mean v a l u e s of s i z e , s o m a t o t y p e , b o d y c o m p o s i t i o n ,
proportion,
a n d m a t u r a t i o n f f e m a f e s ) were u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t
male a n d f e m a l e s k a t e r
Thess p r o t o t y p e s were
compared with o t h e r a t h l e t i c s a m p l e s , and with t h e o t h e r
s k a t e r subgroups,
F r o m a n a l y s e s of t h e d a t a t h e f o l l o w i n g
c o n c l a s i o r s were made:
1, The male a n d female p r o t o t y p e s d i s p l a y e d s i m i l a r
physique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , which d i f f e r e d i n magnitude b u t
not i n direction,
T h e p h y s i q u e s vere, i n g e n e r a l , s i m i l a r
t o t h o s e o f O 1 y ~ p i . c g y m n a s t s r e p o r t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e ,
T h e s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were a s f o l l o w s ; a) r e l a t i v e l y
small,
lean a n d m u s c u l a r , b ) e c t o m e s o m o r p h i c i n s h a p e , cf
small p e r c e n t f a t v a l u e s a s compared t o normal p o p u l a t i o n ,
b u t c o m p a r a b l e t o o t h e r a t h l e t e s w h e r e body @ass is
projected,
d) s p e c i f i c p r o p c r t i o n a f i t p t e n d e n c i e s i n c f uded
s h o r t t i b i a s , long t h i q h lengths, narrow b i t r o c h a n t e r i c
w i d t h s , a n d wid2 e p i c o n i i y l a r h u m e r u s a n d f e m u r w i d t h s
(males), a n d e f a t e n d e n c y t o l a t e m a t u r a t i o n a s shown i n
a g e of m a a r c h e r e s u l t s ,
2.
Th2 m a l e s u b g r o u p s showed s i n t i f a r p h y s i q u e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e p r o t o t y p e a n d most Q • ’ t h 2
d e v i a t i o n s %ere a t t r i b u t e d t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n ~ a t u r a t l o n a l
development.
T h e s p e c i f i c f i n d i n g s were:
a ) t h e n o v i c e man
(fl2) were a l a o s t i d e n t i c a l i n a l l a n a l y s i s , a n d p e r f o r m a n c e
d i f f e r e n c e s were t h e r e f o r e a t t r i b u t e d to t h e g r e a t e r s k i l l
l e s e l , e x p e r i e n c e a n d a g e of t h e e l i t e g r o u p ,
bf
t h e male
p a i r s ( B 3 ) were s l i g h t l y l a r g e r in g i r t h s a n d t r u n k l e n g t h
than t h e elite prototype, hut overall q u i t e similar,
The
d e v i a t i o n s were p o s t u l a t e d a s b e i n g a d v a n t a g e o u s i n
p e r f o r m i n g 1 P f ts, c) the young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s fflti)
d i f f e r e d t h e most f r o m t h e p r o t o t y p e i n s i z e , b u t s h o w e d
s i m i l a r s o m a t o t y p e , c o m p o s i t i o n and p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
c h a ~ a c t e r i s t i c s ,w 2 t h d i f f e r e n c e s m a i n l y a t t r i b u t e d t o
normal m a t u r a t i o n e v e n t s ,
3.
The f e m a l e s u b g r o u p s a l s o showed s i m i l a r p h y s i q u e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t h e e l i t e p r o t o t y p e ( P I ) : a ) t h e novic.;
l a d i s (P2) were s l i g h t l y smaller, a n d h a d l e s s f a t , b u t
were s i m i l a r i n p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y a n d s o m a t o t y p e ; t h e
d i f f s r e n c e s d i s p l a y e d were a t t r i b u t e d t o m a t u r a t i o n a l
l e v e l s , b) t h e young o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s o v e r 1 2 y e a r s (P3)
were s l i g h t l y l a r g e r ,
t o t h e e l i t e group;
and advanced i n m a t u r a t i o n a s compared
i t % a s peculated they were a t a
d i s a d v a n t a g e i n l e a r n i n g a n d p e r f o r m i n g s k a t i n g s k i l l s , c)
t h e y o u n g o u t s t a n d i n g s i n g l e s u n d e r 1 2 y e a r s [ F 4 ) were
g e n e r a l l y smaller t h a n t h e e l i t e g r o u p , b u t had similar
somatotype, composition and p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ;
d e v i a t i o n s were l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o m a t u r a t i o n a l
diffqrences.
Some d e v i a t i o n s s u c h a s l o w e r f a t a n d body
weight, proportionally narrower hips,
v i d e r knees and longer
f e e t wer2 t h o u g h t t o be a d v a n t a g e o u s i n f r e e s k a t i n g ,
T h e results o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y r a i s e a n u m b e r o f
qussticas.
1s t h e a p p a r ~ n ts p e c i f i c i t y of p h y s i g u a and
m a t u r i t y i n f i q u r e s k a t i n g a g e n e t i c phenomenon o r i s i t
environmntaf?
Does t h e s m a l l , lean, m u s c u l a r ,
o c t o m e s o m o r p h i c , l a t e ~ a t u r i n gchild, with s p e c i f i c
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y t e n d e n c i e s have a b i o m e c h a n i c a L a d v a n t a g e
a n d p e r s i s t i n h i s o r h e r a c t i v i t y d u e t o e a r l y s u c c e s s , or
does t h e y e a r r o u n d i n t e n s e , c o n s t a n t h e a v y t r a i n i n g
r e q u i r e d i n f i q u r e s k a t i n g effect t h e g r o w t h p r o c e s s
r e s u l t i n g i n t h e s p e c i f i c physique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s found i n
t h i s study?
F u r t h u r i n q u i r y s h o u l d go beyond t h e
f imita t i a n s of c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a n a l y s e s of o u t s t a n d i n g
f i g u r e s k a t e r s a s i n t h i s primary study,
Cross sectional
studies, u i t h a g e s t r a t i f i e d samples, c o m p a r i n g o u t s t a n d i n g
s k a t e r s w i t h less s u c c e s s f u l p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o
d e t e r m i n e the specificity of s k a t e r s a s t r u c t u r e ,
T h e growth
c h a r a c t e r k t ics r e q u i r e l c n g i t u d i n a l designs, p r e f e r a b l y
w i t h v a r i o u s c o n t r o l s c o m p r i s e d of n o n - s k a t i n g
p e r h a p s nun-skating
siblings,
c h i l d r e n or
A n t h r o p o m e t r i c l a n d m a r k s If L O B K i n a n t h r o p o m e t r i c T e r m i n i o l o g y
a n d L a n d a a r k s , a r e p o r t k a s ~ do n a L e o n a n d T h e a K o e r n e r
F o u n d a t i o n B e p o r t , J u l y , 1573, e d i t e d by R o s s c s t a 1 ,1975):
j v ) , T h e most s u p e r i c r p c i n t o n t h e s k u l l , i n t h e
m i d - s a g i t t a l p l a n e , when t h e head i s h e l d i n t h e F r a n k f u r t
p l a n e (fig. 3 ) -
VERTEX
GNWTHION { g n ) ,
F=point mentcnnier,
Chin,
T h e most i n f e r i o r
b o r d e r o f t h e m a n d i b l e i n the a i d - s a g i t t a l p l a n e ,
*
SUPRASTEXNALE {sst), F - f c u r c h e t t e s t e r n a l e , s u p r a s t e r n a l
notch,
T h e s u p e r i o r border o f t h e s t e r n a l n o t c h ( o r
i n c i s u r a jugularis) i n the sid-sagittal. plane,
HESOSTERWALE (&st). P o i n t l o c a t e d o n t h e c o r p s s t e r n i a t
h e i n t e r s e c t o f t h e m i d - s a g i t t a l lane and t h e h o r i z o n t a l
l a n e a t t h e m i d l e v e l cf t h e XV c h o n d r o s t e r n a l
articulation.
One s t a r t s c o u n t i n g a t t h e m a n u b r u - s t e r n a l
j o i n t which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e s e c o n d c o s t a l
cartif age,
*
EPIGASTRBLE (eg)
P o i n t i c c a t e d o n a n t e r i o r s u r f ace a t
t h e i n t e r s e c t of t h e a i d - s a g i t t a l lane a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l
p l a n e t h r o u g h t h e aost i n f e r i o r p o i n t on t h e t e n t h r i b s ,
THELION 4 t h ) ,
Breast n i p p l e ,
OMPHALION [om),
Bid-point
r f n a v e l or
umbilicus,
.
SYRPBYSION (sy)
f = b c r d s u ~ e r i e u rd e l a syllrphyse p u b i o n n e Top o f symphysis p u b i s ,
I h e superior border of t h e
symphysis o s s i s pubis a t the a i d - s a g i t t a l plane,
This is
l o c a t e d by h a v i n g t h e s u b j e c t place h i s i n d e x f i n g e r s
a b o u t f o u r c e n t i m e t e r s a p a r t a n d p r o c e e d i n g downward fro^
t h e n a v e l p a l p a t i n g g e n t l y c n the a b d o m i n a l wall u n t i l
The
t h e bony s u r f a c e o f t h e p u b i s i s l o c a t e d ,
a n t h r o p o m e t r i s t c a n the^ p a l p a t e t h e ' s u b j e c t - l o c a t e d t
l a n d m a r k w i t h h i s l e f t thumk a v o i d i n g t h e f o r e s i d e o f t h e
subject
s y m p h y s i s and g e n i t a l p a r t s w h i c h a r e i n f e r i o r
t o t h e landmark.
G e n e r a l l y , t h e l a n d x t a r k is a t t h e u p p e r l e v e l o f t h e p u b i c
h a i r z o n e a n d c a n be l o c a t ~ 6t h r o u g h l i g h t c l o t h i n g w i t h n o
difficulty,
*
-
A C R O B f A L E {a)
Acromial goint.
The p o i n t at the s u p e r i o r
a n d e x t e r n a l border of t h e a c r c m i o n p r o c e s s % h e n t h e s u b j e c t
is s t a n d i n g e r e c t w i t h r e l a x ~ darms,
T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of t h e
p o i n t a t t h e s u p e r i o r a n d e x t e r n a l b o r d e r is i n a c c o r d w i t h
t h e 1 9 1 2 G e n e v a C o n v e n t i o n d i n S t e w a r t 11452) a n d is n o t
i d e n t i c a l w i t h *qthe m o s t l a t e r a l - d e s c r i p t i o n by M a r t i n a n d
S a l - L ~ ; r(1957) o r j ' i n f e r i o r - ~ x t e r n a l b o r d e r H i n t h e I B P
Handbook ( l 9 6 9 f , T h e I c c a t i o n of t h e p o i n t may b e
f a c i l i t a t e d by h a v i n g t h e s r b j e c t b e n d l a t e r a l l y a t t h z
trunk, thus relaxing t h e deltoid.
+ R A C f A L E f r ) , T h e p o i n t a t t h e u p p e r a n d l a t e r a l b o r d e r of
t h e h e a d of t h e r a d i u s ( o r C a p i t u l um r a d i u s ) ,
T h i s c a n be
l o c a t e d b y p a l p a t i n g d o s n w a r d i n t h e l a t e r a l d i ~ p l ea t t h e
elbow where t h e r o t a t i n g head c a n e a s i l y be d e t e r m i n e d
when the s u b j e c t s l i g h t l y ~ r c n a t e sa n d s u p i n a t e s h i s f o r e a r m
u n d e r t h e s t a t i c n a r y c o n d y l e cf t h e h u ~ e r u s ,
* STYLIOH ( s t y ) , f = a p o p h y s e s t y l o i d e , S t y l c i d p r o c e s s ,
T h e most d i s t a l p o i n t of t h f p r o c e s s u s s t y l c i d e u s r a d i u s ,
T h e p o i n t is located i n t h e s o - c a l l e d j * a n a t o n t i c a l s n u f f
BOX",
f=tabatiere a n a t c m i g u e o r t h a t t r i a n g u l a r arsa formed
when t h e t h u m b is e x t e n d e d f a t e r a l l y a n d t h e a r e a d e f i n e d b y
t h e r a i s e d t e n d o n s of t h e m u s c l e s of t h e a b d u c t a r p q l l i c u s
l o n g u s a n d e x t e n s o r p o l l i c u ~b r e v i s w i t h t h e e x t e n s o r
p o l l i c u s longus,
F o r ~ ~ a s u r e m e n ot ns t h e u l n a , t h e s t y l i o n
u l n a r e c a n be u s e d ,
( d a ) , f = e x t r e m i t e i n t e r i e u r e d u d o i g t ntedius.
T i p o f t h e middle f i n g e r ,
T h e p i n t l o c a t e d a t t h e most
d i s t a l p o i n t of t h e m i d d l e f i n g e r o r d i g i t v h e a t h e a r a
is h a n g i n g a n d t h e f i n g e r s a r e s t r e t c h e d downwards,
The
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t i p s o f t h e o t h e r fingers a r e d e s i g n a t e d a s
d a c t y l i o n I,FI,IY a n d 8 ,
DACTPLIOH
HETACBRPWLE B B D I A L E {mr). T h e o u t e r m o s t g o i n t o f t h e d i s t a l
h e a d o f m e t a c a r p a l If cf t f e s t r e t c h e d h a n d (ie, a o s t
l a t e r a l point i n r e f e r e n c e to t h e anatomical position, o r
r a d i a l s i d e of t h e h a n d ) ,
MEFACARPALE U L N A R E ( m u ) ,
Tke o u t e r m o s t p o i n t o n t h e d i s t a l
ie, most
h e a d o f ths m e t a c a r p a l V cf t h e o u t s t r e t c h e d h a n d ,
m e d i a l p o i n t i n r e f e r e n c e t c the a a a t o ~ i c a lp o s i t i o n , o r
u l n a r s i d e of t h e h a n d .
ILIQCRISTBLE { i c f , E=crete i l i a q u e ,
The o u t e r m o s t l a t e r a l
p o i n t o f t h e c r i s t a i l i a c a , T h i s l a n d m a r k is u s u a l l y
e n c o m p a s s e d when o b t a i n i n g Z i - S i i o c r i s t a l b r e a d t h w i t h a n
a n t h r o ~ a m e t e ra l t h o u g h i t i s n o t u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d u n l e s s a
p r o j e c t e d measurement f c r i l i o c r i s t a l l e n g t h is r e q u i r e d ,
+ ILIOSPINALE { i s ) , F = ~ p i n ei f i a y u e a n t e r o - s u p e r i e u r e ,
The
a n t e r i o r superior iliac spine,
The pronounced t i p and n o t
t h e most f r o n t a l l y c u r v e d s i t e of t h e c r i s t a i l i a c a i s t h e
d e s i g n a t e d landmark,
*
TROCHANTEBION ( t r o f , T h e m o s t s u p e r i o r p o i n t o n t h a
g r e a t e r t r o c h a n t e r of t h e f e m u r ,
This cannot be located
However, a n
e a s i l y on f l e s h y s u b j e c t s , specially women,
a c c e p t a b l e a p p r o x i m a t i o n may b e a c h i e v e d by h a v i n g t h e
s u b j e c t s l i g h t l y a b d u c t h i s l e g a n d move i t f o r w a r d a n d
backwards w h i l e t h e a n t h r o p c m e t r i s t p a l g a t e s t h e femur
p r o g r e s s i v e l y upwards v i t h k i s f i n g e r t o determine t h e
l a n d m a r k o n t h e u p p e r m o s t p ~ i n to n t h e g r e a t e r t r c c h a n t e r TIBIBLE { t i ) ,
T i b i a l e internurn.
P = l i g n e a r t i c u l a i r e du
genou,
S u p e r i o r e x t r e m i t y cf t h e t i b i a .
The wost p r o x i a a l
p o i n t of t h e m a r g o g l e n o i d a f i s o f medial b o r d e r of t h e h e a d
of t h e tibia,
T h i s l a n d a a r k i s h a r d t o l o c a t e on s u b j e c t s
w i t h t h i c k s u b c u t a n e o u s fat l a y e r s a r o u n d t h e k n e e j o i n t ,
p a r t i c u a r l y o n women,
To f i n d t h e t i b i a l e t h e
a n t h r o p o m e t r i s t l o c a t e s t h e u p p e r b o r d ~ ro f t h e t i b i a b y
p a l p a t i n g the t e n d o n of t h e y u a d r i c e p s m u s c l e a t t h e
T h i s may k e f a c i l i t a t e d b y
d i s t a l e n d of t h e p a t e l l a ,
h a v i n g t h e s u b j e c t s l i g h t l y flex h i s l e g ,
The
a n t h r o p o m e t r i s t u s e s h i s i n d e x f i n g e r t o move i n w a r d p r e s s i n g
t h e skin to locate the t i k i a l pciat of the articulation a t
t h e f r o n t a l b o r d e r of t h e l i g a m e n t u r a c o l l a t e r a l e t i b i a l e ,
T h e l e v e l a t t h i s p o i n t s b c u l d be m a r k e d a s t h e r e f a r e n c e .
.t
+ TIEIALE EXTERNUH ( t e ) , T h i s p o i n t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
t i b i a l e a b o v e , b u t is l c c a t r d o n t h e L a t e r a l b o r d e r of t h e
I t is a k c v e t h e c a p u i t u l u m f i b u l a r e ,
head o f t h e t i b i a ,
T h e l o c a t i o n of t h e l a n d m a r k may be f a c i l i t a t e d by h a v i n g
I h e point is located a t t h e
t h e s u b j ~ c tf l e x h i s k n e e ,
c e n t e r of t h e t r i a d o f t h e € p i c o n d y l a r f e m u r , e p i c o n d y l a r
Both t i b i a 1 l a n d m a r k s a r e
t i b i a , a n d head o f t h e f i b u l a ,
s i t u a t e d i n p s a c t i c a f l y t h e same t r a n s v e r s e p l a n e ,
+ SPHY R I O B ( s p h ) , H a l i e o l a r e raediale o r r n a l l e o l a r e i n t e r n u r e ,
T h e most d i s t a l t i p o f t h e a a l l e o l a r e w e d i a l i s ( t i b i a l i s ) ,
T h i s l a n d m a r k may b e l o c a t e d e a s i e s t f r o m b e n e a t h a n d
dorsally,
I t is t h e d i s t a l t i p a n d n o t t h e o u t e r m o s t p o i n t
of t h e @ a l el o l u s ,
+
S P H Y R I O N FIBULARE ( s p h f) , B a l l e o l a r e l a t e r a f e o r
m a l l e o l a r e externum,
T h e mcst d i s t a l t i p o f m a i l e o f a r e
Paterale (fibularis),
T h e n p h y r i o n f i b u l a r e is m o r e d i s t a l
than t h e sphysion tibiale,
f p t e ) , T h e most p c s t e r i o r p o i n t o n t h 9 h e e l o f t h e
f o o t when t h e s u b j e c t i s standing.
PTEBNHON
AKRDPODION ( a p ) , T h e m c s t a n t e r i o r p o i n t on t h e t o e of t h e
f o o t when t h e s u b j e c t i s s t a n d i n g ,
T h i s a a y be t h e I o r If
phalange,
T h e s u b j e c t ' s t e e n a i l may h a v e t o b e c l i p p e d t o
make a m e a s u r e i a e n t ,
t
The o u t e r m o s t p o i n t o n t h e head
FIETATBRSALE T I B I A L E ( ~ t).
of m e t a t a r s a l e I o h t h e f o o t when t h s s u b j e c t i s s t a n d i n g ,
EETATBRSBLE FIBULABE ( m t f ) , T h e o u t e r m o s t p o i n t o f t h e
h e a d o f m e t a t a r s a f e V when t h e s u b j e c t i s s t a n d i n g .
C E R V ~ C A L E (c), T h e ~ c s pt o s t e r i o r p o i n t o f t h e s p i n o u s
p r o c e s s of t h e seventh cervical v e r t e b r a ,
T o locate t h i s
landmark, t h e s u b j e c t nods h i s head foruard; t h e s p i n o u s
p r o c e s s o f t h e s e v e n t h c e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a moves a w a y f r o n t h e
s p i n o u s p r o c e s s of t h e u s u a l l y more p r o m i n e n t f i r s t t h o r a c i c
v e r t e k r a ; o n c e t h e c e r v i c a l e is I c c a t e d , t h e s u b j e c t
a s s u m e s a n erect s t a n d i n g p c s i t i o n a n d its l o c a t i o n is
marked,
4
GLUTEALE ( g a l - Piid g l u t e a l a r c h .
The p o i n t a t t h e
sacrococcygeaf f u s i o n a t t h e mid-sagittal plane,
To l o c a t *
t h i s l a n d m a r k t h e a n t h r c p c m e t r i s - t p l a c e s h i s thulab a t t h e
t o p o f the g l n t e a l f u r r c w a n d p a l p a t e s i n a downward
d i r e c t i o n t o l o c a t e the l a n d m a r k w i t h h i s t h u m b s o t h e
s i t e may be l o c a k e d .
The a ~ t h r o p c m e t r i s t ' s f i n g e r s should be
s p r e a d u p w a r d s on t h e l u m k a r r e g i o n of t h e s u b j e c t a n d t h e
landmark l o c a t e d with m i aimal adjustment o f c l o t h i n g -
*
d e r m a t o y r a p h i c mark a t m i d - s a g i t t a l
lane,
+ d e r m a t o g r a p h i c mark en z l g h t s i d e o n l y ,
n o d e s i g n a t i o n i n d i c a t e s l a n d m a r k L o c a t e d a t t h e time
of m e a s u r e m e n t ,
A p p e n d i x 2:
The anthrogometric measurement proforma
u s e d i n t h i s study.
I
.
Subject
(GWEN NAM€SJ
Proj%cl
Identity
Date of Observations
day
Oate of bitth
day
. Body
wetght
kg
- correction of
. HCght (cm) Sittit@ height (subject seated, knees dsvated 4", tags Iranging)
-
Maximum head length {glabetls occiput)
k x i m w n head breadth (tranveree partietat diemaer)
-
34
Xead height Itregion verttrx)
37
Biryganatic breadth (most-Ietml zygdmstic pointsf
$0
Bigonial breadth (distance between ganial points)
43
Motphological face height (nesion-gnsthim)
46
-
49
Magal lewrlgth (nasion 8lubnasitle)
l-.,+-&~
Stlhpct
1
(GIVEN NAMES!
ILAST NAMI
Project
4
Idatity
6
Date of chservetions
m
day
m
J
Thtgh R (crotch level, 1 cm. distal to giutssl fold]
-
I
J
WW
I
.
14
Mibrhigh R {mid trochentwion tibiale laterale)
,-,
17
Knee R (mid patella, relaxed, slight flexion at knee) ,
20
Calf R (max. c~rcunterence,weight on both feet)
L
,
23
.
26
A ~ ~ kRl e(min.. circumference, pmnimal to mall eoli)
Thigh L {crotch level, 1 em, distal
-
29
to gluteal fold) ,.-.,.---.--
Mtdtltigh L (mid trachonteriw tibiale laterale) .,
3 2
Knee L (mid patetla, relaxed, slight flexion at knee).
Calf L (max. circumference, weight on both feet)
--rru., - ,
35
-36
m
41
Ankle L h i n . circumference, proximal
---- ----1----.- - ---- - -- -
TWEPS R
SWlSCAPUtAR RD
44
47
50
53
68
59
62
tlhi
FmM thtgh R
68
War Thigh R
91
MEDtAL CALF R
74
----------
- . - - * - - - - - - - - - - _ - _ - - -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I
-
.
77
79
I
HEIGHTS AND CEWTHS
Sublect
1
( U S 1 MAW)
(GIVEN N A M S t
Project
4
Identity
6
Oateofobsewations
day
Date of birth
dev
Httiyht (em)
Gnathian
.
a
a
7
m
m
o
-
En
I
vwr
11r
m9
a
-- -
--
--~~
19
23
-
Suprast ernal
14
17
Inftosternal
31
Symphysion
3s
Acromial
39
.
&dial
43
- . . .. .
Stylion
Dactylion
-
.:
.
51
55
t licrspinal
* 59
Ttochanteric,
68
Sphyrion (tibioi)
Cervical
t '
, 70
'
Gluteal Arch
-. '
.-
47
- - . .-
-- -
--
- - . - - - . L C - -
p.
78
Subject
I
(LAST N A * I
tOIVE N M A W S !
Project
4
ldesttity
6
bteofobservation
U
day
J
rn
UJ
rear
O7
9
fit-Actomiol
14
Bi*Deltoid
17
Bi-itiecriste~
2Q
Trarnvmse Mesostswlol
23
.I
06-Ttochanteric ,
Chest D m h (A-P)
-Humerus R (bi-egieondyiar width)
29
Hwnwus L (bi-epicondylarwidth) ,
35
-_
Wrist R (stylionulnare width)
32
.
38
Wrist 1 (stylimulnare width)
Hand (distal Il
- V #ktacarwtsl
4t
44
t t n (dtstnt
~
it
-
4@
~tQacorp&)
$2
Femur R (bi-epicandylar width)
Tibia R {branch applied proximrt to fibula)
Ficarwr L (bi-epicondyler width)
t
, 4b
1
60
I
fibja L (branch appl idprgwiml to fibula) ,
#
Ankle R (nrcerdiaEkZeml mlleoli width)
48
Ankle 1 (medial-later81 d l e o t i width)
72
.
-.
-.
-.
. .
76
I
-
L
L
-
3
-L
.-r,t-
I
Subject
I W S T NAME)
IGtVEN NAMES1
4
Protect
ldent ity
Datedobservatims
. n
~
d
-..
-
Me&
day
-
.
--
.
_-_________
I___-.- - - - _ .
._.__
_______
Shoulder
- --
Chest (mesosternale level, mid tidal vol.)
-
---
-.
,20
28
AWomtnel (2)(umbifical level)
-
---
.9
36
Buttocks tmx. posterior protrusion, symphysis pubis)
Upper arm relaxed L (mid acromials radiale)
40
.
-.
llppler arm L (nrex., fully flexed, tensed}
43
-
Upper arm R (mar., flexed 90'. tensed)
Upper arm R (maw., fully ftexed, tensed)
17
24
Abdominat ( 1 ) (smallest circumference)
-
14
.,-.
49
Forearm R (mix ,, volar surface upward, hand open)
55
Wrist R (distai to stylaid processes of radius and ulna)
Forearm C
-.
.
-
58
I
1
A p p e n d i x 3:
T h e a g e of ena arc he q u e s t i o n n a i r e a d m i n i s t e r a d
t o a l l f e m a l ~s u b j e c t s i n t h i s study.
SIMON FRASRR UNNERSITY
Department of Kinesiology
D r . W.D. Ross
Menarche or the o n s e t o f menstruation is a m a t u r i t y indicator w e d
t o s t u d y growth and development p a t t e r n s .
A s t u d y of n a t i o n a l l y s e l e c t e d Canadian Figure Skaters r e q u i r e s
several comparative r e f e r e n c e groups t o f u r n i s h r e c a l l d a t a of the
o n s e t of menstruation.
P l e a s e g i v e t h e month and
We should apprc?ciate your cooperation.
year o f t h e f i r s t occurrence
mcrn t h
year
and check the s t a t e m e n t which bcs t d e s c r i b e s your e s t i m a t e .
0
1.
c e r t a i n of t h e d a t e
2,
f a i r l y certain
3.
only approximate
E
l
4.
best cstirnatc b u t u n c e r t a i n
El
G i v e d a t e of b i r t h .
Soma ccmguter program for calculation of
Heath-Cartfr s c m a t o t y p e a n d s o m a t o p l o t s ,
A p p e n d i x 4:
/ / S 1 EXEC FORTGCG,REGICN,GO=15OX
//PORT,SYSIB
DD
*
GCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCfCCCCflCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
~***i(*ss
C
C
C
C
**s**
4 ) INPUT ABW DATA CR PREVIOUSLY DETERHIBED SOMATOTYPES,
5) HEIGHT CORRECTICN TC EMDOMORPHY (54. D,. ROSS)
C
C
C
SOMASOTYPE
THIS PBOGBAFI ALLOHS FCP THE FOLLOWING OPTIOHS:
11 rNpnr UP TO 99 SUBJECTS,
2 ) CALCULATfGN OF VARIANCE M F T H N O R N-1 I N Dfr;NDMfNWTOd.
3) PLOT SCEIATOCRABS CN T H E CALCOHP 1 1 0 PLOTTEE,
c
C
C
C
PROGRBH T O CALCULBTE HEATH-CARTEB
WBfTTEN BY RE0 AUDE%TE/ACADEHIC SERVICES
SIBON FRASER fJNfYERSf%Y
DATE: JUWE/75
CONTROL CARD 1
C
G
C
C
COEU6NS 1 - 8 0
TITLE
T I T L E CARD
NSBJB
NCHBER OF SUBJECTS
CONTROL C A R D 2
C
C
C O L U H N S 4-5
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
CDLUBM
10
NSAtVfP = O
NSAHF = 1
E N T I R E P O P U L A f ION
SAP'iPLE DATA
NOTE: EFFECTS DEMOMIEAIOR 1%
CALCULATI ON O F VARIAHCE,
CDLUBN
15
NPLO'I = O
NPLOT = 1
N O PLOT OUTPUT
C
COLUBN
NTYPE = 1
ENPUT SEHAPOTPPES
CALCULATE SCMBTDTYPES
5ITHOUT HEIGHT CORRECTION
CALCULATE SOPIAPOTYPES
WITH BEIGH'Z COdBECTION
CALCULATE SQEATOTYPES
%fTB A N D WIQHOUT HEIGHT
COBBECTIDN
20
NTYPE = 2
C
C
C
NTYPE = 3
C
NTYPE = 4
C
C
C
PLOT SQMATOCB ART
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCcccc~cc€cc€c~ccCccccccccc
#
#
#
#
R E A W 4 BEMDO {24) /
10-95, 14-95, 18-95, 2 2 - 9 5 , 2 6 - 9 5 , 3 3 - 2 5 ,
3 5 - 0 5 , 40.75,
4 6 - 2 5 , 5 2 , 2 5 , 5 8 - 7 5 , 65-75,
73-25, 8 1 - 2 5 , E9-75, 98,95,308,95,319,75,
1 3 3 , 2 5 , 1 4 3 - 7 5 , 1 5 7 - 2 5 J '171i)95, 1 8 7 - 9 5 , 2 0 4 , 0 5 /
REAL*4 MHT (54)/
4
C)
a
0
Y
I".
0
M
ZERO=, TRUE,
PBIMT 11U5,SBJT(J),fD(J),PXJT(J)
. A G E { J ) ,BTfJ). i i T j J ) ,fCSFfJ).
3 SSSF (13) ,SISP I53 ,HCSF fJ) ,BUM% (J) ,FEElrd{J), B R M G I J ) ,CAFG ( J f ,M I 3
GO T O 400
C
CALCULATION OF THE FIRST COLFOWENT ENDOBCRPHY
C
100 Sf33SH 12) =TCSP [J) +SSSF (3)+SISF {J)
DO 105 I=1,24
IF {BENDO {I) ,GE, S f S B S E f J ) ) GO TO 110
1 05
COMTSBflE
110 ENDO(J)=f/2,0
t"
CRLCULAQPON OF THE SECOND CCBPONEWT BESORORPBY
C
DO 200 I=1,5Y
f F (BET (I) ,GE, HT {J) ) GO TO 2 0 5
200 COWTIWUE
2 0 5 NTP=I:
DO 210 I=1,54
13' ( R H U e f t ( 1 )
210 CONTfWUE
215 HUPlP=f-1
DO 2 2 0 I=1,54
,GT,
HUN# IJ) ) GO TO 2 3 5
h
0
m
nl
F
Q
M
0
C3
n
-
F4
04
+I
H
0
h?
U1
z
*
=mm
F
QQLn
r
*
a
yQ,a
w
r3
ONrn
"er*
;2;
r0QQ
cqffica
w cria sci
9 "3H H
*la r
3
2
LQFC
kc
vl
a
8
C!?
W
2
sc=:
~
N
3
Z g
x
W
9
rn
\
0
7-
*
rrr
r
0
=?. ,
E-c:*z
r,CNO
m~ ~ Q M
mmF".a;3\
-EcnZm
2311 I! W X H
W M W
4-W
G W I1 W 5 * a
r r 3
11-O
z%Qzi;E;MWQ
Q&NhQWMl-'at&C
F
w
H
H
ffi F
h I% m
CLt H Y Q
V Z - - 2
Ul-MUO&-hM22
E-iH
%3QWzGCEI
O D 0
m m n
0
n
F
CCCCCCCCCCCECCCCCCCCCC~C~CC~CCCCCCCCC~CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC~~
C
C T H I S S U 3 2 O U T I N E PLOTS A SCHASOCHAHT ON THE CALCORP 1 1 0 C
CCCCCCCCcCCCcC~CCCtCCCCCcCCfCCCCCCCCCCCCc€~cccCcccccc~cccCccccccc
REAL*B X (100) ,Y (1 00) , T I T L E ( 2 0 )
INTEGER*2 PDj100),AV/*AV'/
REAL*4 H/0,140/,~/2.0~,K/3t35/,XLtfST/10~0/
X (MSBJT) = X B A R
Y j#SBJT) =YBAB
I D {NSBJT) =BV
C
R R D f A N = 3 , 14l593/18O0,C
ROOT3=SQPT 13.0)
R=4,0*ROOT3
C
X171=0,0
X117=5,0jBOOT3
X717=-XI17
C
Y I71=4,O
Y1'17=-2-0
Y711=-2-0
C
I F (XDIST ,GT, 1 0 . 0 )
CALL PLOTS (I,J)
CALL PLOT(7,0,4,0,-3)
X D f ST=XDf ST+?2 - 0
50
GC TO 5 0
cam xzra I q r ( x D r s q
CALL SYMBCL(-8,O/ECOT3,+6, 0 , HITfTLEJoe0 J 8 0 )
IF (I3TPPE ,EQ, 2 ) CALL SYKBCL(-8.0jRQ0T3,*6-0-2,O*Hf
a,
W S D f S T 3 I B U T I O N WITRGUT EEICHT CORRECTION' , 9 , 0 , + 3 8 f
I F jP3TYPE ,EQ, 3 ) CALI SYMBCIL (-8,O/ROOT3, + 6 , 0-2,O*H,d,
# * D I S T R I B U T I O N WITH HElGHT CURBECTION',o,0,+35)
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCcCCCccccccc c c ~ C c c c c c c c ~ c c c ~ ~
C
C
PLOT THE THREE A X E S
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCGCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
*H,
H, "E5CMOEPBY1, 0 . 0 , *70)
CALL SYMBOL(-K*H,Y373+{M-I-O)
#
CALL PLOT(0,0,16,0/3,C,3)
CALL PLOT(0-O,Y371-R,
2)
C
#
#
CALL SYH30E 11173 1- (K+N*fiO0T3) *H/2.0,
Y71 1- (M-K*ROOT3) *H/2,0,
H, * EMDCHOEiPHY*,-60, 0 , + 1 0 )
CALL PLOT (-8*O/ROCT3,-8, O/3-0,3)
CALL PLGT (48,O/BOOT3, +8,0/3.0,2)
C
CALL SYMiiOL(X3 17- (K-M*&OOT3) *H/2,0,
%
#
P117- (ES+K*RODT3) *H/2,0,
H,aECTCECEPHP*,+60, O , * ' f O )
CALL PLOT (+8- 0/ROGT3,-8,0/3,0,3)
CALL PLOT (-8.0jRGOT3, +8,0/3. 0 s 2 )
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC~CCCCCEC~CCCC~C~CCC~~~~~~~~~~~~
P
1
,
C
PLOT THE CUBVED P C R P I C N OF THE PRZNTOIJT
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCf:CCCcCCccccccccCcccccccc€ccccc€cc
CALL PLOT ( X l 7 1 , Y 1 7 l r 3 )
DO 1 0 0 9 = 1 2 0 0 , 1 8 0 0 , 5
THETI=I*RADIAN
CAZL P L O T ( R * C O S (TBETA) + X I 1 7 ,B*Sf N (THETA) + Y 1 3 7 , 2 )
DO 200 I=2G05,3000,5
THETA=f + R A D I A N
200
CALL PLOT iB*COS (THETA) , R * S P B {THETA) + Y l ? f , 2 )
DO 300 1 = 5 , 6 0 0 , 5
THETA=I*RBDIhN
300
CALL PZDT;[R*COS('iHE'fA) +X711 ,R*Sf N (THETA) +Y711.2)
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCfCECCCECCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
100
C
C TO PLOT THE VALUES CBlCULATED
F O R THE SUBATOTYPE ON T H E AXES.
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCcCCCCCCCCCtCCCCCCCCCCCCCCcccccccCcCcccc~cccccccccCc
DO YO0 J=I,NSBJX
( J )J3,O-0.
035,0,07,II, (J) ,
400
CALL SYMBOL (X (J)/RCCT3-0.07,Y
0,0,2)
CALL PLQT (32,O,O, 0,-3)
RETURN
END
//GO,PLOTTER
DD SYSOUT= {1.,5110) , S P A C E = (CYL, d l , 1) ,ELSE)
//GO,SYSIN
BD
*
Appendix 5:
Computer p r c g r a m f o r c a l c u l a t i o n c f "f" i n d e x ,
//Sl
EXEC F O R T G C L G
//FORT.SPSIM
DB
*
100
10
101
oxamsroa s o x ( 2 0 ) .X 126) .Y 4 2 0 )
REBD ( 5 , 1 0 0 ) KEND
FORHAT (IS)
D O 10 I = I , K E N D
R E A D 15,ao 13 ~ D (1)
I ,x (I).Y ( I )
WRITE f6.101)
S D I ( I ).X 433 ,Y (1)
EORMBT{lX,3F8,5)
DO 1000 I = l , K E W D
&END=KEND-I
I F { H E N D , EQ, 0 ) G O T O 2 0 C O
DO 500 J = l , M E N D
&=I+J
D ? F P X = X ( I+J) - X (I)
D I P F Y = Y {I+J)
-Y 41)
DX=DIFFX**2
DY=DIPFY**2
S D D = S Q R T ( ( 3 * D X ) +DY)
s=( S D I (P:+J) + S D f [I)* S D C ) / 2 .
S1=S-SDI (I+J)
S 2=S- S D I (1)
S3=S-SDD
P=SQRT ( S * 5 3 * S 2 * S 3 )
A X = 3 , l Q l 5 9 2 6 W * { S D f (f-bJ) f **Zf
A Y = 3 , 1 4 3 5 9 2 6 5 4 * ( ( S D f [ I )) **2)
I P ( S D D + S D I ( I j , G T - S D T (I+J). A N D , S D D + S D f :
I F (AX. GT, A K f GOT070
B I N D = 1 0 O * (AX/AY)
( I + J ) , G T , S D I {I)) G O T O 9
GOTO 50
70
50
445
90
446
91
B I N D = 1 0 0 * {AY/RX)
HHITE (6,Y45) P.I,I,SX)C, A X , A Y , B f N D
FORFlAT(1H1,YH SUBGXOUI,I2,16H V f T H I N SOBG2OUP,I2/5H
SDD=,
F10,6/4H
IAX=,F10,5/4H
A Y = , E l O . E/SH B I M D = , F 1 0 , 6 )
G O T 0 500
I F ( S D 1 ~I+J)d-SDI/I),GT.SCD)
GOTO 91
BIND=O,O
WRITE 1 6 , 4 4 6 ) W,f.SCC,
EIND
F O R f i A T [ 3 H I , 4 l H THERE I S MO O V E R L A P P I K G BETWEEN SiJBGBUUP, 12,
1 3 H AND
I SUBGROUP , f 2 / 5 H S D D = , E I 8 , 6 / 6 H
BIHD=,F10.6)
G O T 0 500
IF (SDI(I), G E , S$I (PJ)
GOTO 9 8
ALPHA= ( 2 * A B S I N {z*P/ (5x1 ( f + J ) * S D D ) ) ) * { 1 8 0 / 3 , 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 4 )
I P ( (SDD**2) ,GT, { S D I ( I ) * * 2 ) + ( S D I ( I + J ) **2))
GOTO 6 2 0
SBETA= { S I N ( ( A L P H A * 3 , 1 4 3 5 9 2 6 5 4 ] /
f 3 6 0 ) ) * S D D f / ( S D I (I))
BETA= (ARSIN [SBETA) * 1 8 0 ) / 3 , 1 4 1 5 8 2 5 5 4
GOT0 312
SBZT8= {SIN ( [Af,PHA*3,141592654] / f36G) ) *SDD3/ ISDf (11)
BETA=180- I (ARSfW (SBETA)* 1 8 0 ) / 3 , 1 4 1 % 2 6 5 4 )
GAaHA=2* { 180- {ALPHA/ 2 ] -BETA)
B ? = 33- 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 4 * 5 0 I ( I W )*SDf (3:jJ) *ALPHA)/ (360)
C 1=B1- (2*P)
C2= 43,141 592654*SCI ( I )*SDI (1)*GAHHA)/(360)
BfND=100* { ( C l + C 2 ) / {AX+AY-C1-€2) )
GOTO 6 0 0
ALPHA= (2*ARSXN {2*F/ ( S C f {I)*SDD) ) ) *(180/3.141592654)
IF ( (SDD**2) ,GT. [SDI (1)* * 2 ) + [SDI [ I + J ) **2) ) GCTO 6 3 0
SBETA= {Sf I{ (BLPHA*3, 1li1582654]/ I 3 6 0 ) ) *SDD)/ (SDI ( I + J ) )
serA=(ARSIN (SBETA)*180) / 3 . 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 4
GOT0 3 1 3
SBE'fA= ( S I N ( ( A L P H A * 3 , ? i i ? 5 9 2 6 5 4 ) / 4 3 6 0 ) < )* S D D ) / i S D I [ I + J ) )
BETA=780- [(WRSf N [SBETA) 180) / 8 , 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 4 )
GAHEA=2*(380- [ A L P H A / 2 ) -BETA)
B 1 = ( 3 , 3 4 1 592654*SDf {I)*SDf {I)*ALPHA)/ 13-60)
C 1=B 1- (2*P)
C2= (3. I 4 1 592654*SDf (1.1.J)*SDf { I + 3 )*GAHBiB)/(3fSO)
BfEfD=IOO* { (Cl+C2)/{AX+AY-CI-C2) f
WXITE ( 6 , 1 0 2 ) i9,1fSCD,S , P g A X , A Y , A L P A A , B E T A , G A f 4 P 1 A , B l , C 1 , C 2 ,
FOREBT[lH1,9H SUBGRCUf,X2,13•’? A % D SUBGROUP,T2/5H S D D = ,
*
F1O.6J3H
BIRD
S=,
1F10,6/3H P=,F10,6/4H AX=, F10,6/4H AY=,EI0,6/7H
ALPHA=,
FIO,S/GR BE3
2A=,F10,6/7H GA&&A=,ElC,6/4H Bl=,FIO, 6/4H C1=, PlO,G/4B C2=,
F10,6/6H
3 BIND=,F10,6)
500
7 000
2000
CONTINUE
CCNTINUE
STOP
END
//GD,SYSIN
DD
*
Appsndix 6:
s u m o f six
skinfofds
Table f o r e s t i m a t i c n of p e r c e n t f a t
b y Yuhasz p r o c e d u r e ,
percent
f a t (men)
sua o f s i x
s k i n f of ds
percent
fat (promsn)
A c h e s o n R,H,,
a n d D u p e r t u i s C , B , ( 1 9 5 7 ) + The
r e l a t i o n s h i p between P h y s i q u e and rate o f s k e l e t a l
29: l 6 7 - ? 9 3 ,
m a t u r a t i o n i n boys,
Hum, B i o l ,
A s m u s s e n E, a n d H e e b c l - N i e l s c n K, ( l 9 5 5 ) , A d i m 9 u s i o n a l
a n a l y s i s of p h y s i c a l p e r f o r n a n c e a n d g r o w t h i n boys, 3 ,
AppL Physiol,
7: 593.
R s t r a n d F - 0 , a n d R c d a h l 8, ( 1 9 7 0 ) - T e x t b o o k o f v o r k
H c G r a w H i l l ti, Y, 319-331,
Physiology,
W y l a n d e r 9,. E n g s t r o m L,,
A s t r a n d P,O,, E r i k s o n E , D , ,
K a r f b e r g R , , S a l t i n B , , and T h o r e a C, ( 1 9 6 3 ) - G i r f swimmers,
A c t a , P a e d i a t , S c a n d , ( s u p p 1 , 147).
Behnlkt A - 8 , ( 1 9 6 l ) , ~ u a n t i t a t i v ea s s e s s m e n t o f b o d y
J,
Appl,
P h y s i o l , 16: 560-968.
build,
B e h n k e A, R.
{I9633
,A ~ t h r o p o m e t r i ce s t i m a t e s o f b o d y
size, shape and f a t content, Postgrad,
Bed,
34:190-198,
B e h n k e A,R,,
a n d R o y c e J, (19663, Body s i z e , s h a p e a n d
c o m p o s i t i o n of several t y p e s o f a t h l e t e s , 3, S p o r t s Bed,
6: 75-88,
Phys, F i t n e s s ,
Behnk2 A - R , j1968) , P h y s i q u e a n d e x e r c i s e , I n :
e d . 8, P a l l s , A c a d e m i c P r e s s , N e w
Zxercise Physiology,
York*
Behnke A,R,,
a n d R i l m o r e J, ( 1 3 7 4 ) , E v a l u a t i o n a n d
R e g u l a t i o n o f Body B u i k d a n d C o m p o s i t i o n , P r e n t i c e - B a f 1,
E n g l e v o o d C l i f f s W,J.
B o j l e n K,, P a s c h G - s n d B e n t z o n M, { 1 9 5 4 f , T h e a g e
i n c i d e n c e o f t h e m n a r c h e 3 n C o p e n h a g e n , Acta O b s t e t ,
331 4135-433,
Gynecol, Scand.
H e b b e l i n b M, , a n d R o s s M , D , ( 1 9 7 3 ) ,
Borms J.,
Somatotype a n d s k e l e t a l m a t t x i t y In t g e l v e y e a r old boys,
In: P e d i a t r i c Work P h y s i c f o g y P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e E o u r t h
I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y a p o s i u m , 0 , E a r - O r ed, W i n g a t e I n s t i t u t e ,
Israel,
85-91,
Brown C , H , , a n d h ; i l m o r ~J,H, ( 1 9 7 0 ) , % e i g h t t r a i n i n g
N e w Mexico,
i n female a t h l e t e s p a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o A , C , S , L ,
~ h p s i c a la n d
BroMn C . B,. a n d Wilmcrf J, Ha ( l 9 7 l ) ,
p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o f i l e s c f c h a m p i o n women l o n g d i s t a n c e
Tcronto,
r u n n e r s , g a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o A,C,S.B,,
B r o z e k J , ( l 9 6 3 ) , ~ e n s i t o m e t r i ca n a l y s i s o f b o d y
c o m p o s i t i o n : r e v i s i o n of s c w q u a n t i t a t i v e a s s u ~ p t i o n s .
Acad, S c i . 1 1 0 , 1 1 3 - 1 4 0 ,
Ann, N.Y.
A n d e r s o n J,, a n d K e y s A . { 1 9 6 3 ) s
B r o z e k J,, G r a n d e F.,
D e n s i t c m e t r i c a n a l y s i s c f b c d y c o m p o s i t i o n , ~ e v i s i o nof s o a e
q u a n t i t a t i v e assumptions,
Ann, N, Y, Acad, Sci, 110: p a r t 2450-464,
Henarcheal age i n
B r u n t l a n d G,H, a n d % a l l @L, ( 1 9 7 3 ) Norway; h a l t i n t h e t r e n d t c w a r d s e a r l i e r m a t u r a t i o n ,
Nature,
2 4 1 , F@b 1 6 , 478,
B u g y i 3, a n d K a u s z 1, ( 1 9 7 0 ) Radiographic
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Sp, Bed, P h y s , F i t n e s s , 10: 269-270,
J, of
C a r t e l : J,E,L,
11966).
The s o m a t o t y p e s of srairttmers,
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period,
C a r t e r J,E,L,
( 1 9701.
The somatot.ypes o f a t h l e t e s - a
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a n d Heath B,H,
(1971) = S o m a t o t y p e
m e t h o d o l o g y a n d k i n e s i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , K e n i s , Bev, I,
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( 1 9 7 11,
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a d o s e s c e n t b o y s r e l a t e d t o ~ h y s i q u ea n d s c m a t o t y p e ,
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-i
i3udapest.
Tne
E i b e n 0,G , , 8oss W, D,,
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fYfr3tor p e r f o r o a a a c e i n
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24,
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b e t w e e n p h y s i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e of s c h o o l c h i l d r e n a n d a g e ,
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-
WBotor
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a n t h r o p o m t r i c e s t i m a t i c n o f body d e n s i t y a n d l e a n b o d y
H G ~ , Sci, S p o r t s , V o l 5 , no
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P r i s - H a n s e n 3, ( l g ? I ) ,
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Paediatrician. ~ o l
G a r n S,H, ( 3 9 6 1 ) , B a d i c g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s o f body
composition.
In:
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