Leaving Certificate
Agricultural Science
Higher Level
Iain Wallace
Soils
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Ref: 6/AgSci/h/iw/soils
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Timetable
An extensive range of course options are
available over a two-week period to cater for
students’ timetable needs. Courses are held over
the following weeks:
»» Monday 10th – Friday 14th April 2017
»» Monday 17th – Friday 21st April 2017
All Easter Revision Courses take place in The Talbot Hotel, Stillorgan
(formerly known as The Stillorgan Park Hotel).
6th Year Easter Revision Courses
DATES
5th Year Easter Revision Courses
SUBJECT
LEVEL
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SUBJECT
LEVEL
Accounting
H
Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
12:00pm - 1:30pm
DATES
TIME
English
H
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12:00pm - 1:30pm
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10:00am - 11:30am
Applied Maths
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Note: 4th Year students are welcome to attend any of the 5th Year courses
listed above.
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H
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H
Monday 17th - Friday 21st April
Business
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Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
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H
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H
Chemistry Course B*
3rd Year Easter Revision Courses
SUBJECT
LEVEL
8:00am - 9:30am
Business
Studies
H
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2:00pm - 3:30pm
12:00pm - 1:30pm
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H
Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
10:00am - 11:30am
8:00am - 9:30am
English
H
Monday 17th - Friday 21st April
12:00pm - 1:30pm
Monday 17th - Friday 21st April
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10:00am - 11:30am
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Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
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Monday 17th - Friday 21st April
10:00am - 11:30am
Irish
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English Paper 1*
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Maths
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Monday 17th - Friday 21st April
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H
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10:00am - 11:30am
Maths
O
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2:00pm - 3:30pm
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H
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Science
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12:00pm - 1:30pm
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Geography
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Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
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Spanish
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Geography
H
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12:00pm - 1:30pm
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above.
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Home Economics
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Irish
H
Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
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Irish
H
Monday 17th - Friday 21st April
12:00pm - 1:30pm
Maths Paper 1*
H
Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
8:00am - 9:30am
Maths Paper 1*
H
Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
12:00pm - 1:30pm
Maths Paper 1*
H
Monday 17th - Friday 21st April
8:00am - 9:30am
Maths Paper 2*
H
Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
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SUBJECT
Maths Paper 2*
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French
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Sunday 12th March
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German
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Saturday 11th March
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Maths
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Monday 10th - Friday 14th April
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Sunday 19th March
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Monday 17th - Friday 21st April
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Saturday 11th March
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Spanish
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Spanish
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* Due to large course content, these subjects have
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covered in these courses, please see 3 pages ahead.
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Soil Production appears as a full question (Question 2) on the Agricultural
Science Exam every year. Worth 48 marks or 12.5% of your total grade, it is
essential to master the key elements of Parent Material, Soil Composition,
Chemistry and Biology.
Checklist for mastering this topic
Soil Science Where is your learning at?
Green : I know it all
Orange : I have some idea – study the sections in more detail
Red : I need to start studying this section
SOIL SCIENCE
1. Origins of Soil
1
2
3
4
5
Know rock groups, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic and
be able to give examples of rocks classified under each.
The properties of granite, basalt, limestone, and sandstone their
permeability, Ph and effect they have on the soil above them.
Examples of Weathering and Erosion
How a bog is formed and be able to name and know the
differences between 3 types of bogs
The desirable and undesirable characteristics of sandy loam and
clay soils
2. Soil Composition
1
2
Know what soil is composed of
Be able to define soil texture and how texture effects the
properties of soil.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
Page 1
Iain Wallace
3
7
Humus and all its properties
The various living organisms in soil, their benefits and how to
keep them in the soil
The importance of water in soil and the harmful affects of having
too much
Define flooding, waterlogging, water table, field capacity,
gravitational water, capillary water, soil moisture defecit, wilting
point.
The reaons why air is needed in a soil, why different soil types
have better aeration than others, and how aeration can be
encouraged
8
How and which characteristics effect the temperature of a soil
4
5
6
3. Chemical Properties
1
Be able to explain, colloids, colloidal solution
2
Flocculation
3
Cation Exchange
4
Fertility of Clay
5
Be able to define pH
6
Explain why a neutral Ph is usually required in soils
4.Types of Soil
1
2
3
4
Know 3 good and 3 poor agricultural soils and the counties in
which you would find them
Be able to describe in detail how a podzol is formed and make
sure you can draw a labelled soil profile for a podzol
Briefly know the characteristics of a Gley soil
Be able to write a sentence or two on Grey-Brown Podzols and
Brown Earths.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
Page 2
Iain Wallace
Origin of Soils
Soil is the medium which supports the growth of plants

Consists of Mineral Matter and Organic Matter

Developed from the underlying material

It’s constituents are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Gravel
Coarse Sand
Fine Sand
Silt
Clay
Dublin School of Grinds ©
Page 3
Iain Wallace
Rock Types

1.
2.
3.
Three main types :
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
1.Igneous
 Formed from the cooling of molten lava
 Quickly cooled = Basalt
 Slowly cooled = Granite
2. Sedimentary Rocks
 Formed due to cementation and compaction of sediments at the
bottom of seas and lakes.
 Main Types
a. Sandstone
b. Shale
c. Limestone
3.Metamorphic Rocks
Form from the Action of Intense Heat and pressure on other rocks.
a. e.g. Granite
b. Sandstone
c. Limestone
d. Shale
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Soil Formation
5 factors which influence soil formation.
FACTOR
1
Climate
2
Parent Material
3
Living Organisms
4
Topography
5
Time
Dublin School of Grinds ©
MAIN INFLUENCE
Page 5
FACTORS AFFECTED
Iain Wallace
Weathering
Rocks are broken down by physical and chemical weathering or erosion.
 Physical Weathering - e.g. –
 Chemical Weathering e.g –
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Organic Parent Materials
Peats are formed when organic matter has not, or partially decomposed due
to a number of factors such as:
1. Anaerobic Conditions
2. High Percipiation
3. Low Evapouration
Raised Bogs
Raised Bogs - abundant in the midlands
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Blanket Bogs
 Blanket bogs are found in mountainous areas where high
rainfall is typical (Wicklow, Clare and Kerry to some extent)
 Blanket bogs are so called because they form a blanket over a
wide area. They are quite shallow (1 - 2 metres deep at most)
 Not as much potential for cultivation by large-scale machinery
or for farming.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
Page 8
Iain Wallace
2008 Question 2(a)
Explain how the weathering of rocks contributes to soil formation. For full
marks on this question, four separate, valid points were required.
1. The soil particles that are present in a soil and make up the mineral
matter of the soil, originated from the weathered rock (This was a
compulsory point).
2. Heating and cooling and freezing and thawing cause expansion and
cracking of the rock.
3. Wind carrying rock particles cause further grinding of the rock.
4. Rainwater causes chemical reactions, such as carbonation or hydration.
2014 –Question 2 – (a)
(i) What are the two main factors involved in the formation of
metamorphic rocks?
(ii) Name two metamorphic rocks and in each case state which rock type it
develops from.
(iii) Explain one way in which parent material influences the type of soil that
eventually develops.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Soil Types
1. Sandy Soils
 Have large air holes.
 Free Draining soils
 Is easy to work with (light)
 Dries out quickly
 Minerals are easily leached.
 Poor soil with little or no nutrients.
 Is a warm soil.
2. Clay Soils
 Holds water easily
 This protects from leaching of minerals.
 Is naturally fertile soil.
 Very poor drainage, which can lead to water logging.
 Is a cold soil.
3. Loam soils
 Intermediate characteristics of both clay and sandy soils.
 More advantages and fewer disadvantages than sandy or clay
soils.
 A good mixture is 40 % Sand, 40 % Silt and 20 % clay.
 While the nature of soil depends on the particle composition,
the amount of humus in the soil is also a major factor
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Soil Composition
Texture
 Soil Texture is the relative amounts of sand, silt and clay in the soil

 Soil may be sandy, silty, loam, clayey etc.
What does texture influence?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Best Soil – Loam
Mixture of the three particles of sand, silt and clay.
A Loam soil has:
 Good pore space
 Retains water
 Naturally Fertile
 Good Structure Development
 Ideal for all crops and grass
The Components of Soil
Organic
material
Dead and decaying plants and animals, and animal manure,
add nutrients to the soil and hold water. The sponge-like
properties of organic materials help the soils retain moisture,
which is particularly important to plant survival in drought
affected areas.
Minerals
These are inorganic materials derived mainly from rocks. The
three main mineral parts of soil are considered to be sand, silt
and clay. These give soil its texture.
Living
organisms
Water
Air
A huge range of organisms aerate, mix and add nutrients to
the soil.
This is an essential nutrient for plants. It also allows plants to
absorb other nutrients.
Provides drainage to prevent plants drowning.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Biological Properties
Include – Plants, Animals, Fungi, Bacteria
Soil Biomass – All total amount of living matter in a vertical section of soil
Soil Humus – All the dead and left over O.M. in the soil.
The Earthworm




Breakdown and incorporation of OM
Improves soil structure
Increases P in soil
Improves soil aeration and drainage
Soil Bacteria
1. Aerobic
2. Anaerobic
Soil Water
Three types of soil water
1. Gravitational
2. Capillary
3. Adsorbed
Definitions
1. Saturation
2. Field Capacity
3. Permanent Wilting Point
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Soil Air





Ideal – 25 %air in soil pores
Increase in drought, decrease in heavy rain
Necessary for respiration
Soil air more CO2 and less O2 than atmospheric air.
Renewed by diffusion
Soil Temperature
Influenced by a number of factors
1.
Water
2.
Air
3.
Aspect
4.
Soil Type
5.
Drainage
6.
Altitude
7.
Van’t Hoff’s Law
Chemical Properties of Soil





Soil pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a soil is.
Level of the acidity in soil depends on the level of H+ ions in the soil
Irish soils tend to be acidic
Adding lime neutralises the acid and raises the pH .
Lime contains Ca++ ions.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Definitions :
 Cation Exchange :
 Cation Exchange Capacity
Soil Structure
The sticking together of sand silt and clay into larger separate units.Peds
Particles stick together using Clay and cementing agents called colloids
Flocculation is the sticking together of clay particles and cations linked
with polarised water and cations into floccules
Best Cations – Al, Fe, Ca and H
Structural development increases amount of pore space
Achieved in field by cementation and separation
These proceed simultaneously accomplished by :
 Wetting and drying
 Freeze thaw action
 Activity of roots
 Earthworms
 Tillage Operations
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
2009 Q9(a)
QUESTIONS ON LIMING ARE COMMON IN QUESTIONS 1,2 AND 9
Give a scientific explanation for the following:
The improvement of a soil by the addition of lime.
Liming of soil increases the number of Ca ions in the soil which would attach
to soil colloids.
These are exchanged with hydrogen ions and aluminium ions (cation
exchange), causing the soil pH to increase.
The pH increase in soil caused by liming increases the availability of
nutrients in the soil, making the cultivation of crops easier due to the rise in
the soil pH.
Liming also increases the drainage of the soil leading to greater biological
activity within the soil.
2009 –Question 2 – (b)(c)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Explain Cation Exchange
Explain Cation Exchange Capacity
Mention a soil where CEC is low
Describe a method by which CEC may be increased in a soil
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
2008 Q2(b)
Explain the following terms as used in the context of plant growth in a soil
1. Field Capacity
2. Permanent Wilting Point
3. Available Water
2003 2(a)
Explain how flocculation contributes to the development of structure
within a soil
2007 2(c)
Explain how each of the following influences the temperature of soil
1. Aspect
2. Colour
3. Water Content
4. Location
Dublin School of Grinds ©
Page 17
Iain Wallace
Soil Profiles and Horizons
Soil profile refers to a vertical section of soil
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Gley Soils
 Very wet soils
 Poor structure

short growing season.
 A horizon has some structure due to root activity.

B horizon is mottled grey/blue colour.
 Poor soil that needs to be drained
 Gleisiation - Caused by water-logged conditions. Leaching does not
occur but anaerobic conditions lead to the iron in soil becoming
reduced (no oxygen) and turns blue.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Brown Earth
 Best soils for all types of farming
 No distinct horizons
 Deep, Well drained, fertile
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Podzol
 Very acidic soils
 B horizon has layers of humus and iron washed down forming
the iron pan
 Infertile, non productive soils
 Regular liming and fertiliser needed if used for grassland
 Suitable for forestry
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
2011 Q2 (a)
(a)(i) Name one type of soil pan.
An iron pan or plough pan.
(ii) Outline how the named soil pan is formed.
An iron pan is formed by the continuous leaching of iron oxides from the Ahorizon down to the B-horizon,producing a layer that becomes
impermeable to water. A plough pan is formed by the continuous ploughing
of the soil at the same depth. This results in an area under a certain depth
that is not touched by the plough. This layer can become hard and will not
allow water to drain.
(iii) State one problem associated with the named soil pan.
The iron or plough pan form a hard impervious layer that can result in
water being retained in the soil. This in turn results in poor drainage and
poor aeration.
(iv)Say how the named soil pan could be removed.
To remove the hard pan, a farmer can use a sub-soiler to break up this
tough layer. To help improve a plough pan, it is ploughed at different
depths in successive years.
(b)(i) Describe gleisation and its role in the development of a soil profile.
This refers to the production of gley soils. It results from high rainfall in low
lying areas. This creates waterlogged conditions and a reduction in the pH
of the soil. These acidic conditions react with the iron in the soil, producing
a grey/blue colour in the B-horizon. Gleisation results in reduced bacterial
activity in the soil and hence there is a low level of decomposition, resulting
in peat production on the top layer.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
2004 Q2 (b)
Dublin School of Grinds ©
Page 23
Iain Wallace
SOIL TESTING AND SAMPLING
Soil testing allows the farmer decide what crops are bested suited for
his soil and to determine the fertiliser and liming programmes.
Objectives and Technique
 To ensure that an accurate representation is taken from a field,
samples are taken from a W shape
 Exclude areas such as gateways, headlands and waterlogged ground
 25 samples should be taken from root zone using an auger
Liming
Lime is applied to land to counteract acid leaching
Composed of ground rock limestone
Criteria for ground rock limestone include:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Total neutralising value <90%
Moisture content <3%
Must pass through 3.35mm sieve
<35% must pass through a 0.15mm sieve
Advantages of Liming





Dublin School of Grinds ©
Improves drainage and aeration as it aids flocculation
Neutralises soil
Increases Earthworm population
Reduces incidence of liver fluke
Encourages growth of clover
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Iain Wallace
Adding Soil Nutrients
 A fertilizer or manure are materials that contain one or more of the
essential elements and are applied to soils to encourage crop growth.
 The amount added is decided on after soil analysis.
 Fertilizers are mainly inorganic and are manufactured materials.
 Manures are organic (made from plant and animal wastes).
Fertilisers
 Most of the fertilisers sold in Ireland contain N, P and K either singly
or in a combination.
 Fertilisers are manufactured from the following:
o Atmospheric N Ammonia or Nitric Acid
o Mineral rock phosphates (North Africa)
 Natural potassium salts (potash) imported from Eastern Europe.
 Fertilisers containing one nutrient element are called straight
fertilisers and those with a combination are compound fertilizers.
Straight Fertilisers
 The most important straight fertilizers in Ireland are Calcium
Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), Urea and Ground Rock Phosphate.
 Calcium ammonium nitrate is the largest selling fertilizer in Ireland.
 Nitrogen occurs in a nitrate form and ammonium form.
 The acidifying property of NH4+ is buffered by the Ca in CAN and is
therefore very useful as a source of N.
 CAN must be spread as soon as it is exposed to air, as wastage and
caking will occur otherwise.
 Ground rock phosphate is used as a straight fertiliser mainly for
forestry
Dublin School of Grinds ©
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Iain Wallace
Compound Fertilisers
Compound fertilisers are made from mixing straight fertilisers or by
chemical synthesis of other raw materials.
Compound fertilizers are named by listing their percentage content of N, P
and K. e.g. 10:10:20 contain 10% N, 10% P and 20% K. The remaining
percentage is made up of chemicals and impurities of various kinds.
 Each of the fertilisers is designed for a particular purpose.
 The nutrients are balanced as to reflect the uptake of the particular
crop.
 18 : 6 : 12 is designed for silage and hay crops.
 27 : 2.5 : 5 is used on heavily stocked grassland.
 0 : 7 : 30 is used for autumn spreading on land set aside for silage.
 The farmer must decide which compound is most suitable for the crop
chosen.
Manures
 Manures are waste materials of plants and animals.
 There are five main sources of manure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Dublin School of Grinds ©
Farmyard Manure
Animal slurry
Straw
Seaweed
Sewage sludge
Page 26
Iain Wallace
 Farmyard manure is a mixture of faeces, urine and bedding, and is a by product of
winter housing of animals.
 It is high in organic matter and is beneficial to the soil.
 Animal slurry is a mixture of mainly urine and faeces, collected from under the floor of
slatted units.
 Both animal slurry and farmyard manure have similar low concentrations of minerals.
 The average composition is:
 0.5 % Nitrogen
 0.15 % Phosphorous
 0.60 % Potassium
 Both materials are therefore quite bulky materials when used a fertiliser materials.
Soil Index System
 Ranks a soil by its fertility and its likely response to fertiliser application
Teagasc Soil
Index
1
2
3
4
Index Description
Very Low
Low
Medium
Sufficient/Excess
Response to
fertiliser
Definite
Likely
Unlikely
None
2005 Q8 (a)
Give two benefits of spreading slurry on the land.
2008 Q1 (i)
Give reasons why Calcium Ammonium Nitrate gives a more rapid crop response than Urea.