CHAPTER 6
MUSIC IN THE CLASSIC PERIOD
(c. 1750-1820)
GENERAL BACKGROUND ON THE CLASSIC PERIOD
The Classic Period is referred to both as "The Age of Reason" and "The Age
of Revolution." On one hand, it was a vital period of scientific discovery, learning, and
philosophical "Enlightenment"; on the other, it was marked by bloody social conflicts
that ravaged much of Europe.
The quest for greater order and understanding in this era led to scientific
breakthroughs such as the first vaccine, the discovery of oxygen and hydrogen, the
invention of the steam engine and electric motors, and the start of the Industrial
Revolution in England. Classic writers and philosophers such as Voltaire, Rousseau,
Kant and Jefferson proclaimed the necessity for social equality and believed the
surest path to social enlightenment was through mass education. This widespread
thirst for knowledge led to the publication of the first "how-to" books and the first
encyclopedias (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1799).
As the lower classes increasingly questioned the norm, civil unrest intensified
into major conflicts. The two most famous revolutions of this era saw the American
colonists win their independence from Britain, and the French lower classes
overthrow the French monarchy. The victorious generals—George Washington
(USA), and Napoleon Bonaparte (France)—both set their common countrymen free
and subsequently became the first freely-elected Presidents of their respective
countries. For Napoleon, however, this was not enough: In 1803, he betrayed his
people by crowning himself Emperor, then over the next twelve years he attempted
to conquer Europe piece by piece. Even the powerful Holy Roman Empire, centered
in Vienna, was threatened by rebellion from within; however, when Napoleon began
to attack, the people begged the Austrian Emperor for protection, leading to the
institution of intense censorship that remained in place until the 1860s (and which
had a noticeable impact on the arts of that era).
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
Important Musical Considerations in the Classic Period
In the Classic period, the Baroque aesthetic of dramatic contrast was replaced
by debate (direct conflict between opposing ideas for the ultimate purpose of
resolving that tension and unifying the structure). Whereas a Baroque movement
portrays a single mood, a Classic movement relies on contrasting melodic themes
and key centers within the same movement. Clarity and balance are essential
aspects of the Classic style:
• Melodies are simpler, shorter and more regular in design.
• Rhythm is usually structured by a recognizable meter.
• Dynamics are more carefully controlled and used in greater extremes than
in the Baroque (crescendos and decrescendos allow for gradual instead
of sudden changes of volume).
• Major/minor Tonality (harmony centered around a "home" key) became
standardized along with major and minor keys. In tonal music, each
chord assumes a specific "function" within the key (much like every word in
an English sentence bears a specific relationship to the verb/subject of a
sentence). The process of moving to other key centers ("modulation")
became analogous a "solar system" of closely-/distantly-related keys.
• Musical forms, genres and performing ensembles are standardized.
• More Structural Control—The improvised Baroque technique of basso
continuo was replaced by fully notated musical parts, giving Classic
composers more control over the final product.
Representative Composers of the Classic Period
Throughout the Classic era, the Imperial capitol of Vienna was the primary
center for musical innovation; thus, the three most important composers of this period
all spent parts of their mature careers working there (hence, this era is sometimes
called "The Viennese Classic Period"):
• Franz Josef HAYDN (1732-1809; Austro-Hungarian)
The most influential innovator of the early Classic style; known primarily for his
symphonies, string quartets and piano sonatas.
• Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART (1756-1791; Austrian)
Arguably the greatest musician in the Western history. This common-born child
prodigy began composing at the age of four; by age seven, he had amazed every
major Head-of-State in Europe with his miraculous abilities as a pianist, violinist and
singer. His undeniable God-given talent directly challenged the supposed superiority
of the upper classes. By the time he died at age 35, Mozart had written nearly 700
works, mastering every genre known to him, and bringing art music to a new height of
personal expression. His operas, concertos, symphonies, sonatas and choral music
are still widely performed around the world.
• Ludwig van BEETHOVEN (1770-1827; German)
In the mid-1790s, while still in his 20s, Beethoven was recognized as the greatest
pianist in the Empire; however, at the height of his performing career—at age 32—he
went deaf! Despite this tremendous obstacle, through raw determination—he
became the most revolutionary musician of the age, especially via his intense
expansion of personal/ political expression through orchestral, chamber and keyboard
music.
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
STANDARDIZED CLASSIC ENSEMBLES, FORMS AND GENRES
Among the most significant accomplishments made by Classic composers was their
standardization of performing ensembles, formal designs, compositional genres, and
general musical terminology.
Standardized Classic Performing Ensembles
During the Classic era, the orchestra was standardized into four distinct
families (with strings predominating, woodwinds complementing the strings, and
touches of brass and percussion added for occasional power). In chamber music,
the string quartet (2 violins, viola and cello) superceded the Baroque trio sonata
(as basso continuo, with its improvised harpsichord harmonies, was replaced by fullynotated musical parts). Also, by the 1770s, the piano replaced the harpsichord as
the preferred instrument for solo music.
Standardized Classic Forms
Six standardized forms dominated Classic instrumental music (as described in more
detail below):
• Sonata Form
• Theme and Variations Form
• Minuet and Trio Form
• Scherzo and Trio Form
• Rondo Form
• Sonata-rondo Form
Sonata Form
Sonata form (also called "sonata-allegro form") is a musical debate within a single
movement based on the conflict and ultimate resolution of two opposing key
centers. Sonata form is the first movement form of virtually every Classic
instrumental work, though It may be used in other movements as well.) This unique
Classic form has three distinct dramatic aspects within a binary harmonic plan:
EXPOSITION (Tonal Opposition)
The two opposing key centers (and associated themes) are introduced:
Theme 1 is in the "home" key; Theme 2 is in a different key.
DEVELOPMENT (Escalation of tension)
The material passes rapidly through many distant keys, and may be fragmented/reworked
in a variety of ways.
RECAPITULATION (Tonal Resolution)
Theme 1 and Theme 2 both appear in the "home" key. (In the tradition of
Classic debate, Theme 2 realizes its weaker stance, and wholeheartedly
throws its support to its opponent's stronger argument—the "home' key.)
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
Exposition
Development
Theme 2
Theme 1
in main key
nd
da
nte ss
e
gm tle
fra res
(goes thru many keys)
Theme 1
(returns)
in main key
on
iti
ns
tra
on
iti
ns
tra
in contrasting key
Recapitulation
Theme 2
(returns)
in main key
this section is
usually repeated
Opposing key
"Home" key
Many distant keys
"Home" key
EXAMPLES of Classic SONATA FORM
MOZART: Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K.550*, mvt. 1
See MUSIC GUIDE 25 (page 58)
BEETHOVEN: Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op.67**, mvt. 1
See MUSIC GUIDE 32 (page 65)
* Most major composers have had their complete works chronologically catalogued by
musicologists. Works listed in such catalogs are referenced by the first initial of the scholar
who completed it; thus, Mozart's works are specified by "K" numbers— for his cataloguer,
Köchel.
"Op." Is an abbreviation for the Latin word "Opus" which means "Work." This label
indicates the chronological order in which a composer's works were published. Opus
numbers are a reliable chronological benchmark for some composers such as Beethoven,
but they can be meaningless for other composers because works written early in a career
might not be published until much later.
Theme & Variations Form
In this form, a musical theme is stated (the main melody of the movement),
followed by any number of varied presentations of that theme. In subsequent
variations, new countermelodies can be added, and aspects of the theme (such as
key, meter, instrumentation, mood, dynamics, etc.) can be altered.
THEME • VARIATION 1 • VARIATION 2 • VARIATION 3 (et cetera)
Theme & Variations is found in second movements of many Classic works,
and it is sometimes used in fourth movements.
EXAMPLE of Classic THEME & VARIATIONS FORM
HAYDN: Symphony No. 94 in G major, mvt. 2
See MUSIC GUIDE 22 (page 55)
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
Minuet & Trio Form
Minuet & Trio form has a special type of compound ternary design (in which
each of the sections has its own small form):
MINUET (an aristocratic dance in 3/4 meter)
This section usually has a strong downbeat, and has a binary design in which
each sub-section is repeated.
TRIO (the texture is usually reduced to three structural lines)
The "Trio" is noticeably lighter and sweeter that the Minuet. (As in the Minuet,
each sub-section is repeated).
MINUET (returns without repeats)
Before 1800, Minuet and Trio was the traditional form used in third movements
of 4-movement Classic instrumental works.
EXAMPLE of Classic MINUET & TRIO FORM
MOZART: Eine kleine Nachtmusik, K.525, mvt. 3
See MUSIC GUIDE 24 (page 57)
Scherzo & Trio Form
After 1800, Beethoven and other politically-minded composers replaced the
aristocratic "Minuet" with a heavier "folk-derived" dance in 6/8 meter called a
scherzo (which means "a common joke" in Italian), creating a similar design
called Scherzo and Trio form (the standard 3rd movement form of the late Classic
period).
EXAMPLE of Classic SCHERZO & TRIO FORM
BEETHOVEN: Symphony No. 5, Op.67, mvt. 3
See MUSIC GUIDE 32 (page 65)
Rondo Form
This form features an easily recognizable melody ("Theme") that returns two or
three times in alternation with contrasting material. (This differs from Baroque
ritornello form which features a returning tutti group.)
A B
A
C
A
or
A B
A C
A B
A
EXAMPLE of Classic RONDO FORM
BEETHOVEN: Piano Sonata in C minor, Op.13*, mvts.2 & 3
See MUSIC GUIDE 29 (page 62)
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
Sonata-Rondo Form
The rondo concept can be combined with the harmonic plan of SONATA FORM
(tonal exposition, development and recapitulation) to create the hybrid sonatarondo form:
TONAL
EXPOSITION
A B
home
key
TONAL
DEV.
A
opposing
key
C
many
keys
TONAL
RECAPITULATION
A B
A
home
key
EXAMPLE of Classic SONATA-RONDO
BEETHOVEN: String Quartet in C minor, mvt. 4, Op.18, No.4
See MUSIC GUIDE 30 (page 63)
Appendages to Classic Forms
Classic composers commonly added a coda to the end of a movement to help
bring it to a more satisfying/logical conclusion. ("Coda" means "tail" in Italian.)
Some also added drama by initiating a fast movement with a slow
introduction.
Standardized Classic FOUR-MOVEMENT Instrumental Design
The majority of European instrumental works written between 1760 and 1830
feature a large-scale four-movement design—with each movement having its own
particular combination of tempo, character, form and key:
Movement Tempo (usual character)
Form
Harmonic Tonal Center
1
st
Fast (strong)
Sonata Form
"Home" key (I)
2
nd
Slow (lyrical)
(various)
Another key (usually IV)
3
rd
Moderate (3/4 dance)
Minuet & Trio
"Home" key (I)
(Trio can be in another key)
4
th
Very Fast (light/cheerful)
Rondo Form
"Home" key (I)
--------------------------------------
Although four movements was the standard for many Classic genres,
some Classic sonatas may have fewer than four movements, and a few
late Classic symphonies and quartets have more than four movements.
In Classic instrumental music, the primary exception to the standard four-movement
design was the Classic concerto—which like its Baroque predecessor always has a
3-movement format.
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
Standardized Classic INSTRUMENTAL Genres
In an effort to make music more intelligible for listeners, Classic musicians
clarified pre-existing terms (such as concerto and sonata), and devised new ones to
consistently describe emerging multi-movement instrumental categories:
A COMPARISON OF CLASSIC INSTRUMENTAL GENRES
If a multi-movement work is performed by ............ then, the work is called a
Orchestra
SYMPHONY
A small group of winds and/or strings
SERENADE
2 Violins, Viola & Cello
STRING QUARTET
A Pianist (playing alone)
PIANO SONATA
A [Solo Instrument]
with PIANO Accompaniment
[
] SONATA
a SOLO VIOLIN with PIANO accomp. = a VIOLIN SONATA;
whereas, a SOLO FLUTE with PIANO accomp. = a FLUTE SONATA
A [Solo Instrument]
with ORCHESTRAL Accompaniment
[
] CONCERTO
a SOLO PIANO with ORCHESTRA accompaniment = a PIANO CONCERTO;
whereas, a SOLO FLUTE with ORCHESTRA accomp. = a FLUTE CONCERTO
---------------------------------------------------------Other generic Classic chamber groups are referred to as Trios, Quintets, (etc.)
and these usually follow the Classic four-movement design.
Symphony (a multi-movement work for orchestra):
Symphonies normally follow the Classic 4-movement design. The Classic model was
first established by Haydn (who wrote 104), enhanced by Mozart (who wrote 50) with
greater emotional expression and expanded use of woodwind color, and brought to its
highest point of personal/ political intensity by Beethoven (who wrote 9).
EXAMPLES of Classic SYMPHONIES
MOZART: Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K.550
See MUSIC GUIDE 25 (page 58)
BEETHOVEN: Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op.67
See MUSIC GUIDE 32 (page 65)
BEETHOVEN: Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op.125
See MUSIC GUIDE 33 (page 66)
For more on Beethoven's symphonies, See MUSIC GUIDE 31 (page 74)
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
Serenade (a multi-movement chamber work for outdoor entertainment):
Serenades most often follow the 4-movement Classic design. The best-known
serenades for woodwinds and/or small string ensembles are by Mozart (who wrote over
50 such works):
EXAMPLE of a Classic SERENADE
MOZART: Eine kleine Nachtmusik, K.525
See MUSIC GUIDE 24 (page 57)
String Quartet (a multi-movement work for 2 violins, viola and cello):
String quartets usually follow the 4-movement Classic design. Haydn gradually refined
this genre through his 68 quartets; Mozart—though less influential in this genre—is best
known for his famous set of six quartets dedicated to Haydn; Beethoven significantly
expanded the expressive range of the genre through his 16 quartets (the last five,
written from 1823-26, are particularly experimental).
EXAMPLE of a Classic STRING QUARTET
BEETHOVEN: String Quartet in C minor, Op.18, No.4
See MUSIC GUIDE 30 (page 63)
Sonata (a multi-movement work for a pianist alone [called a piano sonata], or for a
single instrument with piano accompaniment):
Classic sonatas commonly have 3 (sometimes 4) movements based on Classic forms.
Haydn wrote 62 sonatas, and Mozart composed over 70; however, again it was
Beethoven who revolutionized the genre with his 37 sonatas (especially his 32 piano
sonatas):
EXAMPLE of a Classic PIANO SONATA
BEETHOVEN: Piano Sonata in C minor, Op.13
See MUSIC GUIDE 29 (page 62)
Concerto (a 3-movement work for a featured soloist vs. an orchestra):
Classic concertos are different from their Baroque predecessors in three important
ways: 1) they do not use basso continuo; 2) there is greater balance between the
soloist and orchestra; 3) their movements are based on Classic forms (similar to a fourmovement design without the minuet & trio movement). The greatest Classic concertos
are by Mozart (particularly his 23 piano concertos).
EXAMPLE of a Classic PIANO CONCERTO
MOZART: Piano Concerto in A major, K.488
See MUSIC GUIDE 23 (page 56)
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
VOCAL Genres in the Classic Era
No new vocal genres emerged in the Classic period; however, all Classic
vocal music was impacted by Classic instrumental music, forms and aesthetics:
Sacred Vocal Music
Mass, oratorio, and motet remained important sacred vocal genres
throughout this era. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all composed
outstanding examples in these idioms.
EXAMPLE of a Classic MASS
MOZART: Requiem Mass, K.626
See MUSIC GUIDE 28 (page 61)
Secular Vocal Music
Opera was the influential vocal genre of the Classic era. During this
era, comic opera styles rivaled traditional Italian opera seria (serious
opera). The most important Classic operas were composed by Mozart, who
transformed serious and comic opera into a vehicles for his personal and
political commentary:
Major opera types of the Classic era:
Opera seria: 3-act serious opera (sung throughout in Italian).
Opera buffa: comic opera with no spoken dialogue (sung throughout in Italian).
Dramma giocoso: a category of opera featuring a mixture of comic and serious
elements (sung throughout in Italian).
Singspiel: a category of opera aimed at the lower classes. Singspiel features spoken
German dialogue (instead of sung recitatives) interspersed with simple songs.
(Mozart's The Magic Flute raised this lowly category of theatre music to an
extremely sophisticated level.)
EXAMPLES of Classic OPERAS
Opera buffa:
MOZART: The Marriage of Figaro, K.492
See MUSIC GUIDE 26 (page 59)
Dramma giocoso:
MOZART: Don Giovanni, K.527
See MUSIC GUIDE 27 (page 60)
Art songs (songs based on high-quality poetry, sung by one singer
accompanied by piano or orchestra) became more sophisticated during the
Classic age (but did not rise to a critical level of importance until the
Romantic period—See Chapter 9). Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote
important Classic art songs.
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Chapter 6: Music in the Classic Period
SUMMARY OF MAIN CLASSIC TERMS, COMPOSERS AND CONCEPTS
MUSIC in the CLASSIC ERA
(c1750-1820)
1760
1775
1790
MOZART
Eine kleine Nachtmusik
Featured
COMPOSERS
and
WORKS
(serenade)
Reqiuem
(Mass)
1800
1820
BEETHOVEN
Piano Sonata Op. 13
The Marriage of Figaro,
Don Giovanni
Symphony No. 40
(operas)
(sonata)
Quartet in C minor
(string quartet)
Symphony No. 3
Symphony No. 5
Symphony No. 6
Symph. No. 9
HAYDN
(symphonies and string quartets)Symphony No. 94
Other
Concepts
Important
GENRES
Standardized Orchestra (mostly strings, woodwinds)
CLASSIC VOCAL GENRES
Secular
CLASSIC INSTRUMENTAL GENRES
CONCERTO
(Solo Concerto)
SONATA
(Piano Sonata)
OPERA
Sacred
ORATORIO
CANTATA
MASS and MOTET
FORMS
STYLE
TRAITS
4-MOVEMENT
DESIGN
Fast-Slow-Dance-Fast
SYMPHONY
SERENADE
STRING QUARTET
Standardized Forms based on Keys and Themes
SONATA FORM
MINUET & TRIO FORM
RONDO FORM
SCHERZO & TRIO FORM
SONATA-RONDO FORM
THEME & VARIATIONS
The Classic style is characterized by SYMMETRY, BALANCE and
STANDARDIZATION of ensembles, genres and forms.
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